MET41 ENGINEERING METALLURGY

COURSE OBJECTIVE

 Primary objective is to present the basic fundamentals of materials science and

engineering.
 Expose the students to different classes of materials, their properties, structures and
imperfections present in them.
 Help understand the subject with ease by presenting the content in a simplified and
logical sequence at a level appropriate for students.
 Aid the teaching learning process through relevant illustrations, animations and web
content and practical examples.
 Highlight important concepts for each topic covered in the subject
 Provide opportunity of self-evaluation on the understanding of the subject matter.

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UNIT – I
Crystal structures - Solid Solutions – Types - Metallography – Metallurgical microscopes
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– specimen preparation- Cooling curves – Allotropy concept.

UNIT – II
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Construction and interpretation of binary phase diagrams – Types – Eutectic, Eutectoid,
Petitectic and Peritectoid systems – Iron Carbon equilibrium diagrams – classification of
steels and alloy steels – types, manufacture, properties and applications of cast irons.

UNIT – III
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Heat treatment of steel: Critical temperature on heating and cooling, effects of residual
stresses – Annealing, normalizing, hardening, Hardenability tests, tempering –
construction and interpretation of TTT diagram – Martensitic transformation – Sub zero
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treatment - Surface hardening processes.

UNIT – IV
Non ferrous metals and alloys: Copper, Aluminium, Nickel, Zinc and Lead based alloys –
concept and applications of metal matrix composites. Mechanical properties of materials
– Testing of materials: Tensile, compression, torsion, hardness (micro & macro) and
impact testing.

UNIT – V
Plastic deformation, Slip and twinning – Hot, cold and warm working – recovery and
ecrystallization concepts. Introduction to fracture mechanics – Types - ductile to brittle
transition – Creep and atigue failures – Testing. (09hours)
 UNIT-I

Historical Perspective:

Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate

Ages with them. In the origin of human life on Earth, the Stone Age, people used only
natural materials, like stone, clay, skins, and wood. When people found copper and how
to make it harder by alloying, the Bronze Age started about 3000 BC. The use of iron and
steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in wars started at about 1200 BC. The next
big step was the discovery of a cheap process to make steel around 1850, which enabled
the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the industrial world.

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Quest for newer materials:

The driving force for the progress- Stone Age to IT age
Quest for more advanced materials to meet the growing needs as the civilization

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progressed.
A look at the history of materials chronologically clearly reveals this
300000 BC - Stone age People living in caves and hunting with stone-made weapons
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200,000 BC Discovery of fire – Said to be the most significant discovery in human
civilization. However, till the time the fire was controlled to contain and utilize the heat,
it was not significant. Containing the fire – Was not possible without materials. Started
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with clay (a ceramic material) pots and now we have all kinds of means to control and
contain fire.
Introduction of metals
5500 BC First metals to be discovered – Copper and Gold
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5000 BC Material processing - Annealing and Shaping. Throwing copper into camp fire
and hammering in early days
4000 BC Melting and casting of metals. Melting of Gold to give it different shapes
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3500 BC Reduction of copper from its ore – Nile Valley The dawn of metallurgy.
Perhaps discovered by chance much before by early potters.
Discovery of Alloy - Metal Combinations
3000 BC The discovery of alloy – combination of metals Mixing of Tin with Copper –
Bronze Copper ore invariably contains some Tin – Mixing of different ores having
different Tin content produced the first Bronzes.
Iron and Steel – Building blocks of human civilization
1450 BC Iron wheels – discovery of iron making. Revolution in warfare and cultivation
1500 BC Invention of Blast furnace – Production of pig iron from ores
1855 AD Sir Henry Bessemer (1813-1898) Bessemer steel making patent
20TH CENTURY Many other steel making processes – LD, Electric Arc, VAR for
making high quality steels Early 20th Century – The golden era 1886 AD Hall process-
Electrochemical process for extraction of Aluminium from Alumina (Al2O3 )
1890-1910AD Revolution in Transportation – Discovery of automobiles and Aero plane
1939 AD Process for making Nylon – Introduction of plastics

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES
 Many substances, including metals, have a crystalline structure in the solid state.
Metal crystals from when the molten metals cools and solidifies, where as crystals
of other substances, for example copper sulphate, and sodium chloride ( salt ),
form when a saturated solution of compound evaporates causing the solid to
crystallize out. In crystalline structure , the atoms are located at regular and
recurring positions in three dimension .
 The pattern may be replicated millions of times within a given crystal. The
structure can be viewed in the form of a unit cell, which is the basic geometric
grouping of atoms that is repeated

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There are several types of pattern in which metallic atoms can arrange them selves on
solidification , but the most common is as follows :-
1. Body-Centered-Cubic [BCC] As shown in figure 1 (a), as an example of the
materials for this type : Chromium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Tungsten, Iron.
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2. Face-Centered-Cubic [FCC] As shown in figure 1 (b), as an example of the materials
for this type : Aluminum, Copper, Lead, Nickel, Iron, Gold, Silver.
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3. Hexagonal-Closed-Packed [HCP] As shown in figure 1(c), as an example of the
materials for this type : Beryllium, Cadmium, Magnesium, Zinc.
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There are some metals that are undergo a change of structure at different temperatures.
Iron metal for example is arranged in a body centered-cubic ( BCC ) at room temperature,
when the metal is heated and reaches a temperature of 910˚C, the atoms rearrange
themselves into Face-Centered-Cubic ( FCC ) crystals. If the metal is heated to the still
higher temperature of 1400˚C the atoms again rearrange themselves, this time back into
Body-Centered-Cubic form.
Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures:
The noncrystalline solids materials do not have their basic particles arranged in a
geometric patter. Their particles have a random formation, and such as a result, such
substances are said to be amorphous (without shape).

Many important materials are noncrystalline: liquids and gases, for example. Water and
air have a noncrystal structures. A metal loses its crystalline structure when it is melt.
Such as glass, plastics and rubber are materials that fall into this category. While many
important plastics are mixture of crystalline and noncrystalline forms.

Two closely related features differentiate noncrystalline from crystalline materials:-

1. Absence of long – range order in the molecular structure of a noncrystalline. It can be

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visualized with reference to figure 8. They closely packed and repeating pattern of the
crystal structure and random arrangement of atoms in the noncrystalline materials

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2. Differences in melting and thermal expansion characteristics. It could be

demonstrated by a metal when it is melts. When the metal is molten an increase in
volume compared to the material’s solid crystalline state. This effect is characteristic
most materials when melted ( a noble exception is ice; liquid water is denser than ice)

The crystalline state: As we mention before, that all of the metals and its alloys have
crystalline structure where the atoms are rearranged in an organized shapes which it is
called as the crystal lattice. This lattice consisted of another smallest grouping of
atoms each one is called the unit cell as shown in figure.
 The unit cell is the smallest parallel surfaces of the crystalline structure that can be
removed or repeated in different directions. It is also differ from each other in shape or size in
the crystalline lattice from one material to another.

The atom that belongs to the unit cell are called the basic atoms, its number is different from one

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shape of arrangement to another, this number can be found from the following equation:-

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The atomic packing factor [A.P.F]: It can be defined as the ratio between the volume of the basic
atoms of the unit cell (which represent the volume of all atoms in one unit cell) to the volume of
the unit cell it self.
For cubic crystals, there is one constant to be quoted. The unit cell constant of pure metal
crystals can be directly related to the atomic diameter of the element as below:
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Solid Solutions A solid solution occurs when we alloy two metals and they are
completely soluble in each other. If a solid solution alloy is viewed under a microscope only one
type of crystal can be seen just like a pure metal. Solid solution alloys have similar properties to
pure metals but with greater strength but are not as good as electrical conductors. The common
types of solid solutions are 1) Substitutional solid solution 2) Interstitial solid solutions
Substitution solid solution The name of this solid solution tells you exactly what happens as
atoms of the parent metal (or solvent metal) are replaced or substituted by atoms of the alloying
metal (solute metal) In this case, the atoms of the two metals in the alloy, are of similar size.
Interstitial solid solutions: In interstitial solid solutions the atoms of the parent or solvent metal
are bigger than the atoms of the alloying or solute metal. In this case, the smaller atoms fit into
interstices i.e spaces between the larger atoms.

METALLOGRAPHY: Metallography is the study of metals by optical and electron

microscopes. Structures which are coarse enough to be discernible by the naked eye or under low
magnifications are termed macrostructures. Useful information can often be gained by
examination with the naked eye of the surface of metal objects or polished and etched sections.

Those which require high magnification to be visible are termed microstructures. Microscopes
are required for the examination of the microstructure of the metals. Optical microscopes are

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used for resolutions down to roughly the wavelength of light (about half a micron) and electron
microscope are used for detail below this level, down to atomic resolution.

The most commonly used microscope is the conventional light microscope. In principle, optical
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microscopes may be used to look through specimens (‘in transmission’) as well as at them (‘in
reflection’). Many materials, however, do not transmit light and so we are restricted to looking at
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the surface of the specimens with an optical microscope. Electron microscope can be used in the
transmission e.g. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and to look at the surfaces e.g.
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) .
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Microscopy can give information concerning a material’s composition, previous treatment and
properties. Particular features of interest are (I) grain size (II) phases present (III) Chemical
homogeneity (IV) distribution of phases (V) elongated structures formed by plastic deformation.
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Optical Microscopy:

With optical microscopy, the light microscope is used to study the microstructure; optical
illumination systems are its basic elements. For materials that are opaque to visible light (all
metals, many ceramics and polymers), only the surface is subject to observation, and the light
microscope must be used in a reflective mode. Contrasts in the image produced result from
differences in reflectivity of the various regions of the microstructure.

Careful and meticulous surface preparations are necessary to reveal the important details of the
microstructure. The specimen surface must first be ground and polished to a smooth and mirror
like finish. This is accomplished by using successively finer abrasive papers and powders. The
microstructure is revealed by a surface treatment using an appropriate chemical reagent in a
procedure termed etching.
The etching reagents depend on the material used and after etching the specimen must be washed
with alcohol and ether to remove the grease. The atoms at the grain boundaries are chemically
more active, and consequently dissolve more readily than those within the grains forming small
grooves. These grooves become discernible when viewed under a microscope because they
reflect light at an angle different from that of the grains themselves.
When the microstructure of a two phase alloy is to be examined, an etchant is chosen that
produces a different texture for each phase so that the different phases may be distinguished from
each other. The maximum possible magnification with an electron microscope is approximately
2000 diameters.

Electron Microscopy: Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): The image seen with a TEM
is formed by an electron beam that passes through the specimen. Details of the internal

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microstructural features are accessible to observation; contrasts in the image are produced by
differences in beam scattering or diffraction produced between various elements of the
microstructure or defect. In the TEM, electrons are focused on an extremely thin foil of the
material; the beam of electrons interacts with imperfections in the material, causing differences
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in the fraction of electrons that are transmitted. The transmitted beam is projected onto a
fluorescent screen or a photographic film so that the image may be viewed. Magnifications
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approaching 1000000x are possible with TEM. The TEM is used to observe dislocations.

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): The surface to be examined is scanned with an electron
beam, and the reflected beam of electrons is collected, then displayed at the same scanning rate
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on a cathode ray tube. The image that appears on the screen, which may be photographed,
represents the surface features of the specimen. The surface may or may not be polished and
etched, but it must be electrically conductive; a very thin metallic coating must be applied to non
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conductive materials. Magnifications ranging from 10 to in excess of 50 000 diameters and also
very great depths of field are possible.

GRAIN SIZE DETERMINATION: The grain size of metals are usually expressed as the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) grain size number. The ASTM has
prepared 10 standards comparison charts, all having different average grain sizes. To each is
assigned a grain size number, n, ranging from 1 to 10, the larger the number, the smaller the
grains. The designation is based on the equation, N = 2n-1 where N is the number of grains in an
area of 1 sq. in at 100x magnification. A specimen must be properly prepared to reveal the grain
structure, which is photographed at a magnification of 100x.Thus a steel with N=6 has , on
average, 32 grains in an area of 1 sq. in. at 100x. Grain size is expressed as the grain size number
of the chart that most nearly matches the grains in the micrograph. Grain size may also be
determined using an intercept method described below. Straight lines all of the same length are
drawn through several photomicrographs that show the grain structure. The grains intersected by
each line segment are counted; the line length is then divided by an average of the number of
grains intersected, taken over all the line segments. The average grain diameter is found by
dividing this result by the linear magnification of the micrographs.
SPECIMEN PREPARATION FOR OPTICAL MICROSCOPY:
The examination of materials by optical microscopy is essential in order to understand the
relationship between properties and microstructure. Metallography is the study of metals by
optical examination. This is most commonly done using a conventional light microscope.
However useful information can be gained by examination with the naked eye of the surface of
metal objects or of polished and etched sections. Structures which are coarse enough to be
discernible be the naked eye are termed macrostructures. Those which require magnification to
be visible are termed microstructures.

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MICROSTRUCTURES.
 The preparation of a specimen to reveal its microstructure involves. ™
 Sawing the section to be examined ™
 Mounting in resins (if sample is too small) ™
 Coarse grinding ™
 Grinding on progressively finer emery paper ™
 Polishing using alumina powder or diamond paste on rotating wheel ™
 Etching in dilute acid (2% Nital for steel) ™
 Washing in Alcohol and drying
 Typical magnifications used are between 50x and 1000x
SPECIMEN PREPATION

Sectioning a sample – must be careful not to significantly alter the microstructure during

Sectioning

– Fracturing

– Shearing – substantial damage which must be subsequently ground off

– Sawing – HB <350 can typically be cut by sawing.

Produces roughness and heat and must be subsequently ground to remove damage.

– Abrasive Cutting (most common) – thin rotating disk of a suitable abrasive in a supporting
media is used.

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– Wire Saws – minimal damage. 3 modes – abrasive, electrolytic, and chemical etching.

Mounting – typically used for small or irregularly shaped samples

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• Grinding – removes damage introduced by sectioning

– Grinding occurs in sequences of finer and finer abrasives

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– Typical grit sequence – 120, 240, 320, 400, 600 mesh.

Subsequent finer abrasives might also be employed.

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– Wet grinding is typically used: better to minimize heat generated, minimizes metal entrapment
between particles,

Lapping – preparing surface using a disc surface impregnated with abrasive particles. Rotate
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sample in

circular pattern counter to the wheel rotation

• Polishing

– Coarse – 30 to 3 micron abrasives

– Fine – typically < 1 micron

– Procedure – careful cleaning between polish steps is critical to minimize carryover of larger
abrasive particles to smaller abrasives

– Sample orientation should not be held constant – continuously change moving sampple from
center to edge in a circular pattern counter to the wheel rotation
– Rough polish – 150-600rpm ~ 6micron diamond

– Finle polish – 1 micron diamond then 0.3 and 0.05 micron alumina

Polishing cloths – must hold abrasives and must not contain foreign particles

• Grinding and polishing theory – hard abrasive particles scratch grooves, allow metal removal,

and produce a plastically deformed surface region

– Both grinding and polishing produce these three artifacts, however the extent is different
depending on the pressure and particle size

– The main difference between grinding and polishing is the rigidity of the grinding abrasive for
grinding

relative to the elasticity of the polishing media. This results in a lower contact pressure for

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polishing

Electromechanical polishing – add an electrolytic etch to the mechanical polish (requires dc or

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power)• Attack polishing – add a dilute chemical etchant to the polishing media to facilitate the
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mechanical abrasive with a chemical etch.

– Can reduce or eliminate surface damage because it is a much gentler process.

– Etch chemicals can damage equipment and person must take necessary precautions when
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handling the solutions

• Chemical polishing – purely chemical etch “a controlled corrosion process”

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– Put sample in a corrosive media and stir rigorously for uniform material removal
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COOLING CURVES
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(Time –Temperature Cooling curves)

Cooling curves are obtained by plotting the measured temperatures at equal intervals during the
cooling period of a melt to a solid.
The data obtained from these cooling curves are useful in constructing the equilibrium diagram.
Types of cooling curves
Three main types of cooling curves are shown in fig.
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1. Cooling curve for pure metal or compound
(a) Fig (a) shows the cooling curve for a pure metal or a compound.
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From P to Q, the curve proceeds at a uniform rate and at point Q, the first crystals begin to
form.
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As solidification proceeds, the latent heat of fusion is liberated in such amount that the
temperature remains constant from Q to R until whole mass has entirely solidified. The period
QR is known as the horizontal thermal arrest.
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Further cooling from point R will cause the temperature to drop along curve RS. The slopes
of PQ and RS curves depend upon the specific heats of liquid and solid metals respectively.
In the region PQ, only liquid phase is present while in the region RS only solid phase is
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present.
Applying Gibb’s condensed phase rule, we get
F=C-P+1=1-1+1=1 (One degree of freedom)
Thus the temperature can be varied independently without altering the equilibrium.
How ever in region QR, There are two phases (liquid and solid present, therefore the number
of degrees of freedom will be
F = C-P+1 = 1-2+1=0 (Zero degree of freedom)
 Thus, the system is non-variant. As a result, the temperature remains constant as long as two
phases are present. But when all the liquid solidifies, only one phase will be present and the
system again becomes invariant and temperature can change.
2. Cooling curve of a binary solid solution
Fig (b) shows the cooling curve for a binary solid solution.
Curve portion PQ is similar in character to that for pure metal.
For portion QR, applying Gibb’s phase rule, we get
F= C –P+1 = 2 -2 +1 =1 (One degree of freedom)
Thus the system is univariant and the temperature will change during solidification.
The slope of the cooling curve will change due to the evolution of latent heat of

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crystallization.
Beyond point R, there will be only solid phase and the temperature falls along line RS.
3. Cooling curve of a binary eutectic system
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Fig (c) shows the cooling curve for a binary eutectic system.
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A binary eutectic system (or a multi phase alloy) has two components that are completely
soluble in the liquid state but entirely insoluble in the solid state.
The system is liquid along PQ up to point Q.
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At point Q, the temperature drops along QR and crystallization of one component starts.
At point R, the liquid composition reaches such a level that two components crystallise
simultaneously from the solution and the temperature remains constant until all the liquid
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solidifies. This is known as the eutectic reaction.

Thus eutectic reaction can be defined as the transformations, during cooling, of a liquid
phase isothermally and reversibly into two solid phases.
The cooling from S to T is as usual.
CONSTRUCTION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS
The construction of the phase diagram for a binary solid solution (such as cu-Ni) from
series of liquid-solid cooling curves is illustrated in fig
 If two metals of a binary solid solution (such as Cu-Ni) system are mixed in different
composition, melted and then cooled, and a cooling curve can be constructed for each
composition, as shown in fig.
The cooling curves for pure metals show horizontal thermal arrests at their freezing points,
as shown for pure copper and nickels in fig at AB and CD.
Binary solid solutions exhibit slope changes in their cooling curves at the liquidus and
solidus lines, as shown in fig (a), at compositions of 80% Cu-20%Ni, 50%Cu-50%Ni, and
20%Cu-80%Ni.
The slope changes at L1,L2, and L3 in Fig. (a) correspond to the liquidus points L1, L2 and
L3 of Fig (b) similarly, the slope changes at S 1,S2,and S3 of fig (a)corresponds to the points
S1,S2,and S3 on the solidus

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Thus the constructed phase diagram for Cu-Ni system from the cooling curves is shown in
fig.