ICE-EM Mathematics Sec 1A

ICE-EM
Mathematics
Peter Brown
Andy Edwards
Michael Evans
Garth Gaudry
1A
David Hunt
Janine McIntosh
Bill Pender
Secondary
ICM-EM Mathematics Secondary 1A
Includes index.
ISBN 0 9775254 0 6
1. Mathematics - Study and teaching. I. Brown, Peter. II.

Edwards, Andy. III. Evans, Michael.
510
Cover designed by Designgrant

Layout designed by Rose Keevins
Edited by Andy Whyte
Typeset by Claire Ho
This project is funded by the Australian Government through

the Department of Education, Science and Training. The views
expressed herein do not necessarily represent the views of the
Australian Government Department of Education, Science and
Training or the Australian Government.
© The University of Melbourne on behalf of the International Centre of Excellence for Education in Mathematics 2006
All rights reserved
Printed in Australia by McPherson’s Printing Group
Other than as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner or
by any process whatsoever without the prior permission of The University of Melbourne. Requests for permission should be
addressed to [email protected], or Copyright Enquiries, AMSI, 111 Barry Street, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010.
Contents
Books in this series viii

Student CD-ROM viii
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
Chapter 1 Whole numbers 1

1A The number line 3
1B Addition 5
1C The standard addition algorithm 9
1D Subtraction 13
1E Multiplication 19
1F Combinations of operations and the distributive law 23
1G Place value 29
1H The standard multiplication algorithms 33
1I Division 38
1J The short division algorithm 44
1K The long division algorithm 48
1L Order of operations 51
1M Roman numerals 54
Review exercise 57
Challenge exercise 58
iii
Contents
Chapter 2 Factors, multiples, primes and divisibility 63

2A Factors and multiples 64
2B Odd and even numbers 69
2C Prime and composite numbers 72
2D Powers of numbers 74
2E Using mental strategies to multiply and divide 79
2F Using powers in factorisation 84
2G Squares and square roots 87
2H Lowest common multiple and highest common factor 91
2I Divisibility tests 94
Review exercise 99
Strengthening multiplication tables skills 104
Chapter 3 An introduction to algebra 105

3A Using algebra 106
3B Algebraic notation 111
3C Substitution 115
3D Adding and subtracting like terms 118
3E Brackets 122
3F Multiplying terms 127
3G Describing arrays, areas and number patterns 129
Review exercise 135
iv
Chapter 4 Fractions – part 1 141
4A What is a fraction? 141
4B Equivalent fractions and simplest form 149
4C Mixed numbers and division by whole numbers 156
4D Comparison of fractions 161
4E Addition and subtraction of fractions 165
4F Word problems involving addition and subtraction 172
4G Subtraction of mixed numbers 176
Review exercise 179

5A Multiplication of fractions 183
5B Division of fractions 189
5C Cancelling 194
5D Multiplying and dividing mixed numbers 198
5E Word problems 201
5F Order of operations with fractions 206
Review exercise 211

Contents
Chapter 6 An introduction to geometry 215

6A Points, lines and planes 215
6B Points and lines in a plane 217
6C Points, lines and planes in space 222
6D Intervals, rays and angles 228
6E Measuring angles 233
6F Angles at a point – geometric arguments 243
6G Angles associated with transversals 250
6H Further problems involving parallel lines 261
6I Proving that two lines are parallel 267
Review exercise 274
Chapter 7 Algebra with fractions 279

7A Division in algebra 279
7B Multiplication and division in algebra 283
7C Substitution 286
7D Dividing and cancellation 289
Review exercise 292
Chapter 8 Decimals 297

8A Place value and comparison of decimals 297
8B Decimals to fractions and fractions to decimals 307
8C Addition and subtraction of decimals 312
8D Multiplication and division by powers of 10 315
8E Multiplication of one decimal by another 321
8F Division of decimals 323
8G Repeating decimals 326
Review exercise 330
vi
Chapter 9 Measurement 337
9A Units of measurement 337
9B Other units 346
9C The unitary method 348
9D Perimeter 350
9E Area 354
9F Areas by addition and subtraction 360
9G Area of a triangle 365
9H Time 373
9I Speed 381
Review exercise 386
Chapter 10 Review and problem solving 393

10A Review 393
10B Problem solving 412
10C Number bases 420
10D Binary numbers 423
10E Terminating decimals 426
Answers to exercises 429
vii
Books in this series
Upper primary Transition 1A Transition 1B
Transition 2A Transition 2B
Secondary Secondary 1A Secondary 1B
Secondary 2A Secondary 2B
Student CD-ROM
An electronic (PDF) version of this book is provided on the CD-ROM attached to the inside
back cover.
viii
Preface
ICE-EM Mathematics is a new program for students in Years 5 to 10 throughout Australia.

The program is being developed by the International Centre of Excellence for Education in
Mathematics (ICE-EM). ICE-EM is managed by the Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute
and funded by the Australian Government through the Department of Education, Science
and Training.
The program comprises a series of textbooks, teacher professional development, multimedia

materials and continuing teacher support. ICE-EM has developed the program in recognition
of the increasing importance of mathematics in modern workplaces and the need to enhance
the mathematical capability of Australian students. Students who complete the program
will have a strong foundation for work or further study. ICE-EM Mathematics is an excellent
preparation for Years 11 and 12 mathematics.
ICE-EM Mathematics is unique because it covers the core requirements of all Australian states
and territories. Beginning in upper primary school, it provides a progressive development and
smooth transition from primary to secondary school.
The writers are some of Australia’s most outstanding mathematics teachers and
mathematics subject experts. Teachers throughout Australia who have taken part in
the Pilot Program in 2006 have contributed greatly, through their suggestions, to the
final version of the textbooks.
The textbooks are clearly and carefully written. They contain background information,
examples and worked problems, so that parents can assist their children with the program
if they wish.
There is a strong emphasis on understanding basic ideas, along with mastering essential
technical skills. Students are given accessible, practical ways to understand what makes
the subject tick and to become good at doing mathematics themselves.
Mental arithmetic and other mental processes are given considerable prominence.
So too is the development of spatial intuition and logical reasoning. Working and
thinking mathematically pervade the entire ICE-EM Mathematics program.
ix
Preface
The textbooks contain a large collection of exercises, as do the classroom exercise sheets,
classroom tests and other materials. Problem solving lies at the heart of mathematics. Since
ancient times, mathematics has developed in response to a need to solve problems, whether
in building, navigation, astronomy, commerce or a myriad other human activities. ICE-EM
Mathematics gives students a good variety of different kinds of problems to work on and
helps them develop the thinking and skills necessary to solve them.
The challenge exercises are a notable feature of ICE-EM Mathematics. They contain problems
and investigations of varying difficulty, some quite easy, that should catch the imagination and
interest of students who wish to explore the subject further.
The ICE-EM Mathematics materials from Transition 1 and 2 to Secondary 2 are written
so that they do not require the use of a calculator. Calculator use, in appropriate contexts,
is introduced in Secondary 3. This is a deliberate choice on the part of the authors. During
primary school and early secondary years, students need to become confident at carrying out
accurate mental and written calculations, using a good variety of techniques. This takes time
and effort. These skills are essential to students’ further mathematical development, and lead
to a feeling of confidence and mathematical self-reliance.
Classroom practice is, of course, the prerogative of the teacher. Some teachers may
feel that it is appropriate for their students to undertake activities that involve calculator
use. While the ICE-EM Mathematics program is comprehensive, teachers should use it
flexibly and supplement it, where necessary, to ensure that the needs of their students, or
local requirements, are met. This is one of the key messages of the ICE-EM professional
development program.
The ICE-EM Mathematics website at www.icemaths.org.au provides further information

about the program, as well as links to supplementary and enrichment materials. New
and revised content is being added progressively. ICE-EM Mathematics textbooks can be
purchased through the site as well as through normal commercial outlets.

Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Professor Peter Taylor, Director of the Australian Mathematics Trust, for
his support and guidance as chairman of the Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute
Education Advisory Committee.
We gratefully acknowledge the major contribution made by those schools that participated in
the Pilot Program during the development of the ICE-EM Mathematics program.
We also gratefully acknowledge the assistance of:
Richard Barker
Raoul Callaghan
Gary Carter
Claire Ho
Angel Lam
Jacqui Ramagge
Nikolas Sakellaropoulos
James Wan
Andy Whyte
Hung-Hsi Wu
xi
Chapter 1
Whole numbers
The numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, ... are called the

whole numbers. Whole numbers are used for counting objects, such
as the people in a room.
Zero (0) is the first of these numbers. Zero is important as it is used to

describe some common situations:
• The room is empty. (There are 0 people in the room.)
• There are no frogs in my bathroom. (There are 0 frogs in my

bathroom.)
There is no last whole number, as every whole number is followed by

another number. The next whole number is obtained by adding 1 to
the previous whole number. The list of whole numbers is infinite – it
never ends.
The whole numbers are also known as the counting numbers.

We use them every day to talk about ideas and describe events and
achievements. Here are some world records from Guinness World
Records. Each one is expressed in terms of a whole number.
• The greatest number of step-ups in 1 hour is 4135.
• The greatest number of dominoes stacked end to end vertically

is 726.
Chapter 1 Whole numbers

• The greatest number of drumbeats in 1 minute is 1080.
• The greatest number of pancakes tossed in 2 minutes is 416.
• The highest first-class cricket score ever is 501, scored by

Brian Lara.
• The highest total number of runs scored by a batsman in his career

is 61 237 by Sir Jack Hobbs.
The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division help

to answer further questions about such numbers. For example:
• How many drumbeats in a second? This is found by dividing the

number of drumbeats in a minute by 60.
• How many pancakes could be tossed in 6 minutes if the record

holder could keep going at the same rate? This is found by
multiplying 416 by 3.
Many of the calculations in this chapter can be carried out mentally.

Mental calculations will help you build your mathematical skills.
Whole numbers
• The whole numbers (or counting numbers) are the numbers
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, ….
• Zero is the first whole number.
• There is no last whole number – the list is infinite.
• Counting any collection of objects gives the same answer
whatever order they are counted in.
ICE-EM Mathematics Secondary 1A

1A The number line
The whole numbers can be represented by points on a line.
Label a point 0 and then mark off equal intervals of any chosen length,
always moving to the right.
Label the points 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... as shown. The arrow shows that the line
continues in the same way forever. This line is called the number line.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Less than and greater than

Any two numbers can be compared with each other. For example, if I have
$2 and you have $6, then I have less than you and you have more than me.
On the number line, 2 is to the left of 6. This is written as 2 < 6. It is read as

‘2 is less than 6’.
The sharp end of the new symbol ‘<’ points to the smaller number, 2, and
the open end faces the larger number, 6.
We can also say that 6 is greater than 2. This means that 6 is to the right of 2
on the number line. This is written as 6 > 2 and read as ‘6 is greater than 2’.
Less than and greater than

• A whole number a is less than another whole number b if a lies to
the left of b on the number line. The symbol < is used for less than.
For example, 2 < 6.
• We can also say that a whole number b is greater than another whole
number a if b lies to the right of a on the number line. The symbol > is
used for greater than. For example, 11 > 4.
a b
a<b
b>a

Example 1
a List all the whole numbers less than 5.
b List all the whole numbers less than 10 and greater than 1.
Solution
a 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
b 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Example 2
a Draw a number line and on it mark with dots all the whole
numbers less than 5.
b Draw a number line and on it mark with dots all the whole
numbers less than 7 and greater than 3.
c Draw a number line and on it mark all the whole numbers

greater than 45 and less than 52.
Solution
a
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

Exercise 1A
Example 1 1 a List the whole numbers less than 11.

b List the whole numbers greater than 52 and less than 61.
c List the whole numbers less than 4.
d List the whole numbers greater than 123 and less than 139.
Example 2 2 For each of the following, draw a number line from 0 to 10.
a Mark the numbers 2, 4, 6, 8 on it.
b Mark the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7 on it.
c Mark the whole numbers less than 5 on it.
d Mark the whole numbers less than 3 on it.
e Mark the whole numbers less than 8 and greater than 2 on it.
3 The manager of an underground railway system decides to save time in

the mornings by having one particular train only pick up passengers
at every third station between stations 1 and 19. The stations are all
1 km apart. The train starts at station 1 and picks up some passengers.
Show the stations on a number line and mark with a dot each station
where the train stops.
1B Addition
Addition is an operation that is carried out on two numbers. You have learned
about addition in earlier years, but we will talk about it here to be complete.
The sum is the result of the addition of two numbers.
The sum of two whole numbers, for example 6 + 4, can be obtained by
starting at the number 6 and counting on 4 more numbers.
Addition by counting on can be illustrated on a number line.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Making mental addition simpler
The order in which we perform addition does not matter. For example,
6 + 4 = 4 + 6. This can be shown on the number line.
6 + 4 = 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4 + 6 = 10
This property is called the commutative law for addition.
The word commutative is related to the word commute. Both words come
from the Latin word commutare, which means ‘to interchange’.
In mathematics, it is a rule that operations contained in brackets are

performed first. When three or more numbers are added together two at a
time, it does not matter which two are added together first.
This property is called the associative law for addition. For example:
(2 + 4) + 5 = 2 + (4 + 5)
When the commutative law and the associative law are used together
for addition, the result can be described as the ‘any-order property for
addition’.
Any-order property for addition

A list of whole numbers can be added two at a time in any order to give
the same result.
For example:
23 + 41 + 7 + 9 = (23 + 7) + (41 + 9)
= 30 + 50
= 80
and
27 + 55 + 445 + 23 + 7 = (27 + 23) + (55 + 445) + 7
= 50 + 500 + 7
= 557

Using mental addition
The any-order property for addition is a great help in simplifying
arithmetic calculations. Many of them can be done in your head.
Example 3
Calculate each of the following, using the any-order property for

addition. (They are set out so that you can see the strategy.)
a 27 + 13 b 17 + 25 + 3 c 7 + 18 + 2
d 36 + 7 + 14 e 44 + 31 + 76 + 9
Solution
a 27 + 13 = 20 + 7 + 13 b 17 + 25 + 3 = 17 + 3 + 25
= 20 + 20 = 20 + 25
= 40 = 45
c 7 + 18 + 2 = 7 + 20 d 36 + 7 + 14 = 36 + 14 + 7
= 27 = 50 + 7
= 57
e 44 + 31 + 76 + 9 = (44 + 76) + (31 + 9)
= 120 + 40
= 160
Exercise 1B
1 Carry out these additions mentally.

a 15 + 5 b 8 + 22 c 13 + 7 d 74 + 6
e 7 + 58 f 6 + 38 g 8 + 89 h 32 + 9
Example 3a
2 Carry out these additions.
a 28 + 22 b 32 + 25 c 14 + 66 d 17 + 33
e 35 + 27 f 42 + 19 g 29 + 36 h 57 + 86

Example 3 Carry out these additions.
3b,c,d
a 1 + 9 + 33 b 2 + 38 + 5 c 27 + 6 + 3 d 16 + 24 + 5

e 61 + 9 + 24 f 4 + 42 + 38 g 16 + 55 + 27 h 72 + 19 + 26
Example 3e
4 Do these computations using the techniques introduced above.
a 22 + 17 + 18 + 23 b 14 + 18 + 76 + 92
c 13 + 27 + 64 + 6 d 25 + 32 + 15 + 18
e 15 + 34 + 26 + 35 f 12 + 19 + 18 + 1
5 Carry out these additions.

a 243 + 57 b 567 + 43 c 328 + 22 d 786 + 24
e 435 + 25 f 963 + 57 g 486 + 524 h 364 + 251
6 Three cows produced 29 litres, 47 litres and 23 litres of milk in 1 day.

How much milk did they produce in total?
7 A tiler laid 267 tiles in the kitchen, 20 tiles in the laundry and 113 tiles
in the bathroom. How many tiles did he lay in total?
8 On the first day of my holidays, I travelled 83 kilometres from my

home in Victor Harbour to Adelaide, then 498 kilometres from
Adelaide to Broken Hill. The next day I travelled 302 kilometres to
Mildura from Broken Hill.
How many kilometres did I travel in the first 2 days of my trip?
9 A busker collected $8.00, $13.00, $4.00 and $12.00 over 4 days.

How much did she earn?
10 Three Year 7 classes had 27 students, 31 students and 26 students

attend roll call one morning. How many Year 7 students were present?
11 Four cousins are aged 17, 11, 15 and 9. What is their combined age?
12 I picked 18 daffodils from my garden on Monday, three on Tuesday,

27 on Wednesday, six on Thursday and 12 on Friday. How many
daffodils did I pick over the five days?

13 In one week, Sam read four books. The first book had 312 pages,
the second 175, the third 48 and the fourth 98. How many pages
did Sam read in the week?
14 Gemma was counting the coins in her money box. She found 68 five-
cent pieces, 18 ten-cent pieces and 25 twenty-cent pieces. How many
coins did Gemma have?
15 On Monday, Gavin put 10 pieces of paper in the bin for recycling.
On Tuesday, he put 35 pieces of paper in the bin. Over the next three
days he put a further 52 pieces of paper in the bin. How many pieces
of paper were in the bin on Friday night, assuming that it was empty
at the start of the week and was not emptied during the week?
16 Craig has three free-range hens named Jenny, Penny and Henny.
In a six-month period, Jenny laid 87 eggs, Penny laid 37 eggs and
Henny laid 152 eggs. How many eggs did the hens lay in total?
1C The standard addition algorithm
An algorithm is a set of procedures or steps for performing a task. In this

section we look at an algorithm for addition.
We will use the two-digit numbers 15 and 27 to show the application of the
addition algorithm.
1 5 (1 ten and 5 ones)
+ 2 1 7 (2 tens and 7 ones)
4 2 (4 tens and 2 ones)
This is explained by saying as we add the ones:

5 ones + 7 ones = 12 ones (1 ten and 2 ones).
Write 2 in the ones column and carry 1 ten to the tens column.
As we add the tens, we say:
1 ten + 2 tens + 1 ten = 40 (4 tens).
We then write 4 in the tens column. This gives 42.

Addition of three-digit numbers, for example 386 + 245, can be performed
in a similar way.
3 8 6 (386 = 300 + 80 + 6)
+ 21 41 5 (245 = 200 + 40 + 5)
6 3 1
Here 6 + 5 = 11 80 + 40 = 120 300 + 200 = 500.

= 10 + 1 = 100 + 20
(carry 1 ten to the tens (carry 1 hundred to the
column), and hundreds column), and
Therefore 386 + 245 = 300 + 200 + 80 + 40 + 6 + 5

= 500 + 100 + 20 + 10 + 1
= 631.
This technique can be extended to three or more numbers with different

numbers of digits.
Example 4
Complete the following addition.
135
2382
+ 97

Solution
1 3 5
2 3 8 2
+ 2 9 1 7
2 6 1 4
10 ICE-EM Mathematics Secondary 1A

Exercise 1C
Example 4 1 Work out the answers to these additions by using the standard
algorithm.
a 721 + 630 b 894 + 346 c 235 + 549
d 109 + 872 e 869 + 201 f 468 + 951
g 973 + 296 h 372 + 1898 i 2107 + 989
j 1432 + 3791 k 9967 + 3722 l 793 + 274 + 473
m 8693 + 7392 n 607 + 4830 o 9999 + 32
2 Work out the answers to these additions.
a 37 + 129 + 1647 b 912 + 47 + 8373
c 9230 + 839 + 61 d 326 + 539 + 714
e 829 + 1083 + 437 f 239 + 486 + 12 + 34
g 72 + 274 + 391 + 28 h 123 + 549 + 352 + 1438
i 254 + 194 + 482 + 53 j 632 + 106 + 7 + 270
3 For each of the following, find the missing digits to make the
addition correct.
a 6 8 b 8 4 c 9 1 9
+ 3 9 + 9 + 8 9
9 9 7 0 3 1 1 8
d 6 3 e 7 1 f 3 3
+ 8 9 + 9 7 + 7 7
1 2 6 2 1 0 9 1 1 0
4 Measure your hand span and those of 3 friends, in centimetres.

Calculate the sum of these 4 lengths.
5 Make 6 different three-digit numbers from the digits 4, 7 and 8.

What is their sum?

6 Find the sum of:
a three hundred and sixty-seven and six hundred and twenty-seven
b four hundred and twenty-four and five thousand, three hundred and
twenty-six
c seven hundred and forty-four and seven thousand, five hundred and
seventy-three
7 The odometer of a car read 54 987 kilometres at the beginning of a

journey of 765 kilometres. What did it read at the end of the journey?
8 A swimmer in training swam 4200 metres on Monday, 7685 metres on

Tuesday and 3467 metres on Thursday. What was the total distance he
swam in the 3 days?
9 A shop had 3 employees. The manager received $976 a week, and the
senior assistant $654. The junior assistant earned $443 a week. What
was the total weekly wages bill for the shop?
10 The Amazon River is 6436 kilometres in length and the Nile River is
234 kilometres longer. What is the length of the Nile?
11 The populations of 5 ant farms were determined at the end of each of

three months.
Ant farm A Ant farm B Ant farm C Ant farm D Ant farm E
March 97 597 143 89 13
April 113 603 89 432 28
May 214 411 17 729 164
a List the ant farms in order of increasing size of their populations

in March.
b What was the population of ant farm A at the end of May?
c Which of the ant farms had a population greater than 100 at the
end of April?
d What was the total population of all 5 ant farms at the end of May?

12 Complete the following to make the addition correct.
6 3
7 2
+ 5 8
0 4 2
1D Subtraction
A whole number can be subtracted from a larger whole number. The result
is called the difference of the two numbers.
For example, 8 – 5 = 3. The difference of 8 and 5 is 3.
Subtracting as ‘taking away’

If you have 5 items and you take 2 away, the number remaining is 5 – 2 = 3.
For example, I had 5 pencils but my sister took 2 away, so now I have 3.
In this case, 2 is subtracted from 5 and the difference of the two numbers is 3.
On a number line, this is illustrated as shown.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
5–2=3
Subtracting as ‘adding on’

Another way of thinking about the subtraction 5 – 2 is to ask ‘What is the
difference?’ or ‘What do you add on to 2 to get to 5?’ Subtraction can also
be thought of as an alternative way of expressing the addition 2 + 3 = 5.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2+3=5
One example of this is ‘I have 5 pencils and my brother has 2, so I have

3 more pencils than my brother’.

Subtraction of whole numbers
• A whole number can always be subtracted from a larger whole number
to give the difference of the two numbers.
• ‘I had 8 but someone took away 5’ can be expressed as 8 – 5.
• ‘I have 8 and she has 5, so I have 3 more’ can also be expressed as 8 – 5.
• Subtraction is the reverse process of addition. For example,
8 – 5 = 3 is equivalent to saying 3 + 5 = 8.
Mental subtractions
Here are three ways to perform the subtraction 100 – 67.
1 Count on from the smaller number to the larger number.
Going from 67 to 70 requires counting on 3.
Therefore 100 – 67 = 33.
2 Subtract the 60 and then the 7.
100 – 67 = 100 – 60 – 7 (First subtract the 60.)

= 40 – 7 (Then subtract the 7.)
= 33
3 Take away 70 and then add 3.
100 – 67 = 100 – 70 + 3 (First subtract 70, which is 3 too many,

= 30 + 3 so we add the three.)
= 33
Example 5
Carry out these subtractions mentally.
a 39 − 31 b 27 − 8 c 183 − 96

Solution
a One way you might choose to do this is to subtract the 30, then
the 1.
39 − 31 = 39 − 30 − 1
=9−1
=8
b One way you might choose to do this is to count on from the

smaller number to the larger number.
Therefore 27 − 8 = 2 + 17
= 19
c One way you might choose to do this is to take away 100,

then add 4.
183 − 96 = 183 − 100 + 4
= 83 + 4
= 87
Zero
The number zero is very important in arithmetic. When you add 0 to a
number or subtract 0 from a number, the result is the original number.
For example, 2 + 0 = 2 and 2 – 0 = 2. When a whole number is subtracted
from itself, the answer is zero. For example, 5 – 5 = 0.
The standard subtraction algorithms

We can set out subtraction in the familiar column form.
56
– 24
32
In this example 6 > 4 and 5 > 2 so the subtraction is very easy. What can
we do if this is not the case?

Consider 54 – 26. We set this out in column form and we work on the units
column before the tens column. (In general, we work from right to left
across the columns.)
Method 1
5 14 Since 6 > 4, we add 10 to the 54 by changing the 4 to 14, which
– 21 6 we write as 14. To restore the correct answer, we add 10 to the
2 8 26, making it 36; we do this by writing 3 as 21. We can now
subtract in each column to get 28.
Method 2
5/ 4 14 Think of 54 as 5 tens and 4 ones, and 26 as 2 tens and 6 ones.

– 2 6 Now write 54 as 4 tens and 14 ones, and subtract 2 tens and 6
2 8 ones to get 2 tens and 8 ones.
It does not matter which of the two methods you use – it is your choice.
Example 6
Carry out the following subtractions.
a 456 – 278 b 20 007 – 7986
Solution
a Using method 1 a Using method 2
1 1 3 14 1
4 5 6 4 5 6
– 21 71 8 – 2 7 8
1 7 8 1 7 8
b Using method 1 b Using method 2

9 9
1 1 1 1
2 0 0 0 7 2 10 10 10 7
– 1 71 91 8 6 – 7 9 8 6
1 2 0 2 1 1 2 0 2 1

Exercise 1D
Example 5 1 Carry out these subtractions mentally.

a 28 – 22 b 31 – 9 c 273 – 68
d 350 – 47 e 328 – 68 f 94 – 66
g 137 – 53 h 567 – 543 i 167 – 59
j 475 – 95 k 179 – 83 l 1008 – 17
2 Do each of these computations by working from left to right.
a 8 + 7 – 7 b 8 + 12 – 12 – 8 c 19 – 7 + 8 – 19
d 56 – 11 + 11 e 38 – 18 – 1 + 19 f 101 – 11 + 11
Example 6a 3 Carry out these subtractions.
a 562 – 387 b 921 – 428 c 405 – 286 d 813 – 619
e 764 – 689 f 618 – 109 g 297 – 199 h 754 – 749
Example 6b 4 Carry out these subtractions.
a 3456 – 234 b 7643 – 345 c 13 756 – 9234
d 18 502 – 7862 e 26 415 – 7819 f 22 788 – 19 999
5 Copy and then complete each subtraction by finding a digit for each .
a 7 6 b 9 c 2 3
– 2 – 7 – 9 7
7 4 6 3 9
d 1 5 e 7 6 f 5 3 7
– 4 9 – 4 3 – 2 1 4 8
7 3 4 1 9 1 8 3 2 8
6 Work from left to right in each case to find the answer.

a 6 + 7 – 3 b 6 + 11 – 3 c 7 – 6 + 11
d 6 – 3 + 11 e 17 – 11 + 12 – 18 f 15 + 22 – 20
g 23 – 15 + 8 h 34 – 16 + 19 i 27 + 19 + 14

7 Complete each statement by filling in the boxes with numbers that
make the statement true.
a 3 + 7 = 10 is equivalent to – 3 = 7
b 18 + = 27 is equivalent to – 18 = 9
c 42 + 26 = is equivalent to – 26 = 42
d + = 144 is equivalent to 144 – = 81
8 Bill has $456 more than Anna. Bill has $3789. How much does
Anna have?
9 Last school holidays, Stephen drove from Brisbane to Cairns along
the Bruce Highway. He set his trip meter to zero when he left home.
It showed 1236 km at Townsville and 1586 km on his arrival in Cairns.
How far did he drive between Townsville and Cairns?
10 Melissa had invited 1534 people to attend a fundraising event, and 204
people indicated they would not be able to attend. How many people
did Melissa expect to come to the event?
11 The Townsville Cowboys defeated a team by 34 to 16 in a rugby league
match. By how much did they win?
12 Australia scored 246 and England scored 196 in a one-day cricket
match. What was the winning margin? That is, how many more runs
did Australia score than England?
13 Peter planted 525 apple trees in his orchard. During a drought, 84 of
the trees died. How many apple trees survived?
14 A town with a population of 34 827 has 18 439 adults. How many
children are there?
15 Of the 138 405 cars sold by one car dealership last year, 6754 were
manual. How many were automatic?
16 The arena hosting a concert holds 52 907 people. So far 36 089 tickets
have been sold. How many more tickets are available?
17 65 376 tickets were sold for a concert. The venue had seating for 75 000
people. How many more tickets could be sold to fill every seat?

1E Multiplication
Any two numbers can be multiplied together. The result is called the
product of the numbers.
The product of 5 and 3 is 5 × 3 = 15.
The product can be represented by a rectangular array of counters with 5

rows and 3 columns. (An array of 3 rows of 5 columns will do just as well.)
Multiplication can also be represented using areas. The rectangle shown

has side lengths of 5 cm and 3 cm. Each of the smaller squares shown has
side length 1 cm. The area of the rectangle is 15 cm2.

We have used centimetres here but any unit of length would do.
Multiplication by whole numbers can also be illustrated on a number line

by using repeated addition. For example:
5 × 3 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3
+ 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 +3

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
or 3 × 5 = 5 + 5 + 5
+ 5 + 5 +5

0 5 10 15 20

Zero and one
When you multiply any number by 0, the result is 0. When you multiply any
number by 1, the result is the number you started with. For example:
7 × 0 = 0 and 2 × 1 = 2
Multiplying by 10, 100, 1000, …

Multiplying by powers of 10 – that is, 10, 10 × 10 = 100,
10 × 10 × 10 = 1000 and so on – is straightforward.
2 × 10 = 20 32 × 10 = 320
2 × 100 = 200 32 × 100 = 3200
2 × 1000 = 2000 32 × 1000 = 32 000
2 × 10 000 = 20 000 32 × 10 000 = 320 000
2 × 1 000 000 = 2 000 000 32 × 1 000 000 = 32 000 000
Example 7
Perform each multiplication
a 23 × 0 b 33 × 1 c 43 × 10
d 73 × 100 e 93 × 1000
Solution
a 23 × 0 = 0 b 33 × 1 = 33 c 43 × 10 = 430
d 73 × 100 = 7300 e 93 × 1000 = 93 000
Laws for multiplication

From the diagrams on the previous page, you can see that 5 × 3 = 3 × 5.
This is an example of the commutative law for multiplication.
Remember that the convention in mathematics is that operations inside

brackets are performed first. For three or more numbers multiplied
together, two at a time, it does not matter which multiplication you do first.

For example,
(5 × 3) × 4 = 15 × 4 5 × (3 × 4) = 5 × 12
= 60 = 60
That is, (5 × 3) × 4 = 5 × (3 × 4)
This illustrates that the associative law also holds for multiplication. The two
rules together show that for strings of multiplications, order does not matter.
This result can be described as the ‘any-order property for multiplication’.
Any-order property for multiplication

A list of whole numbers can be multiplied two at a time in any order to
give the same result.
For example:
4 × 7 × 5 = 4 × 5 × 7
= 20 × 7
= 140
Example 8
Use the any-order property for multiplication to work out the

following calculations.
a 5 × 7 × 3 × 2 b 20 × 12 × 5
Solution
a 5 × 7 × 3 × 2 = 5 × 2 × 7 × 3 b 20 × 12 × 5 = 20 × 5 × 12
= 10 × 21 = 100 × 12
= 210 = 1200

Example 9
Put + or × in the boxes to make the statements true.
a 7 3 = 3 7 = 10 b 11 5 = 5 11 = 55
Solution
a 7 + 3 = 3 + 7 = 10 b 11 × 5 = 5 × 11 = 55
Properties of multiplication
• Multiplication of whole numbers can be thought of as repeated
addition:
5 × 3 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 or 5 × 3 = 5 + 5 + 5
• The commutative law and the associative law hold for multiplication:
3 × 4 = 4 × 3 (commutative law)
(5 × 2) × 3 = 5 × (2 × 3) (associative law)
• The any-order property for multiplication says that a list of whole
numbers can be multiplied two at a time in any order to give the same
result:
2 × 6 × 100 × 4 × 7 × 25 = 7 × 6 × 4 × 25 × 100 × 2
= 840 000
Exercise 1E
Example 7 1 Perform each multiplication.

a 17 × 10 b 89 × 0 c 100 × 1
d 18 × 1000 e 121 × 10 f 120 × 100
g 100 × 100 h 1000 × 73 i 100 × 62
j 10 × 23 481 k 10 000 × 100 l 67 430 × 1000

Example 8 2 Carry out these calculations, using the commutative and associative laws.
a 25 × 4 × 6 b 5 × 26 × 2 c 5 × 43 × 20
d 50 × 49 × 2 e 16 × 5 × 40 f 13 × 6 × 0
g 1 × 34 × 20 h 6 × 10 × 10 × 2 i 3 × 7 × 4 × 5
Example 9 3 Fill in each box with a number to make each statement true.
a (3 × 2) × 7 = 3 × ( × 7)
b (5 × 9) × (2 × 8) = 9 × 8 × ( × 2)
4 Ian has 13 jars, each containing 20 olives. If he decides to redistribute the
olives equally among 20 jars, how many olives will there be in each jar?
5 Six friends buy a large box of jelly snakes. The snakes come in
5 different colours. How many snakes are needed so that every
person has two of each colour?
6 Bricks are arranged on a concrete floor in 12 rows of 25, and stacked
4 bricks high. How many bricks are there in total?
7 Holly has prepared 28 bags of lollies for her birthday party. Each bag
has 9 lollies in it. She makes these into 14 new bags when some of her
friends do not turn up. How many lollies will each person now receive?
1F Combinations of operations and the

distributive law
As soon as there is more than one type of operation in a calculation (for

example, addition and multiplication), we need a set of rules about the order
in which the operations are to be performed. These are some of the rules.
Order of operations
• Work out the calculations inside brackets first.
• In the absence of brackets, carry out operations in the following order:
– multiplication from left to right, then
– addition and subtraction from left to right.

This means that 5 × 3 + 2 = 15 + 2
= 17.
Brackets can be used to force the addition to be done first. For example:
5 × (3 + 2) = 5 × 5
= 25
We will revisit and add to these rules in later sections of this chapter.
Example 10
Carry out each of the following calculations.
a 3 × 7 – 4 b 3 × (7 – 4) c 5 × 6 + 8
d 7 × (11 + 4) e 3 + 4 × 2 f 25 – 6 × 3
Solution
a 3 × 7 – 4 = 21 – 4 b 3 × (7 – 4) = 3 × 3
= 17 =9
c 5 × 6 + 8 = 30 + 8 d 7 × (11 + 4) = 7 × 15
= 38 = 105
e 3 + 4 × 2 = 3 + 8 f 25 – 6 × 3 = 25 – 18
= 11 =7
The distributive law

When multiplying, it is sometimes useful to express one of the numbers you
are multiplying as a sum of two other numbers. For example:
105 × 6 = (100 + 5) × 6
= 100 × 6 + 5 × 6
= 600 + 30
= 630
This is an example of the distributive law for multiplication over addition.

Using the distributive law can often help you to do multiplications
more easily.

Using the distributive law for multiplication over subtraction can also help to
make a multiplication easier. For example:
85 × 98 = 85 × (100 – 2)

= (85 × 100) – (85 × 2)
= 8500 – 170
= 8330
Example 11
Carry out each of the following computations, using the

associative, distributive or commutative law.
a 25 × 6 × 4 b 43 × 7 + 43 × 3
c 106 × 8 d 97 × 88
Solution
a 25 × 6 × 4 = 25 × 4 × 6 (commutative law)
= 100 × 6
= 600
b 43 × 7 + 43 × 3 = 43 × (7 + 3) (distributive law)

= 430
c 106 × 8 = (100 + 6) × 8 (distributive law)

= 100 × 8 + 6 × 8
= 800 + 48
= 848
d 97 × 88 = 88 × (100 – 3)
= 88 × 100 – 88 × 3 (distributive law)
= 8800 – 264
= 8536

Example 12
For each of the following, put a whole number in the box to make
the statement true.
a 6 × (7 + ) = 6 × 7 + 6 × 5 b 13 × 7 + 13 × 8 = × (7 + 8)
c 10 × (4 + 7) = 10 × 4 + 10 × d 8 × = 8 × 10 + 8 × 7
Solution
a 6 × ( 7 + 5 ) = 6 × 7 + 6 × 5 b 13 × 7 + 13 × 8 = 13 × (7 + 8)
c 10 × (4 + 7) = 10 × 4 + 10 × 7 d 8 × 17 = 8 × 10 + 8 × 7

• The distributive law holds for multiplication over addition:
2 × (3 + 4) = 2 × 3 + 2 × 4
• The distributive law holds for multiplication over subtraction:
2 × (8 – 4) = 2 × 8 – 2 × 4
Exercise 1F
Example 10 1 Carry out these calculations mentally.

a 8 × 3 – 9 b 5 × 6 – 3 c 5 × (6 – 3)
d 4 × (9 – 2) e 9 × 2 + 1 f 6 × 5 + 7
g 6 × (5 + 7) h 11 × (2 + 3) i 10 + 2 × 7
j (10 + 2) × 7 k 19 – 9 × 2 l (19 – 9) × 2
Example 11 2 Carry out these calculations mentally, using the commutative,
associative and distributive laws.
a 87 × 6 + 87 × 4 b 77 × 64 + 77 × 36 c 78 × 23 + 78 × 77
d 27 × 4 e 9 × 102 f 87 × 101

Example 12 3 Put a whole number in the box to make each statement true.
a 11 × ( 7 + ) = 11 × 7 + 11 × 5
b 15 × 7 + 15 × 8 = × (7 + 8)
c 9 × = 9 × 10 + 9 × 5
d 11 × = 11 × 20 + 11 × 3
e 21 × 6 + 21 × 8 = × (6 + 8)
4 Use the distributive law to carry out these calculations.

a 87 × 6 – 87 × 4 b 77 × 123 – 77 × 23
c 78 × 23 – 78 × 13 d 120 × 18 – 120 × 13
5 Put a whole number in the box to make each statement true.

a 11 × ( 7 – ) = 11 × 7 – 11 × 5
b 15 × 8 – 15 × 7 = × (8 – 7)
c 9 × = 9 × 20 – 9 × 1
d 8 × = 8 × 100 – 8 × 1
6 There are 40 passengers on a bus when the bus stops. Eleven

passengers leave the bus and 7 passengers get on the bus. How
many passengers are there on the bus?
7 Daniel has 6 boxes of chocolates, each containing 20 chocolates, and

he also has 54 loose chocolates. How many chocolates does he have
altogether?
8 Deborah has 5 hair clips while Christine has 11.

a What is the total number of hair clips?
b Jane has three times as many hair clips as Deborah, and Leanne has
three times as many hair clips as Christine. What is the total number
of hair clips that Jane and Deborah have?

9 John and Leanne walk each day for 12 days to keep fit. John walks 9 km
a day, and Leanne walks 5 km a day.
a What is the total distance walked by John and Leanne in the 12 days?
b How many more kilometres than Leanne has John walked in the
12 days?
10 Chris has 6 more DVDs than Michael, and Sue has twice as many DVDs
as Chris. Michael has 23 DVDs. How many DVDs does Sue have?
11 Steve receives 9 more email messages than Sarah, and Nick receives
3 times as many email messages as Steve. Sarah receives 21 email
messages. How many email messages does Nick receive?
12 James has 10 less novels than Janine, and Robert has 5 times the
number of novels that James has. Janine has 13 novels. How many
novels does Robert have?
13 Becky earns $5 less than Ben each week, and Jake earns 4 times the
amount that Becky earns each week. Ben earns $17 each week. How
much does Jake earn each week?
14 a Seven is multiplied by 5, and 6 is added. What is the result?
b Four is multiplied by 9, and 7 is subtracted. What is the result?
c Six is added to 7 and the result is multiplied by 5. What is the final
result?
d Eleven is subtracted from 20 and the result is multiplied by 2. What
is the final result?
e The result of multiplying 7 by 8 is added to the result of multiplying
7 by 2. What is the final result?
f The result of multiplying 9 by 3 is subtracted from the result of
multiplying 9 by 11. What is the final result?

1G Place value
The numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are called digits. For example, 421 is a

three-digit number and 40 000 is a five-digit number.
The place value of a digit in a number means its value according to its place
in that number.
We can break apart any number and write it showing its place-value parts.
For example:
3721 = 3 × 1000 + 7 × 100 + 2 × 10 + 1

= 3000 + 700 + 20 + 1
For the number 3721, we say that:
• the place value of 3 is 3000
• the place value of 1 is 1.
A number can be represented in a place value table. In this table, the places
are thousands, hundreds, tens and ones. The ones place is sometimes called
the units place.
Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones
3 7 2 1
Powers of 10
Recall that:
10 × 10 = 100 and 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000 and 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 10 000

We record that there is 1 factor of 10 in 10, 2 factors of 10 in 100, 3 factors
of 10 in 1000 and so on by writing:
10 = 101
100 = 102
1000 = 103
10 000 = 104
Example 13
Find the correct number for each box.
a 120 = 12 × 10 b 700 = 7 × 10 c 340 000 = 34 × 10
Solution
a 120 = 12 × 10 = 12 × 101
b 700 = 7 × 100 = 7 × 102
c 340 000 = 34 × 10 000 = 34 × 104
Notation using powers of 10 is very useful in describing the various place

values (see below) of digits. It is particularly useful for large numbers.
When we use powers of 10 to show the place value of the digits in a
number, we say that the number is written in expanded form.
For example, 3721 is written in expanded form as

3 × 103 + 7 × 102 + 2 × 101 + 1.
Similarly, 4 367 000 is written in expanded form as

4 × 106 + 3 ×105 + 6 × 104 + 7 × 103.
The expanded form gives the place value of each digit and indicates its
place or position in the number. Here are some examples:
• 300 000 = 3 × 105 tells us that this 3 is in the 5 + 1 = 6th place

from the right.

• 37 = 3 × 101 + 7 tells us that this 3 is in the 1 + 1 = 2nd place
from the right.
• 9762 = 9 × 103 + 7 × 102 + 6 × 101 + 2 tells us that this 7 is in the

2 + 1 = 3rd place from the right.
Example 14
Write each of the following numbers in expanded form and give

the place value of the digit 5.
a 52 b 235 678 c 758 987 d 5 678 436
Solution
a 52 = 50 + 2 = 5 × 101 + 2
Place value of 5 is 50.
b 235 678 = 2 × 105 + 3 × 104 + 5 × 103 + 6 ×102 + 7 × 101 + 8

Place value of 5 is 5000.
c 758 987 = 7 × 105 + 5 × 104 + 8 × 103 + 9 × 102 + 8 × 101 + 7

Place value of 5 is 50 000 .
d 5 678 436 =5 × 106 + 6 × 105 + 7 × 104 + 8 × 103 + 4 × 102 +

3 × 101 + 6
Place value of 5 is 5 000 000.
Example 15
Write down all the three-digit numbers that can be formed from
the digits 3, 7 and 9 (use each digit only once in each number
formed), and organise the numbers from largest to smallest.
Solution
There are 6 such numbers.
They are (organised from largest to smallest):
973, 937, 793, 739, 397, 379.

Large numbers
There are names for large numbers:
1 000 000 = 106 is 1 million
1 000 000 000 = 109 is 1 billion
1 000 000 000 000 = 1012 is 1 trillion
Large numbers are often used in astronomy. Here are some examples.
• The average distance from the Earth to the sun is approximately
150 million kilometres.
• There are more than 100 billion stars but less than 2000 billion stars
in the Milky Way.
• A light-year is approximately 9 463 000 000 000 kilometres.
• The star Sirius is approximately 75 684 × 109 kilometres from Earth.
Place value
• Each digit in a number has a place value.
In the number 567, the place value of 5 is 500, the place value of 6 is
60 and the place value of 7 is 7.
• A number can be written in expanded form to show all the place values.
For example, 567 = 5 × 102 + 6 × 101 + 7.
Exercise 1G
Example 13 1 Find the correct number for each box.

a 90 = 9 × 10 b 500 = 5 × 10
c 600 = 6 × 10 d 1800 = 18 × 10
e 1000 = 1 × 10 f 91 000 = 91 × 10
g 20 000 = 2 × 10 h 45 000 = 45 × 10
i 234 000 = 234 × 10 j 7 000 000 = 7 × 10
k 25 000 000 = 25 × 10

Example 14 2 Write each of the following numbers in expanded form and give the
place value of the digit 6.
a 46 b 623 c 569 d 63 e 286 f 760
3 Write each of the following numbers in expanded form and give the
a 2083 b 4319 c 3758 d 5036 e 12 345
f 61 903 g 43 170 h 50 732 i 31 699 j 17 321
4 Write each of the following numbers in expanded form and give the
a 52 b 235 678 c 528 987
d 5 278 436 e 452 678 f 23 678 978
Example 15 5 Write down all of the three-digit numbers that can be formed from the
digits 2, 5 and 9 (use each digit only once in each number formed), and
organise them from largest to smallest.
6 Write down all of the three-digit numbers that can be formed from
the digits 2, 5 and 9 (each digit can be used more than once in each
number formed), and organise them from smallest to largest.
1H The standard multiplication algorithms
In Section 1F we saw that the distributive law can be used to help

perform multiplications. The distributive law can also be used to explain
multiplication algorithms.
Multiplication by a single digit

(the short multiplication algorithm)
We can use some of the properties of multiplication when multiplying
mentally.

For example:
43 × 5 = (40 + 3) × 5
= 40 × 5 + 3 × 5
= 200 + 15
= 215
This can be set out using the short multiplication algorithm:
41 3
× 5
215
Example 16
Multiply 27 by 8, using the short multiplication algorithm.
Solution
25 7
× 8
2 1 6
Multiplication by more than one digit

(the long multiplication algorithm)
Consider 378 × 37. The distributive law gives:
378 × (30 + 7) = 378 × 30 + 378 × 7
= 11 340 + 2646
= 13 986
An efficient setting out for this is as follows.

378
× 37
2 6 4 6 (Multiply by 7.)
1 1 3 4 0 (Multiply by 30. That is why the 0 is here.)
13986

Multiplication by three digits is carried out in a similar way.
378
× 2 3 7
2 6 4 6 (Multiply by 7.)
89586
Example 17
Multiply 389 by 46, using the long multiplication algorithm.
Solution
3 8 9
× 4 6
2 3 3 4
1 5 5 6 0
1 7 8 9 4
Example 18
Multiply 667 by 667.
Solution
6 6 7
× 6 6 7
4 6 6 9
4 0 0 2 0
400200
444889

Exercise 1H
Example 16 1 Carry out each calculation, using the short multiplication method.
a 53 × 4 b 72 × 9 c 19 × 8
d 64 × 7 e 42 × 6 f 85 × 4
2 Carry out each calculation, using the short multiplication method.

a 513 × 4 b 726 × 9 c 819 × 8
d 235 × 7 e 936 × 4 f 2006 × 7
g 6543 × 7 h 4428 × 6 i 8159 × 4
j 91 370 × 9 k 108 702 × 8 l 43 987 × 6
Example 17 3 Carry out each calculation, using the long multiplication method.
a 453 × 24 b 872 × 39 c 179 × 86
d 614 × 47 e 432 × 66 f 895 × 45
g 135 × 27 h 936 × 14 i 506 × 68
4 Carry out each calculation, using the long multiplication method.

a 235 × 34 b 3106 × 37 c 5646 × 73
d 91 270 × 39 e 259 × 364 f 762 × 549
g 936 × 564 h 2006 × 107 i 91 370 × 109
5 Calculate each of the following using either short or long
multiplication.
a Each student in a class is given 9 coloured pencils by the teacher.
How many pencils does the teacher need to supply 26 students?
b Seventeen families arrive at the airport, with 13 pieces of luggage
per family. How many pieces of luggage are there in total?
c A packaging machine in a factory packs 893 boxes per hour.
How many boxes are packed in a 12-hour day?
d A brick wall has 43 rows of 723 bricks. How many bricks are in
the wall?

e A publishing company packages books in boxes of 125. How many
books are there in 298 boxes?
f A box of eggs contains 1536 eggs. How many eggs are there in
2162 boxes?
6 A hall has 86 rows of 34 seats. How many seats are there in the hall?
7 A machine makes 257 doughnuts in an hour. How many doughnuts

can it make in 13 hours?
8 Copy and complete the following by finding a digit for each *.

a * 6 b * * 9 c * * *
× 7 × 3 × * 3
6 0 * 5 0 * 6 4 8
* * * 0
4 9 6 8
9 A particular brand of lollies comes in packets of 26. A carton contains

34 packets.
a How many lollies are there in 1 carton?
b How many lollies are there in 30 cartons?
10 A power tool company hires out chainsaws at a base charge of $27 plus
$5 per hour. If a chainsaw is rented for 7 hours, what is the total charge?
11 A trolley at an airport is loaded with 15 cases, each with the maximum
allowable weight of 20 kilograms. The trolley weighs 115 kilograms.
What is the maximum possible weight of the trolley and the cases?
12 If 25 people in a club each own 7 pairs of shoes, and 32 people each own
8 pairs of shoes, then how many shoes do the 57 people own in total?
13 Calculate your age in:
a months b weeks c days
d hours e seconds

1I Division
Division is an operation on two numbers that tells how many equal groups a
number can be divided into. It can also tell how many are in each equal group.
Division is the reverse of multiplication. For example:

21 ÷ 3 = 7 is equivalent to 21 = 7 × 3,
and
21 = 7 × 3 is also equivalent to 21 ÷ 7 = 3.
Example 19
Fill in each box to give the equivalent multiplication or division

statement.
a 60 ÷ 5 = 12 is equivalent to 60 = 12 × .
b 24 ÷ = 4 is equivalent to 24 = 6 × 4.
Solution
a 60 ÷ 5 = 12 is equivalent to 60 = 12 × 5 .
b 24 ÷ 6 = 4 is equivalent to 24 = 6 × 4 .
Division can answer questions such as ‘How many equal groups of 5 objects
can 15 objects be divided into?’. This is shown in the diagram below.
There are 3 such groups. The 15 objects are divided
into 3 equal groups of 5, so 15 ÷ 5 = 3.
The diagram also shows that 15 = 5 × 3.
In addition, the diagram shows the answer to the question ‘If 15 objects are
divided into three equal groups, how many objects are in each group?’.
There are 5 objects in each group. The 15 objects are divided into three
groups, each containing 5 objects.

Example 20
There are 60 chocolates to be packed into boxes so that each box

has 12 chocolates in it. How many boxes are needed?
Solution
As 60 = 12 × 5, 5 boxes are needed. That is, 60 ÷ 12 = 5.
Example 21
A box of 72 chocolates is to be divided equally between 9 people.

How many chocolates does each person get?
Solution
Each person gets 72 ÷ 9 = 8 chocolates.
Division with remainder

If there are 28 marbles and you wish to form them into 3 equal groups, then
the 28 marbles can be broken up into 3 groups of 9 marbles with 1 left over.
It is not possible to divide 28 into 3 equal groups, because 28 lies between

9 × 3 = 27 and 10 × 3 = 30. The best we can do is take 9 groups of 3, with
1 left over. We can see this on a number line.
28

0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
This shows that 28 = 9 × 3 + 1. We say ‘28 ÷ 3 equals 9 with remainder 1’.

In this process, 28 is called the dividend, 3 is the divisor, 9 is the quotient
and 1 is the remainder. The remainder must be less than the divisor.

Example 22
Put the quotient in the first box and the remainder in the second
box to make each statement true.
a 26 = ×4+ b 34 = ×3+
Solution
a 26 = 6 × 4 + 2 b 34 = 11 × 3 + 1
Another notation for division

Up to this point we have only used the sign ÷ for division. There is another
way of writing division.
24
For example, 24 ÷ 6 can also be written as 6 .
Other examples using this notation are

0 72 108
3
=0 9 = 8 12 = 9.
One and zero

Any number divided by 1 gives the original number. For example, 3 ÷ 1 = 3,
and the equivalent multiplication statement is 1 × 3 = 3.
Any number divided by itself gives 1. For example, 7 ÷ 7 = 1.
Dividing by 0 does not make sense. For example, if 4 ÷ 0 is a number, then

that number multiplied by 0 is 4. But multiplying any number by 0 gives 0,
so no such number exists.
However, 0 divided by any number is 0. For example, 0 ÷ 13 = 0, since

13 × 0 = 0.

Example 23
Evaluate:
25 12 24 7
a 5 b 3 c 4 d 1
Solution
25 12
a 5 = 25 ÷ 5 b 3 = 12 ÷ 3
= 5 = 4
24 7
c 4 = 24 ÷ 4 d 1 = 7 ÷ 1
= 6 = 7
The distributive law with division

When dividing, it is sometimes useful to express the number you are
dividing as a sum of two other numbers.
Here is a simple example, with a dot diagram to illustrate it. It uses the
distributive law over addition.
16 ÷ 2 = (10 + 6) ÷ 2
= 10 ÷ 2 + 6 ÷ 2
=5+3
=8
Here is another example, this time involving subtraction. It uses the

distributive law over subtraction.
196 ÷ 4 = (200 – 4) ÷ 4
= 200 ÷ 4 – 4 ÷ 4
= 50 – 1
= 49
The distributive law for division over addition and subtraction makes it easier
to carry out some divisions.

Example 24
Use the distributive law to evaluate each of the following.
a (100 + 55) ÷ 5 b (200 – 15) ÷ 5 c 540 ÷ 5
Solution
a (100 + 55) ÷ 5 = 100 ÷ 5 + 55 ÷ 5
= 20 + 11
= 31
b (200 – 15) ÷ 5 = 200 ÷ 5 – 15 ÷ 5 c 540 ÷ 5 = (500 + 40) ÷ 5

= 40 – 3 = 500 ÷ 5 + 40 ÷ 5
= 37 = 100 + 8
= 108
Properties of division
• The expression 96 ÷ 8 can mean ‘How many equal groups of 8 objects
can be made from 96 objects?’.
• The expression 96 ÷ 8 can also mean ‘If 96 objects are divided into
8 equal groups, how many objects are there in each group?’.
• Division is the reverse operation of multiplication.
For example: 8 × 12 = 96 is equivalent to both 96 ÷ 8 = 12 and
96 ÷ 12 = 8.
• In 43 = 6 × 7 + 1 and 43 ÷ 6 = 7 remainder 1, the number 43 is the
dividend, 6 is the divisor, 7 is the quotient and 1 is the remainder.
• The distributive law works for division over addition.
For example: (700 + 25) ÷ 5 = 700 ÷ 5 + 25 ÷ 5
= 140 + 5
= 145
• The distributive law works for division over subtraction.
For example: (700 – 25) ÷ 5 = 700 ÷ 5 – 25 ÷ 5
= 140 – 5
= 135

Exercise 1I
Example 19 1 Fill in each box to give the equivalent multiplication or division

statement.
a 108 ÷ 9 = 12 is equivalent to 108 = 12 × .
b 200 ÷ 10 = 20 is equivalent to = 10 × 20.
c 72 ÷ = 12 is equivalent to 72 = 12 × .
d 121 ÷ 11 = is equivalent to = 11 × .
2 Work from left to right to calculate:

a 24 × 3 ÷ 3 b 10 × 2 ÷ 2 c 36 ÷ 4 × 4
d 56 ÷ 8 × 8 e 18 ÷ 3 × 3 f 24 ÷ 12 × 12
Example 20 3 There are 28 chocolates to be divided equally among 4 people. How

many chocolates does each person get?
4 There are 84 people at a club meeting. The organiser wishes to form

7 equal groups. How many people will there be in each group?
5 The club captain wishes to divide the 72 people at a tennis tournament

into equal teams of 8. How many teams will there be?
Example 22 6 Fill in the boxes to make each statement true, with the smallest
possible remainder.
a 17 = ×3+ b 37 = ×5+
c 13 = ×2+ d 87 = ×8+
e 41 = ×5+ f 148 = × 12 +
7 Draw a dot diagram to show 30 ÷ 8 = 3 and 6 remainder or,

equivalently, 30 = 3 × 8 + 6.
8 Draw a dot diagram to show 20 ÷ 6 = 3 and 2 remainder or,

equivalently, 20 = 3 × 6 + 2.

9 Illustrate each expression on a number line.
a 7 ÷ 2 b 13 ÷ 4
10 Evaluate:
20 20 30
a 10 b 5 c 6
42 81 144
d 7 e 9 f 12
36 100 120
g 4 h 5 i 3
11 Perform each calculation by using the method indicated.
a 448 ÷ 32 (divide by 2 five times)
b 640 ÷ 80 (divide by 10 and then by 8)
c 805 ÷ 35 (divide by 7 and then by 5)
Example 24 12 Evaluate each expression by using the distributive law.

a (600 + 35) ÷ 5 b (300 – 25) ÷ 5 c 390 ÷ 5
d (600 + 27) ÷ 3 e (300 – 24) ÷ 3 f 390 ÷ 3
1J The short division algorithm
Consider 64 divided by 4:
64 ÷ 4 =
(40 ÷ 4) + (24 ÷ 4)
= 10 + 6
= 16
We can set this out as follows:
16
4)624
Example 25
Find 763 ÷ 4.

Solution
1 9 0 remainder 3
4 ) 7 3 6 3
763 ÷ 4 = 190 remainder 3
In this example, 4 is first divided into 700 to give 100 with 300 remainder.
We write 1 in the hundreds column to show this.
The remaining 300 is added to the 60, then 4 is divided into 360 to give 90
exactly. We write 9 in the tens column.
Finally, 4 is divided into 3 to give 0 and 3 remainder. We write 0 in the ones

column and a remainder of 3 at the end.
Example 26
Find 473 ÷ 4.
Solution
1 1 8 remainder 1
4) 4 7 33
473 ÷ 4 = 118 remainder 1
Example 27
If $6755 is to be divided equally between 5 people, how much will

each person receive?
Solution
1 3 5 1
5) 6 17 25 5
Each person will receive $1351.

Example 28
Eggs are sold in cartons of 12. If there are 3775 eggs to be

packaged, how many full cartons will there be and how many
eggs will be left over?
Solution
3 1 4 remainder 7
12 ) 3 7 1 7 5 5
There will be 314 packets of eggs and 7 left over.
Exercise 1J
Example 25 1 Use short division to calculate:

a 556 ÷ 2 b 540 ÷ 4 c 869 ÷ 7 d 4536 ÷ 8
e 8624 ÷ 8 f 4050 ÷ 6 g 1089 ÷ 9 h 5472 ÷ 6
i 1496 ÷ 11 j 78 093 ÷ 9 k 33 552 ÷ 12 l 39 240 ÷ 9
Example 26 2 Work out each of the following, using short division.
a 524 ÷ 4 b 1014 ÷ 2 c 1095 ÷ 3
d 498 ÷ 6 e 4554 ÷ 9 f 431 ÷ 8
g 740 ÷ 11 h 2345 ÷ 7 i 9756 ÷ 12
j 67 543 ÷ 6 k 20 346 ÷ 3 l 19 005 ÷ 7
Example 27 3 If $4250 is to be divided equally between 5 people, how much will each
person receive?
4 There are 542 tennis balls to be packed into boxes of 12. How many
boxes will be filled and how many tennis balls will be left over?
5 A biscuit company packages its biscuits into tins of 96. The biscuits are
going to be arranged in rectangular arrays. How many rows with how
many biscuits in each could there be? (Give four different answers.)

6 If 231 children from a school are to be transported on 7 buses, how
many children will there be on each bus, if the number of children on
each bus is the same?
7 A producer of fine chocolates packages its chocolates in boxes of 6.
How many packages can be filled from a production run of 34 567
chocolates?
8 There are 11 buses available to transport 407 people on an outing.
How many people will there be on each bus, if the passengers are
to be distributed equally?
9 A library of 3458 books is to be divided equally among
7 organisations. How many books will each organisation receive?
Example 28 10 Eggs are sold in cartons of 12. If there are 345 eggs to be packaged, how
many full cartons will there be and how many eggs will be left over?
11 A nursery packs tomato plants into punnets of 6 for sale. There are
457 plants to pack. How many full punnets will there be and how
many tomato plants will be left over?
12 Cans of lemonade are to bound together in groups of 6. The factory
has 4567 cans to be packaged. How many groups of 6 cans are there
and how many are left over?
13 Two thousand five hundred and fifty-two people arrive at a film studio
for a tour. The film studio decides that there should be exactly 8 people
in a tour group.
a How many tour groups are there?
b How many people are left waiting to form the next group of 8?
14 George has 5674 stamps in his collection. He finds that he can fit
12 stamps on each page of his album.
a How many pages can he fill?
b How many more stamps does he need to have 473 full pages?

1K The long division algorithm
The long division algorithm is an efficient and clear way to set out division.
1 2 3

7) 861
–7
1 6 (Bring down 6.)
–14
2 1 (Bring down 1.)
– 21
0
The steps correspond to 861 – 700 = 161

then 161 – 140 = 21
and finally 21 – 21 = 0
The answer 123 is recorded on the top line.
If you think of $861 being distributed to 7 people with only $100 and $10
notes and $1 coins, then the columns tell you that each person gets a $100
note, two $10 notes and 3 coins.
Long division by two-digit or longer numbers is more difficult because

finding the digits to be put in the top line is often not obvious. One of
many possible methods is illustrated below. A table of the 9 multiples of
the divisor is written on the right and then the appropriate multiple can
easily be found.
Example 29
Find 8618 ÷ 27, using the long division algorithm.

Solution
3 1 9 27 × 1 = 27
27 ) 8 6 1 8 27 × 2 = 54
–81 27 × 3 = 81
5 1 (Bring down 1.) 27 × 4 = 108
–27 27 × 5 = 135
2 4 8 (Bring down 8.) 27 × 6 = 162
–243 27 × 7 = 189
5 27 × 8 = 216
8618 ÷ 27 = 319 remainder 5 27 × 9 = 243
Example 30
Find 97 958 ÷ 123.
Solution
7 9 6 123 × 1 = 123
123 ) 9 7 9 5 8 123 × 2 = 246
8 6 1 123 × 3 = 369
123 × 4 = 492
1 1 8 5
123 × 5 = 615
1 1 0 7
123 × 6 = 738
7 8 8
123 × 7 = 861
7 3 8
123 × 8 = 984
5 0
123 × 9 = 1107
That is, 97 958 ÷ 123 = 796 remainder 50.
Note: Once the table is finished, the only arithmetic to be done is subtraction.

Exercise 1K
Example 29 1 Use the long division algorithm to calculate:
a 728 ÷ 13 b 1050 ÷ 14 c 1344 ÷ 16 d 1498 ÷ 14
e 9554 ÷ 17 f 2806 ÷ 23 g 4047 ÷ 19 h 4708 ÷ 22
2 Use the long division algorithm to calculate:
a 2982 ÷ 71 b 578 ÷ 17 c 5244 ÷ 57
d 3268 ÷ 43 e 2349 ÷ 29 f 1743 ÷ 102
3 If $4260 is divided equally among 15 people, how much will each
person receive?
4 If $11 572 is divided equally among 22 people, how much will each

person receive?
5 A piece of string that is 1170 cm long is to be cut into 26 equal lengths.
How long is each piece?
6 6750 tonnes of material for making a road is dropped at 25 locations
along a highway. An equal amount is dropped at each location. How
much is left at each location?
7 There are 5420 golf balls to be packed into boxes of 25. How many
boxes will be filled and how many golf balls will be left over?
8 If 1598 school children are to be transported on 34 buses, how many

children will there be on each bus, if each bus contains the same
number of children?
9 There are 27 buses available to transport 1107 fans to a football match.

How many people will there be on each bus, if each bus contains the
same number of people?
10 A computer program runs for 7568 seconds. Convert this to hours,

minutes and seconds.

1L Order of operations
The following rules are applicable to arithmetical operations.
Order of operations
• Evaluate expressions inside brackets first.
• In the absence of brackets, carry out the operations in the following

order:
– powers
– multiplication and division from left to right
The following examples illustrate these rules.
3 × (5 – 1) = 3 × 4 (brackets first)
= 12
7 × 102 = 7 × 100 (powers first)

= 700
4 × 10 ÷ 2 =
40 ÷ 2 (multiplications and divisions
= 20 from left to right)

4 + 6 – 5 + 11 = 10 – 5 + 11 (additions and subtractions

= 5 + 11 from left to right)
= 16
125 ÷ 5 + 6 =
25 + 6 (division before addition)
= 31

Example 31
Evaluate:
a 3 × 103 b 2 + 3 – 4 + 11
c 3 × 6 ÷ 2 + 6 d (9 – 6) × (11 – 5)
e 42 ÷ 7 + 8 f 7 + 6 × (3 + 5)
Solution
a 3 × 103 = 3 × 1000 b 2 + 3 – 4 + 11 = 5 – 4 + 11
= 3000 = 1 + 11
= 12
c 3 × 6 ÷ 2 + 6 = 18 ÷ 2 + 6 d (9 – 6) × (11 – 5) = 3 × 6
= 9 + 6 = 18
= 15
e 42 ÷ 7 + 8 = 6 + 8 f 7 + 6 × (3 + 5) = 7 + 6 × 8
= 14 = 7 + 48
= 55
Exercise 1L
Example 31 1 Evaluate:
a 4 × 103 b 5 + 7 – 4 + 13
c 5 × 6 ÷ 3 + 7 d (11 – 7) × (12 – 5)
e 4 + 28 ÷ 4 f 64 ÷ 8 + 42 ÷ 7
g 7 + 11 × (5 + 7) h (14 + 11) ÷ 5
i 104 × (2 + 11) j (24 + 56) ÷ (7 + 3)
2 Evaluate:
a (4 – 3) × 5 b 24 – 15 ÷ 3
c 3 × (5 – 3) – 6 d (32 – 16) + (54 – 12) ÷ 6

e 25 ÷ 5 × 5 ÷ 25 f 4 × 11 ÷ 2 × (12 + 8)
g (75 – 45) × 3 + (11 + 9) × 5 h (7 – 4) + 9 ÷ 3
i (11 + 7) ÷ 3 + 8 × (11 + 19) j (11 + 7) ÷ 3 + 8 × 11 + 19
3 Insert brackets in each expression to make the resulting statement true.
a 3 × 6 + 4 = 30 b 3 × 7 – 6 ÷ 3 = 1
c 8 × 7 + 30 ÷ 5 = 104 d 7 × 3 × 2 + 8 = 210
e 5 – 2 × 1 + 23 ÷ 6 = 12 f 6 + 7 × 11 + 1 = 180
4 Evaluate:
a (4 – 3) × 102 b (340 – 140) – 102 c 3 × 5 – (13 – 6)
d 103 ÷ 5 × 5 ÷ 25 e 4 × 102 ÷ 2 × (13 + 7)
5 Perform these calculations.
a Divide 36 by 3 and then add 6.
b Add 6 to 36 and then divide by 3.
c Subtract 12 from 64 and then divide by 4.
d Add 15 to 210 and then divide by 5.
6 Crates of bananas have 60 bananas in each. A market store owner
buys 12 crates and 23 loose bananas. How many bananas does he buy?
7 Joanna has 568 chocolates to give out at a party. She first divides the
chocolates into 8 equal parcels. She then takes 3 of these parcels of
chocolates and gives them to her friend Jane. How many chocolates
does Jane receive?
8 Large crates of soft drinks each contain 56 bottles. It is decided that
these are too heavy so 8 bottles are removed from each crate. How
many bottles are there in 15 of the lighter crates?
9 David divides $4250 equally between 5 bank accounts. He then adds
another $32 to each of these accounts. How much money has he put
into each account?

1M Roman numerals
The numerals we use are called Hindu–Arabic numerals. Other people have
used different systems for writing numbers.

MCMXCVII
The Romans used letters to write numerals. Their system is based on

three principles.
1 The numbers 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 are each written using
a single letter.
I V X L C D M
1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
2 Addition and subtraction are used to construct further numerals.

The numerals for 1 to 9 are listed below.
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
• When I is written before V, subtract 1 from 5 to get IV = 4.

• When I is written after V, add 1 to 5 to get VI = 6.
• When I is written before X, subtract 1 from 10 to get IX = 9.
• The same principle is used to construct the multiples of 10 from 10 to
90 and the multiples of 100 from 100 to 900.
• For example: XXX = 30 XL = 40 XC = 90
CD = 400 CM = 900

3 The numerals for the ones, tens, hundreds and thousands are calculated
separately and then put together in order, with ones last. For example,
23 = 20 + 3
= XXIII
49 = 40 + 9
= XLIX
399 = 300 + 90 + 9
= CCCXCIX
1997 = 1000 + 900 + 90 + 7

= MCMXCVII
Roman numerals are often used to indicate the construction dates on

buildings, the production dates of movies and books, and the numbers
on some clocks and watches. They are commonly used to number the
preliminary pages of books, including the preface, foreword and table of
contents. On clocks and watches, the 4 is sometimes shown as IIII instead
of IV.
XII
XI I

X II
IX III
VIII IV
VII V
VI

Exercise 1M
1 Change each of the following into the Hindu–Arabic number that

we use.
a XXVI b CCV c LI
d CCCIV e MMVI f MCMLXII
2 Write each of the following numbers using Roman numerals.
a 27 b 347 c 3678 d 457 e 2003
f 1948 g 1976 h 99 i 499 j 1856
3 An old book is dated MDCCCXCIII. In which year was it printed?
4 A dedication on an old building is dated MCMVIII. In which year was

the building completed?
5 Work out these additions.
a V + I b XII + XV c XXI + XV
d V + V e XLIII + XLVII f IX + IV
g IV + VII h XL + XC i XXXII + XVI

Review exercise
1 Calculate:
a 226 + 601 + 478 b 72 ÷ 3 c 163 – 136
d 20 ÷ (9 – 4) + 6 e 8 × 321 + 6 f 68 – 42 + 12 × 2
g 382 – 792 ÷ 3 h 268 × (3 + 7) i (96 ÷ 3) + (258 ÷ 3)
2 The contents of a tin of chocolates weigh 6500 grams. The chocolates

are divided up into packets of 250 grams. How many packets are there?
3 There are 4000 apples to be divided into boxes so that each box holds
75 apples. How many boxes are required?
4 A club started the year with 125 members. During the year, 23 people
left and 68 people joined. How many people belonged to the club at
the end of the year?
5 If a bus can carry 45 passengers, how many buses are needed to

transport a school of 670 students to a hockey game?
6 A supermarket takes delivery of 54 cartons of soft drink cans. Each

carton contains 48 cans. How many cans are delivered?
7 On a school excursion 17 buses each carry 42 students. How many

students are transported?
8 A school day is 6 hours long. How many minutes are there in a

school day?
9 Find the sum of eighty-six and fifty-four and then subtract sixty-eight.
10 The manager of the school canteen orders 1000 hot dogs for the week.
On Monday 384 are sold and on Tuesday 239 are sold. How many hot
dogs does the school have left for the rest of the week?

Challenge
exercise
1 Place the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in the circles of the following figure

so that no two adjacent numbers (that is, numbers whose difference is 1)
are connected by a line.
2 A palindromic number is a whole number that is unchanged when

the order of the digits is reversed – for example, 131 and 34 543. The
number 39 793 is palindromic. Find the next 5 palindromic numbers.
3 Complete the following magic square, in which each row, column and
diagonal must add up to the same sum.

19
15
22 11

4 Place the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in the circles of the following
figure so that no two adjacent numbers are connected by a line.

5 Use five 6s and a selection of the symbols (, ), +, −, × and ÷ to write a

statement with 66 as the result.
6 Using two straight lines, divide the clock face into three parts so that
the sums of the numbers in each part are equal.
12
11 1

10 2
9 3
8 4
7 5
6

7 Place the numbers 1 to 9 in each of the circles in the following figure so
that the sums of the numbers on each straight line are equal.
8 Find a two-digit number that is twice the product of its digits.
9 Use the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 and +, −, × and ÷ to make a

number sentence that results in 100.
10 Place the numbers 1 to 9 in the circles to make each of the equations true.
– =
×
÷ =
=
+ =

11 Place the numbers 1 to 9 in each of the circles in the following figure so
that the sums of the numbers on each straight line are equal.
12 To protect his money from pickpockets, a merchant keeps his coins

in several pouches so that he can pay any amount without revealing
how much money he has, just by handing over the correct pouches.
On the first day of trading he has six coins, so he places one coin in
the first pouch, two coins in the second, and three coins in the third.
This allows him to pay any value from one to six coins without having
to open a pouch. The next day of trading he has 23 coins and five
pouches. How should he distribute the coins to ensure that he can pay
any amount?
13 Find the missing digits in the following multiplication.

* * *
× * 2 *
* * *
* * * * 0
* 8 * 0 0
* * 9 * 2 *
14 In each of the boxes below, place any number between 0 and 9 so that
the number in the first box is the number of 0s in all the boxes, the
number in the second box is the number of 1s in all the boxes, and so on.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9


15 Place the numbers 1 to 13 in the circles in the following figure so that
the sums of the numbers on each straight line are equal.

16 It is possible to choose four numbers such that any value between

1 and 40 can be made by taking one or more of these numbers and
adding or subtracting them from each other. Find the four numbers,
and show how the values from 1 to 40 can be made.
17 Using all the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, form two 5-digit

numbers so that their sum is:
a the greatest b the smallest.

Chapter 2
Factors, multiples, primes and divisibility
There are many interesting connections and patterns to be found

among numbers. This chapter looks at some of them, especially those
that involve multiplication and division. These patterns are useful for
arithmetic and calculating mentally, and can be applied in many areas
of mathematics.
Class discussion
Six stars can be arranged in rectangular arrays in two different ways.

3 rows 2 columns 1 row 6 columns
For this topic, 3 rows of 2 stars will be considered to be the same as

2 rows of 3 stars.
Draw rectangular arrays for each of the numbers from 1 to 20. Some
numbers will have more than one possible arrangement. Use coins or
counters to help you find the possibilities. What conclusions can you
make about your arrangements?

2A Factors and multiples
As the previous example shows, it is possible to arrange 6 items into 2 rows of 3

(or 3 rows of 2), but they can also be arranged into 6 rows of 1 (or 1 row of 6).
We can illustrate this by writing
6 = 2 × 3 or 6 = 3 × 2
6 = 6 × 1 or 6= 1 × 6.
We call 1, 2, 3 and 6 the factors of 6 because each divides into 6 exactly.

There is no remainder.
Look at your arrays for the number 12. In how many ways can you arrange
12 items in rectangular arrays? What are the factors of 12?
Arrays and factors

Find the factors of 18 by looking at the possible rectangular arrays that
can be formed.
18 = 6 × 3 18 = 9 × 2
= 3 × 6 = 2 × 9

18 = 18 × 1
= 1 × 18
From these rectangular arrays, we can make the following statements about 18:
• The factors of 18 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 and 18.
• The numbers 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 and 18 divide into 18 exactly, with no
remainder.

Multiples
Look at all the numbers from 1 to 20 that have 4 as a factor. We say that
these numbers are multiples of 4. The numbers from 1 to 20 that are
multiples of 4 are 4, 8, 12, 16 and 20. We say that 4 divides these numbers, or
that these numbers are divisible by 4.
Common multiples
The multiples of 4 can be found in the counting pattern for 4:
4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48, 52, 56, 60, ....
The multiples of 7 can be found in the counting pattern for 7:
7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, 63, 70, ....
If we want to know which numbers are multiples of 4 and 7, we need

to look at both counting patterns. We see that 28 and 56 are the first
two numbers that are multiples of both 4 and 7. These are called
common multiples of 4 and 7.
Factors and multiples

• The factors of a number are the numbers that divide into it exactly.
• Every whole number is a factor of itself, and 1 is a factor of every
whole number.
• A multiple of a number is a product of that whole number with
any other whole number.
• A common multiple of two or more numbers is a number that is a
multiple of those numbers.

Example 1
Represent 16 using as many different rectangular arrays as

possible.
Solution
16 × 1
8×2
4×4
Example 2
Find the factors of 128.
Solution
We can pair factors to make sure we have them all.
Start with 128 = 1 × 128

2 × 64
4 × 32
8 × 16
The factors of 128 are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 and 128.

Example 3
List the first 10 multiples of:
a 3 b 17
Solution
a 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27,30
b 17, 34, 51, 68, 85, 102, 119, 136, 153, 170
Exercise 2A
Example 1 1 Represent these numbers using as many different rectangular arrays as

possible for each. What are the factors of these numbers?
a 6 b 12 c 14 d 15 e 11
Example 2 2 Use pairing of factors to find all the factors of:
a 8 b 14 c 11 d 32 e 25 f 12
g 26 h 13 i 33 j 81 k 30 l 42
3 Which of the following numbers have 3 as a factor?
6, 9, 10, 22, 27, 37, 43, 51, 52
32, 144, 158, 192, 210, 222, 228
Example 3 5 List the first 10 multiples of:
a 6 b 8 c 11 d 13 e 15 f 19
6 Which of the following numbers are multiples of 17?
57, 68, 85, 135, 152, 170
7 Which of these numbers have 72 as a multiple?
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 21, 24, 28, 32, 36
8 Which of these numbers have 196 as a multiple?
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, 36, 49, 98, 136

9 Express each of the following numbers as the product of two numbers,
both of which are greater than 10.
a 312 b 392 c 143 d 540 e 221 f 408
10 List the factors of 12 and 18. Which factors are common to both
numbers?
11 List the first 10 multiples of 6 and 8. Which numbers are common
to both lists?
12 Find the multiple of 7 that is closest to:
a 50 b 100 c 200 d 300
13 Find the number that is divisible by 11 and closest to:
a 100 b 200 c 125 d 50 e 500 f 1000
14 a What are the quotient and remainder when each of the following
numbers is divided into 30? 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
b Write down all the factors of 30.
15 a What are the quotient and remainder when each of the following
numbers is divided into 35? 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
b Write down all the factors of 35.
16 a ‘The number 1 is a factor of every number.’ Explain why this
statement is true.
b ‘Every number is a factor of zero.’ Explain why this statement is true.
c List all the factors of 1.
17 Write down the factors of 6, excluding 6 itself, and then add them
up. Do the same for 28. A number that is the sum of its own factors
(excluding the number itself) is called a perfect number. The next
perfect number is 496. Find and add the factors of 496 to show that
it is a perfect number.

Did you know?
Pairs of numbers are called amicable if each is equal to the sum of the
factors of the other, excluding the number itself. The numbers 220 and
284 are the first amicable pair.
The sum of the factors of 220 is:
1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 10 + 11 + 20 + 22 + 44 + 55 + 110 = 284
The sum of the factors of 284 is:
1 + 2 + 4 + 71 + 142 = 220
2B Odd and even numbers
You will have met odd and even numbers previously. A whole number is
even if it is a multiple of 2. The even numbers are 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, ....
The odd numbers are the whole numbers that are not even. An odd number
is one greater than or one less than an even number. The odd numbers are
1, 3, 5, 7, ....
Every whole number is either odd or even.
From your rectangular arrays for the numbers 1 to 20, you can see that even
numbers can always be represented by arrays with two rows or two columns.
For example:
12 = 2 × 6 20 = 2 × 10
Odd numbers cannot be represented by rectangular arrays with

2 rows or columns.
For example:
13 = 2 × 6 + 1 21 = 2 × 10 + 1
There is always one lone dot.

Odd and even numbers
• Every whole number is either odd or even.
• Odd numbers end in the digits 1, 3, 5, 7 or 9.
• Even numbers are multiples of 2 and end in the digits 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.
Example 4
List the odd numbers that are factors of 12.
Solution
The factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12.
The odd factors of 12 are 1 and 3.
Example 5
Write two consecutive three-digit odd numbers that add to 568.
Solution
568 ÷ 2 = 284
284 + 284 = 568 (Both the numbers are even.)
283 + 285 = 568 (Subtract 1 from one of the numbers and

add 1 to the other.)
Exercise 2B
Example 4 1 a List the odd numbers that are factors of 30.

b List the even numbers that are factors of 30.
2 a Write down all the odd numbers between 20 and 34.

b Write down all the even numbers between 375 and 393.

c How many odd whole numbers are there less than 100?
d How many even whole numbers are there less than 21?
Example 5 3 Write two consecutive three-digit odd numbers that add to:
a 432 b 984 c 1028
4 Write two different even numbers, greater than 1, and one odd number
that add to:
a 633 b 1001 c 2397
5 Complete the sentence by adding ‘odd’ or ‘even’ to make a true statement.
a The sum of two even numbers is an ______ number.
b The sum of two odd numbers is an ______ number.
c The sum of an odd number and an even number is an _____
number.
6 Write down these products:
a i 6 × 8 =___ ii 6 × 5 =___ iii 7 × 5 =___
b Make each statement true by adding the word ‘odd’ or ‘even’.
i The product of two even numbers is an ______ number.
ii The product of two odd numbers is an ______ number.
iii The product of an odd number and an even number is
an ______ number.
7 Olivia notices that writing reflected in one mirror is unreadable, but
that writing reflected in two mirrors is readable again. State whether it
would be readable or unreadable after:
a 5 reflections b 8 reflections
c 15 reflections d 2224 reflections
8 Hosni has lined up all his toy soldiers on a table in front of a mirror.
He counts all the soldiers he can see, including those in the mirror.
Will the number of soldiers be an odd or an even number?

2C Prime and composite numbers
A prime number is a whole number greater than 1 that has no factors other
than 1 and itself. For example:
• The number 2 is a prime number as the only factors of 2 are 1 and itself.
• The number 5 is a prime number as the only factors of 5 are 5 and 1.
• The number 6 is not a prime number. It has factors 1, 2, 3 and 6.
The first few prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ....
The rectangular arrays of prime numbers must be single rows or

single columns. The only prime number that is even is 2.
Two: Three:
A whole number greater than 1 that has more than two factors is
called a composite number. The numbers 1 and 0 are special numbers
because they are neither prime nor composite.
Prime and composite numbers

• A whole number greater than 1 that has only two factors, 1 and itself,
is called a prime number.
• A whole number greater than 1 that has more than two factors is
known as a composite number.
• The numbers 1 and 0 are special numbers because they are neither
prime nor composite.
Example 6
List the prime numbers that are factors of 27.
Solution
The factors of 27 are 1, 3, 9 and 27. The only prime factor of 27 is 3.

Eratosthenes (278 –195 BC) is known as the scholar who
found a way to measure the circumference of the Earth.
He is credited with inventing the prime number ‘sieve’
used in Exercise 2C below.
Exercise 2C
Primes less than 100
• Draw a 100-square chart like the one below.

• Colour in the squares that contain even numbers greater than 2.
• Colour the squares that contain numbers greater than 3 that are
divisible by 3.
divisible by 5.
divisible by 7.
The 25 numbers that are left are the prime numbers less than 100.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

Example 6 1 List the prime numbers that are factors of:
a 12 b 15 c 21 d 32 e 35
2 What is the first pair of primes that differs by 1?
6 What is the largest prime number less than:
a 50? b 70? c 100?
7 Find two prime numbers whose sum is an odd number.
8 Goldbach’s conjecture states that ‘every even number greater than 2
is the sum of two primes’. Show that this is the case for even numbers
from 32 to 62. (A conjecture is a mathematical statement that is
thought to be true but for which no proof is known.)
2D Powers of numbers
In Chapter 1 we looked at powers of 10. The notation for powers is useful

when we are considering factors of a number. For example, we can write 16
as a product of 2s: 16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2.
Written in index notation, 16 = 24, the 4 is the index. (The plural of index
is indices.)
Index 24 = 16

The whole expression 24 is called a power. It is the fourth power of 2 –
we say ‘two to the fourth’. The 2 here is called the base.
First we will look at powers of the number 3:
31 = 3 We read this as ‘three to the power of one’.
This can be represented using a single row

of 3 dots.

32 = 3 × 3 We read 32 as ‘three to the power of two’ or
= 9 ‘three squared’.
A square number can be illustrated by a

square array of rows of dots. The 9 dots
shown here form a square. This is an array
with 3 rows of 3 dots.
33 = 3 × 3 × 3 We read 33 as ‘three to the power of three’ or

= 27 ‘three cubed’.
Cube numbers can be shown by layers

and rows of dots.
These 27 dots form a cube. This is a
three-dimensional array with 3 layers
of 3 rows of 3 dots.
34 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 We read 34 as ‘three to the power of four’ or

= 81 ‘three to the fourth’.
3n = 3 × 3 × 3 × ... × 3 × 3, with n 3s in the product.
A rule for multiplying powers of a given number

To multiply two powers of the same number, we simply add the indices.
For example:
32 × 33 = (3 × 3) × (3 × 3 × 3) 52 × 51 = (5 × 5) × 5
= 35 = 53
103 × 105 = (10 × 10 × 10) × (10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10)

= 108
When we multiply two powers with the same base, we add the indices. That
is, if a, m and n are any whole numbers, then
a m × a n = a m + n.

Order of operations
Order of operations was considered in Chapter 1. An important rule is that
if there are no brackets, calculate the index first. For example:
3 × 52 = 3 × 25
= 75
If there are brackets, work out the calculation inside the brackets first.
For example:
(3 × 5)2 = 152
= 225
Powers
• The powers of 3 are:
31 = 3
32 = 3 × 3
33 = 3 × 3 × 3
34 = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
and so on.
m factors
• In general:
– If m is a whole number, then 3m means 3 × 3 × ... × 3.
– If a and m are whole numbers, then am is the product of a with itself
m times.
m factors
am = a × a × a × ... × a × a
• When multiplying two powers of the same number, we add the indices.
In general, for the whole numbers a, m and n:
am × an = am + n

Example 7
Write down and evaluate all the powers of 4 up to 46.
Solution
41 = 4
42 = 4 × 4 = 16
43 = 4 × 4 × 4 = 64
44 = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 256
45 = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 1024
46 = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 = 4096
Example 8
Evaluate 63 × 64.
Solution
63 × 64 = (6 × 6 × 6) × (6 × 6 × 6 × 6)
= 67
= 279 936
Example 9
Copy and complete each statement by filling in the index in the

box. Use the rule ‘To multiply powers of the same number, add
the indices’.
a 52 × 53 = 5 b 7 × 73 × 74 = 7
Solution
a 52 × 53 = 5 2 + 3 b 7 × 73 × 74 = 7 1 + 3 + 4

= 55 = 78

Exercise 2D
Example 7 1 Write down and evaluate all the powers of 2 up to 210 = 1024.
2 Evaluate all the powers of 3 up to 35.
3 Evaluate all the powers of 5 up to 55.
4 Rewrite each expression in index notation.
a 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 b 12 × 12 × 12 × 12 × 12 × 12 × 12 × 12 × 12
c 5 × 5 × 6 × 6 × 6 d 7 × 7 × 7 × 11 × 11 × 11 × 11
a 62 × 63 b 4 × 42 c 23 × 2
d 52 × 53 e 5 × 52 f 72 × 73
Example 9 6 Copy and complete each statement by filling in the index in the box.
Use the rule ‘To multiply powers of the same number, add the indices’.
a 22 × 23 = 2 b 6 5 × 6 3 = 6 c 47 × 43 = 4
d 38 × 38 = 3 e 76 × 7 = 7 f 11 × 114 = 11
g 54 × 54 × 54 = 5
h 9 × 9 × 9 4 = 9
i 12 × 1220 × 12 × 122 = 12
7 Copy and complete each statement.
a 23 × 2 = 28 b 3 × 3 = 310 c 7 × 72 = 76
d 8 × 85 = 86 e 2 × 22 × 22 = 26 f 6 × 6 × 6 = 65
8 Rewrite each expression in index notation.
a 3 × 3 × 5 × 5 b 62 × 6 × 73 × 7
c 2 × 2 × 2 × 22 × 3 × 3 × 33 d 2 × 3 × 2 × 3 × 2 × 3
e 2 × 5 × 7 × 5 × 7 × 7 f 32 × 72 × 3 × 73
9 Evaluate:
a 32 × 2 b (3 × 2)2 c 4 × 52 d (4 × 5)2 e 2 × 23
f (2 × 2)3 g (3 × 10 3) × (2 × 102) h (4 × 10 2) × (7 × 105)
10 a How many zeros are there in the number 1010 × 10 20 × 10 30?
b How many zeros are there in the number (2 × 105) × (3 × 106) ×
(7 × 107)?
c In question 1, you showed that 210 = 1024. Use long multiplication
to find 220.

2E Using mental strategies to multiply and divide
What we know about multiplication and powers can help us perform mental
calculations more efficiently. It is easy to double a number or multiply it by 10.
Hence some of these mental strategies are based on the fact that 2 and 5 are
factors of many numbers.
Multiplying by 4 and 8 using powers of 2

Since 4 = 2 × 2 (= 22), you can multiply by 4 by multiplying by 2 twice.
That is, you can double and double again. For example:
34 × 4 = 34 × 2 × 2
= 68 × 2
= 136
Since 8 = 2 × 2 × 2 (= 23), you can multiply by 8 by multiplying by 2

three times. That is, you can double, then double once more and then
double again. For example:
13 × 8 = 13 × 2 × 2 × 2
= 26 × 2 × 2
= 52 × 2
= 104
Multiplying by 5
Since 5 = 10 ÷ 2, first multiply by 10 and then divide by 2. For example:
36 × 5 = 36 × 10 ÷ 2
= 360 ÷ 2
= 180
Mentally grouping powers of 5 and 2

You can pair powers of 5 and 2 to simplify mental multiplication.
For example:
25 × 14 = 25 × 2 × 7
= 50 × 7
= 350

75 × 6 = 75 × 2 × 3
= 150 × 3
= 450
125 × 16 = 5 × 25 × 4 × 4
= 5 × 100 × 4
= 20 × 100
= 2000
Mentally dividing by 5
To divide a number by 5, first divide by 10 and then multiply by 2.
For example:
450 ÷ 5 = (450 ÷ 10) × 2 (First divide by 10, then multiply by 2.)

= 90
If you prefer, multiply by 2 and then divide by 10. For example:
450 ÷ 5 = (450 × 2) ÷ 10 (First multiply by 2, then divide by 10.)

= 90
Mentally dividing by 4
To divide by 4, halve the result and halve it again. For example:
428 ÷ 4 = 214 ÷ 2
= 107
Doing several divisions mentally

Sometimes you can make divisions simpler by performing a chain of divisions.
For example:
288 ÷ 6 = (288 ÷ 2) ÷ 3
= 144 ÷ 3
= 48
You do not have to use brackets, but it makes the process clearer. You can
often use this strategy in mental calculations.

Using doubling and halving
Sometimes it is possible to multiply two numbers by doubling one number
and halving the other. Keep doubling and halving until the numbers are
manageable. For example:
34 × 5 = (17 × 2) × 5 28 × 3 = (14 × 2) × 3
= 17 × (2 × 5) = 14 × 6
= 17 × 10 = 7 × 12
= 170 = 84
Multiplying by 9 mentally
To multiply a number by 9, multiply the number by 10 and then take
away the original number from the result. For example:
128 × 9 = 128 × (10 – 1)

= 128 × 10 – 128
= 1280 – 128
= 1152
This works because 9 = 10 – 1.
Multiplying two-digit numbers by 11 mentally

To multiply a number by 11, multiply the number by 10 and add the number.
For example:
128 × 11 = 128 × 10 + 128

= 1280 + 128
= 1408
This works because 11 = 10 + 1.
Mental strategies
Sometimes it is more efficient to calculate a result by using one or more
simple steps than by performing a long algorithm. These steps can often
be performed mentally.

Example 10
Calculate 15 × 28.
Solution
15 × 28 = 15 × 4 × 7
= 60 × 7
= 420
Example 11
Calculate 27 × 8.
Solution
27 × 8 = 27 × 2 × 2 × 2
= 54 × 2 × 2
= 108 × 2
= 216
Example 12
Calculate:
a 52 × 11 b 68 × 9
Solution
a 52 × 11 = 52 × (10 + 1) b 68 × 9 = 68 × (10 – 1)
= 520 + 52 = 68 × 10 – 68
= 572 = 680 – 68
= 612

Example 13
Calculate:
a 864 ÷ 16 b 1250 ÷ 50
Solution
a 864 ÷ 16 = (864 ÷ 2) ÷ 8
= 432 ÷ 8
= (432 ÷ 2) ÷ 4
= (216 ÷ 2) ÷ 2
= 108 ÷ 2
= 54
This shows that dividing by 16 can be done by dividing by

2 four times, because 16 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2.
b 1250 ÷ 50 = (1250 ÷ 10) ÷ 5

= 125 ÷ 5
= 25
Exercise 2E
1 Show your working to make clear the steps you would take to do these
calculations mentally.
a 15 × 14 b 5 × 16 c 5 × 18
d 5 × 24 e 15 × 24 f 15 × 36
a 24 × 4 b 112 × 4 c 532 × 4
d 42 × 8 e 131 × 8 f 504 × 8
a 125 × 6 b 19 × 6 c 24 × 37 d 25 × 24
e 24 × 28 f 32 × 32 g 18 × 6 h 37 × 8

Example 12 4 Show your working to make clear the steps you would take to do these
a 62 × 11 b 48 × 11 c 99 × 11 d 87 × 9 e 421 × 9
Example 13 5 Show your working to make clear the steps you would take to do these
a 150 ÷ 5 b 870 ÷ 5 c 635 ÷ 5
d 136 ÷ 4 e 108 ÷ 4 f 408 ÷ 8
g 264 ÷ 8 h 126 ÷ 6 i 186 ÷ 6
j 1200 ÷ 6 k 168 ÷ 4 l 1512 ÷ 27
a 125 × 32 b 135 × 22 c 2750 ÷ 50
d 1344 ÷ 16 e 367 × 9 f 48 × 5
2F Using powers in factorisation
Prime numbers are the building blocks from which all whole numbers are
made. The building is done by multiplication.
Any number can be expressed as a product of powers of prime numbers.
For example:
12 = 3 × 4 72 = 8 × 9
= 3 × 2 2
= 23 × 32

= 22 × 3
100 = 10 × 10
=5×2×5×2
= 52 × 22
= 22 × 52
We say that 22 × 52 is the prime factorisation of 100 since the primes are in
increasing order.

In fact, every whole number greater than 1 is either prime or can be written
as a product of prime numbers. Also, the factorisation for each number is
unique, apart from the order in which the factors are written. Taken together,
these results form the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.
Finding prime factors

Two different methods for finding the prime factors of numbers are shown
below.
Method 1: Repeated division

To find the prime factorisation of 420, we divide by the lowest prime factor
as many times as we can first, then divide by the next lowest and so on until
the quotient is 1.
2 420
2 210
3 105
5 35
7 7
1
So the prime factorisation of 420 = 22 × 3 × 5 × 7.
Method 2: Factor trees

To find the prime factorisation of 24, we can use a factor tree diagram. In the
first example below, 24 is split into its largest and smallest factors (besides
24 and 1), 12 and 2. Then each of these is split into factors until no further
splitting is possible.
24 24 24

2 12 6 4 3 8
2 3 4 2 3 2 2 3 2 4
2 3 2 2 3 2 2 2
It is not necessary to start with the smallest and largest factors other than the
number itself and 1. Sometimes it is helpful to start with a factor you know.
Different factor trees will give you different factors, but each factor tree gives
all of the prime factors in its last row.

From the diagram on the previous page, the prime factorisation of 24 is
24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
= 23 × 3.
Fundamental theorem of arithmetic

• Every whole number greater than 1 is either prime or can be written as
a product of prime numbers.
• The prime factorisation for each number is unique, apart from the order
in which the factors are written.
Example 14
Express 72 as a product of prime factors and give your answer in

index notation.
Solution
Divide by the lowest prime number, then continue dividing by
primes until the result is 1.
2 72
2 36
2 18
3 9
3 3
1 72 = 23 × 32
A second method uses a factor tree to find the prime factors of 72.
72
2 36
2 2 18
2 2 2 9

2 2 2 3 3 72 = 23 × 32

Exercise 2F
1 Express each number as a product of prime factors.

a 6 b 8 c 9 d 12 e 18 f 24
2 Express each number as a product of prime factors.
a 15 b 75 c 36 d 96 e 256 f 841
3 What is the number given by each of these prime factorisations?
a 22 × 32 × 52 b 52 × 33 × 24 c 28 × 32 × 52
2G Squares and square roots
The square of a number is the number multiplied by itself. For example,

6 squared (62) is the number 6 × 6 = 36.
This can also be shown as a diagram. A square of side length 6 cm has an

area of
6 cm × 6 cm = 62 cm2
= 36 cm2.
6 cm

6 cm

The square root of a number is the number that when multiplied by itself
gives the original number. In this chapter we will only find the square roots
of square numbers. For example:
• 36 = 6 × 6 = 62, so 6 is the square root of 36. We write √36 = 6.
• 25 = 5 × 5 = 52, so 5 is the square root of 25. We write √25 = 5.
Geometrically, the square root of a number is the side length of a square

whose area is that number.
Products of squares and square roots

The product of two or more square numbers is equal to the square of the
product of the original numbers. For example:
82 × 72 = 8 × 8 × 7 × 7 92 × 132 = 9 × 9 × 13 × 13
= (8 × 7) × (8 × 7) = (9 × 13) × (9 × 13)
= 56 × 56 = 117 × 117
= 56
2
= 1172
The square root of a product is the product of the square roots of the
original numbers. For example:
√100 = √25 × 4 √3136 = √64 × 49

= √25 × √4 = √64 × √49
= √5 × √2
2 2
= √82 × √72
= 5 × 2 =8×7
= 10 = 56

Prime factorisation and square roots
Finding the prime factors of a number can help us to determine whether the
number is a square number and, if it is, to find its square root.
Example 15
Find the square root of 2025 by first finding the prime factors
of 2025.
Solution
5 2025 We can write 2025 = 5 × 5 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3
5 405 = (5 × 3 × 3) × (5 × 3 × 3)
= (5 × 3 × 3)2
3 81
so 2025 is a square number and
3 27
√2025 = 32 × 5
3 9
= 45.
3 3
1
Squares and square roots

• A number multiplied by itself is called the square of the original number.
• The square root of a square number is the number that when
multiplied by itself gives the original number.
• The product of two or more squares is equal to the square of the product of
the original numbers.
• The square root of a product of square numbers is the product of the
square roots of the original numbers.

Example 16
Use prime factorisation to find the square root of 576.
Solution
To find √576, first find the prime factors of 576.
2 576
2 288
2 144
2 72 576 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 × 3
2 36 = (2 × 2 × 2 × 3) × (2 × 2 × 2 × 3)
= (2 × 2 × 2 × 3)2
2 18
= 242
3 9
3 3 √576 = √24 2
1 = 24
Exercise 2G
1 Evaluate:
a 42 b 122 c 162 d 172 e 222 f 332
2 Find the square root of:
Example 15 a 49 b 144 c 400 d 169 e 225
Example 16 f 361 g 625 h 961 i 1444 j 5625
3 Complete each sentence by filling in the blanks with ‘odd’ or ‘even’ to
make a true statement.
a The square of an even number is an ______ number.
b The square of an odd number is an ______ number.
4 I am thinking of a number that is the sum of two square numbers,
each of which is odd. Is my number odd or even?

5 I am thinking of a number that is the sum of two square numbers.
One square number is odd and the other is even. Is my number odd
or even?
6 Write each number as the sum of three, not necessarily different,
square numbers.
a 14 b 38 c 45 d 59 e 70 f 230
7 Write 51 as the difference of two squares.
8 Show that 85 can be written both as the sum of two squares and the
difference of two squares.
Did you know?

The number 81 is the only number greater than 1 whose square root
equals the sum of its digits.
2H Lowest common multiple and

highest common factor
Lowest common multiple Multiples of 24 Multiples of 18

24 18
Look at the lists of positive multiples
of 24 and 18. Common multiples of 48 36
24 and 18 are highlighted by arrows. 72 54
96 72
The smallest or lowest of the common 120 90
multiples of 24 and 18 is 72. We say
144 108
that 72 is the lowest common multiple
126
(LCM) of 24 and 18.
144

Example 17
What is the LCM of 180 and 144?
Solution
Multiples of 180 are 180, 360, 540, 720 , 900, ...
Multiples of 144 are 144, 288, 432, 576, 720 , 864, ...
So the LCM of 180 and 144 is 720.
Highest common factor Factors of 24 Factors of 18

1 1
Look at the list of factors of 24 and
18. The factors common to both 24 2 2
and 18 are highlighted with arrows. 3 3
The largest or highest factor common 4 6
to both numbers is 6. We say that 6 is 6 9
the highest common factor (HCF) 8 18
of 24 and 18. 12
Example 18
What is the HCF of 180 and 144?
Solution
The factors of 180 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20, 30, 36 ,
45, 60, 90 and 180.
The factors of 144 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 16, 18, 24, 36 , 48, 72

and 144.
So 36 is the highest common factor of 180 and 144.

LCM and HCF
• The lowest common multiple (LCM) of two or more numbers is the
smallest positive number that is a multiple of each number.
• The highest common factor (HCF) of two or more numbers is the
largest number that is a factor of each number.
Example 19
Find the HCF and LCM of 21 and 28.
Solution
The factors of 21 are 1, 3, 7 and 21.
The factors of 28 are 1, 2, 4, 7 , 14 and 28.
The HCF of 21 and 28 is 7.
The multiples of 21 are 21, 42, 63, 84 , 105, ....
The multiples of 28 are 28, 56, 84 , 112, 140, ....
The LCM of 21 and 28 is 84.
Exercise 2H
Example 17 1 Find the LCM of:

a 8 and 12 b 8 and 9 c 17 and 1
d 12 and 15 e 7 and 49 f 20 and 90
g 3, 4 and 6 h 8, 9 and 12 i 12, 8, 10 and 30
Example 18 2 Find the HCF of:
a 30 and 24 b 15 and 21 c 12 and 72
d 25 and 16 e 36 and 16 f 26 and 65
g 12, 18 and 30 h 15, 6 and 14 i 60, 20 and 10

Example 19 3 Find the HCF and LCM of:
a 224 and 336 b 18 and 42 c 45 and 150
4 Three patients visit the doctor at intervals of 8 days, 15 days and 24
days, respectively. If they all go to the doctor on 1 March, what will be
the date when they next all go to the doctor on the same day?
5 Three swimmers take 28 seconds, 44 seconds and 68 seconds to
complete a lap of the pool. If they start together, how long will it be
before they are side by side at one end of the pool again?
6 A bell rings every 15 minutes and a whistle is blown every 18 minutes.
The bell is rung and the whistle is blown at 8:00 am. How long will it
be before the bell is rung and the whistle blown at the same time again?
7 Anthony runs a loop of a circular track in 65 seconds. Joseph takes
75 seconds to run around the same track. They both start at the same
point. How long will it be before they are at the same point again?
2I Divisibility tests
A number is divisible by a second number if the second number divides into

the first with no remainder. This is easy to see with small numbers: 12 is
divisible by 2, since 12 ÷ 2 = 6.
What about large numbers? It is helpful to know how to test for divisibility
without actually having to divide.
You will already know some of these tests.
• A number is divisible by 10 if it ends in 0. For example, 20, 450 and
23 890 are all divisible by 10.
Think of the counting pattern:
10, 20, 30, 40, ..., 670, 680, 690, 700, ...
• A number that ends in 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 is even and is divisible by 2.
• If the last digit of a number is 5 or 0, then the number is divisible
by 5. For example, 15, 225 and 439 780 are divisible by 5.
The counting pattern for this is:
5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ..., 985, 990, 995, 1000, ...

Divisibility tests for 3 and 9
A number is divisible by:
• 3, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3
• 9, if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
This is because 10 = 9 + 1, 100 = 99 + 1, 1000 = 999 + 1 and so on, and

9, 99, 999 and so on are all divisible by both 3 and 9. For example:
21 = 2 × 10 + 1
= 2 × (9 + 1) + 1
= 2 × 9 + (2 + 1)
The sum of 2 + 1 = 3 is divisible by 3, and 2 × 9 = 18 is divisible by 3.

Another example:
378 = 3 × (99 + 1) + 7 × (9 + 1) + 8
= 3 × 99 + 7 × 9 + 3 + 7 + 8
The sum of 3 + 7 + 8 = 18 is divisible by 9, and 3 × 99 and 7 × 9 are

divisible by 9.
Divisibility tests for 4 and 8

A number is divisible by:
• 4, if its last two digits are a number that is divisible by 4
• 8, if its last three digits are a number that is divisible by 8.
Divisibility test for 6

We know that 2 × 3 = 6. It follows that if a number is both divisible by
3 and even, then it is divisible by 6.

Divisibility tests
• A number is divisible by 2 if it is even.
• A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
• A number is divisible by 4 if its last two digits are a number that is divisible by 4.
• A number is divisible by 5 if it ends in 0 or 5.
• A number is divisible by 6 if it is both even and divisible by 3.
• A number is divisible by 8 if its last three digits are a number that is divisible by 8.
• A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
• A number is divisible by 10 if its last digit is 0.
Example 20
Is the number 493 756 divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 and 10?
Solution

Number Test Divisible?
2 493 756 is even, so it is divisible by 2. Yes
3 The sum of the digits of 493 756 is
4 + 9 + 3 + 7 + 5 + 6 = 34, which is not divisible by No
3, so 493 756 is not divisible by 3.
4 The last two digits of 493 756 form the number 56,
which is divisible by 4 (56 ÷ 4 = 14), so 493 756 is Yes
divisible by 4.
5 493 756 does not end in 5 or 0, so it is not divisible by 5. No
6 Although 493 756 is even, it is not divisible by 3.
No
Therefore it is not divisible by 6.
8 The last three digits of 493 756 form the number 756,
which is not divisible by 8 (756 ÷ 8 = 94 remainder 4). No
Therefore 493 756 is not divisible by 8.
9 The sum of the digits of 493 756 is
4 + 9 + 3 + 7 + 5 + 6 = 34, which is not divisible by 9. No
Therefore 483 756 is not divisible by 9.
10 493 756 does not end in 0, so it is not divisible by 10. No

Exercise 2I
1 Test each number for divisibility by 2.

a 536 b 22 253 c 1782 d 188
a 72 b 236 c 682 d 36 338 e 387 232 f 2389
a 96 b 1128 c 387 480 d 22 500
a 48 b 97 c 117
d 543 e 888 f 70 100
g 8987 h 46 227 i 1 000 000
j 864 468 k 1 001 001 l 2 002 002
a 108 b 342 c 1860
d 33 543 e 58 327 f 123 456 789
g 5652 h 2827 i 3 000 000
j 3 000 015 k 1 357 911 l 31 517
6 Which of the five numbers below is divisible by:
a 3? b 9?
179 792 5838 45 891 19 283 746 556 000 000 001
7 Which of the numbers below divide the number 584 760?
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10
8 Which of the numbers below divide the number 38 190 306?
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10
9 Find the smallest number that is greater than 1000 and divisible by:
a 3 b 8 c 4 d 6 e 3 and 4 f 3, 4 and 5

10 Fill in the gaps in the five-digit number 7 42 to make a number
that is divisible by:
a 3 b 4 c 5
d 6 e 9 f 4 and 5
g 3 and 4 h 4 and 9 i 9 and 10
j 3 and 5, but not 2 k 2, 3, 4 and 5, but not 9 l 3 and 5, but not 6
11 Use the various divisibility tests and short division to help you find all
the factors of:
a 147 b 345 c 2688
12 What are the smallest and largest three-digit numbers that are:
a multiples of 9?
b multiples of 23?
c multiples of both 9 and 23?
13 a Find the number of whole numbers less than 100 that are divisible
by 2 or 3, or both.
b Find the number of whole numbers less than 100 that are not
divisible by 2 or 3.
c Find the number of whole numbers less than 500 that are not
divisible by 2 or 3.
14 Write all the three-digit numbers of the form 2 4, where is a
digit, that are divisible by:
a 3 b 9

Review exercise
1 List all the factors of the following numbers in order from smallest
to largest.
a 18 b 24 c 25 d 48 e 50 f 96
2 List the multiples of the following numbers that are less than 100.
a 9 b 17 c 33 d 18 e 15 f 21
3 Write one number that:
a is odd, greater than 50 and a multiple of 7
b is even, divisible by 5 and between 106 and 150
c has 96 and 72 as multiples, is odd and prime.
4 Write three different, three-digit numbers that are odd and sum to:
a 871 b 903 c 479 d 347 e 1835 f 2851
5 Write down and evaluate all the powers of 6 up to 66.
6 Write down and evaluate all the powers of 9 up to 95.
7 Write each of the following using index notation.
a 3 × 3 × 3 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 b 8 × 8 × 8 × 84
c 100 × 100 × 100 d 7 × 7 × 7 × 3 × 3 × 3
8 Evaluate:
a 3 × 3 × 22 b (3 × 3 × 2)2 c 3 × (3 × 2)2
d (3 × 3)2 × 2 e (23 × 23)2 f (5 × 2)3
9 Do each of these calculations mentally and record your answers.
a 17 × 4 b 17 × 8 c 17 × 5
d 17 × 12 e 17 × 20 f 17 × 25
g 436 ÷ 4 h 620 ÷ 5 i 312 ÷ 6

10 Evaluate:
a 52 b 102 c 132 d 152 e 212 f 432
11 Find the square root of:
a 400 b 1600 c 900 d 225 e 484 f 361
12 Write the number that is divisible by 9 and is closest to:
a 50 b 100 c 150
d 200 e 250 f 300
g 400 h 500 i 1000
13 What are the smallest and largest four-digit numbers that are:
a multiples of 9?
b multiples of 29?
c multiples of both 9 and 29?
14 a How many zeros are there in the number 22 × 52?
b How many zeros are there in the number 23 × 53?
c How many zeros are there in the number 24 × 53?
d How many zeros are there in the number 23 × 54?
e How many zeros are there in the number 220 × 520?
f How many zeros are there in the number 221 × 520?
g How many zeros are there in the number 223 × 520?
15 Express each of the following as a product of prime factors.
Use index notation where appropriate.
a 512 b 1024 c 125 d 500 e 1001 f 17 017
g 19 019 h 4000 i 5120 j 243 k 1225 l 2666
16 What is the number given by these prime factorisations?
a 23 × 53 b 7 × 11 × 13 c 7 × 11 × 13 × 29
d 23 × 33 × 53 e 2 4 × 7 × 53 f 23 × 72 × 52
g 53 × 73 × 23 h 52 × 7 2 i 2 × 52 × 72

Challenge
exercise
1 The prime numbers 73 and 37 have reversed digits. What are the other
pairs of prime numbers less than 100 with the same property?
2 The 7 button on my calculator does not work. Show how I might use
my calculator to work out:
a 7 × 20 b 7 × 25 c 72 × 7 d 78 × 11
3 Any number that is divisible by 18 is also divisible by 3 and 6. The

opposite is not always true. Write down a number larger than 100
that is divisible by 3 and 6, but not divisible by 18.
4 A number is called abundant if the sum of all of its factors (not

including the number itself) is greater than itself. The first abundant
number is 12. The sum of its factors, not including 12 itself, is
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 6 = 16. Find another five abundant numbers
less than 40.
5 The smallest number that can be written as the sum of two non-zero
squares in two different ways is 50: 52 + 52 = 50 and 72 + 12 = 50. Find
the other two numbers less than 100 that can be written as the sum of
two non-zero squares in two different ways.
6 The number 36 can be written as the sum of three cubes:

13 + 23 + 33 = 36. Find the three cubes that sum to:
a 73 b 92 c 99
7 In each part, continue the pattern, filling in the gaps.

a 13 + 23 = (1 + )
2
b 13 + + 3 = (1 + 2 + 3)
3 3 2

c 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 = ( + + + )
2

d +2 +
3 3
+ 4 + 5 = (1 +
3 3 3
+3+ + 5)2
8 Write each number as a sum of not more than 4 cubes.

a 10 b 1729 c 36 d 37 e 51 f 99
g 100 h 152 i 270
9 Fill in the gaps in the six-digit number 12 94 to make a number
a 4 and 10 b 3, but not 9 c 2 and 5
d 5 and 3, but not 4 or 9 e 3 and 5, but not 6
10 The five-digit number 725 is divisible by 72. Find the values of

and .
11 a How many factors does 1 048 576 = 220 have?

b How many factors does 729 = 36 have?
c How many factors does 220 × 36 have?
12 a In your exercise book, list the primes less than 100. (As a partial
check, there are 25 of them.)
b Extend the list to primes less than 200, using the sieve method but
including multiples of 11 and 13, of course. (As a partial check, there
should be 21 new primes.)
c What is the largest gap between adjacent primes less than 200?
d A prime pair is a pair of prime numbers that differ by 2. List the
15 prime pairs less than 200.
e Show that, with one exception, the sum of a prime pair is divisible
by 12, and that the product of a prime pair is one less than a
multiple of 36.
f Prove that there are no ‘prime triples’, that is, that n, n + 2 and n + 4
are never all prime, except for the one case 3, 5, 7.

13 a How many zeros are there in the number obtained from
10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1.
b How many zeros are there in the number obtained by multiplying
the numbers from 1 to 100 together.
14 Write each number as the sum of 4 squares.

a 30 b 71 c 130 d 216 e 630 f 654
15 Write 170 as the sum of the smallest possible number of square

numbers without using 12 = 1.

Strengthening multiplication tables skills
You need to know the multiplication tables up to 12 to work efficiently with

numbers. Think carefully about how well you know each fact. Can you
recall it very, very quickly off the top of your head? If not, then you need to
work on that fact. Draw up a chart like the one below and colour in:
• the multiples of 1
• each multiplication fact that is a duplicate of another in the table
(For example, 4 × 3 = 3 × 4 = 12, so you have just halved the number
of facts that you need to remember.)
• the multiples of 2, because you know your doubles
• the multiples of 10, because they end in 0
• the multiples of 5, because they end in 5 or 0
• the square numbers, for example 1 × 1, 2 × 2, 3 × 3 and so on
• the multiples of 11 up to 10 × 11
• the multiples of 3. (Just double the number and add the number
again. So for 7: double 7 is 14, plus 7 is 21. For 12: double 12 is 24,
plus 12 is 36.)
Colour in the other
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
facts as you learn
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
them.
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 The facts that are

not coloured in
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48
are the ones that
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
you need to work
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 on. There aren’t so
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 many of them now,
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96
are there?
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
11 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132
12 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144

Chapter 3
An introduction to algebra
Algebra is an important part of mathematical language. It helps us to state ideas

more simply and to make general statements about mathematics in a concise
way. It enables us to solve problems that are difficult to do otherwise.
Algebra was developed by Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi

(or simply Al-Khwarizmi) in about 830 AD. His work was also influential in the
introduction of algebra into Europe in the early 13th century.
Al-Khwarizmi was a scholar at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. There they

translated Greek scientific manuscripts and wrote on algebra, geometry and
astronomy. Al-Khwarizmi worked under the patronage of the Caliph, to whom
he dedicated two of his texts – one on algebra and
one on astronomy. The algebra text, Hisab al-jabr
w’al-muqabala, was the most famous and most
important of all of his works. It is the title of this
text that gives us the word algebra.

3A Using algebra
In algebra, letters are often used to stand for numbers. For example, if a
box contains x stones and you put in 5 more stones, then there are x + 5
stones in the box. You may or may not know the value of x. In algebra,
we call such a letter a pronumeral.
Example 1
Joe has a pencil case that contains a number of pencils. He has 3

other pencils. How many pencils does Joe have in total?
Solution
We do not know how many pencils there are in the pencil case, so
let x be the number of pencils in the pencil case.
Joe has a total of x + 3 pencils.
Example 2
Write an algebraic expression for each of the following.
a Adding 7 to the number a b The sum of d and 7

c Subtracting 6 from m d 7 less than x
e The sum of m and 3 and n
f The difference of x and 6 (x is greater than 6)
Solution
a a + 7 b d + 7 c m – 6
d x – 7 e m + 3 + n = m + n + 3
f x–6

Example 3
a The product of 3 and b b n multiplied by 5

c The product of u and w
d The quotient when a is divided by 6
e The quotient when m is divided by 8
f The quotient when m is divided by n
Solution
a 3×b b n × 5 c u × w
d a ÷ 6 e m ÷ 8 f m ÷ n
Example 4
a 2 times a number n, plus 6

b 3 times a number n, minus 4
c 6, minus 2 times a number n
d 5, plus 7 times a number n
e 10, minus 8 times a number n
f 20 times a number n, minus 17
Solution
a 2 × n + 6 b 3 × n – 4 c 6 – 2 × n
d 5 + 7 × n e 10 – 8 × n f 20 × n – 17

Example 5
Theresa takes 5 chocolates from a box with a large number of

chocolates in it. How many chocolates are left in the box?
Solution
Let z be the number of chocolates in the box. Theresa removes
5 chocolates, so there are z – 5 chocolates left in the box.
Example 6
There are three boxes, each with the same number of marbles in it. If
there are x marbles in each box, how many marbles are there in total?
Solution

x marbles x marbles x marbles

There are 3 × x marbles.
Example 7
There are n oranges to be divided equally among 5 people.

How many oranges does each person receive?
Solution
Each person receives n ÷ 5 oranges.

The following table gives us the meanings of some commonly occurring
algebraic expressions.
x+3 • The sum of x and 3
• 3 added to x, or x added to 3
• 3 more than x, or x more than 3
x–3 • The difference of x and 3
(where x is greater than or equal to 3)
• 3 subtracted from x
• 3 less than x
• x minus 3
3×x • The product of 3 and x

• x multiplied by 3, or 3 multiplied by x
x÷3 • x divided by 3
• The quotient when x is divided by 3
2×x–3 • x is first multiplied by 2 and then 3 is subtracted
x÷3+2 • x is first divided by 3 and then 2 is added
Expressions with zeros and ones

Zeros and ones can often be eliminated entirely. For example:
x + 0 = x (Adding zero does not change the number.)

1 × x = x (Multiplying by one does not change the number.)
Exercise 3A
Example 1 1 Joan has a pencil case that contains x pencils. She has 3 other pencils.
How many pencils does Joan have in total?
Example 2 2 Write an algebraic expression for each of the following.
a Adding 6 to the number a b The sum of p and 4
c Subtracting 2 from p d Subtract 3 from y
e The difference of x and 4 (where x is greater than 4)

f 8 less than x g The sum of p and q
h The sum of x and 2 and y i The sum of a, b and c
Example 3 3 Write an algebraic expression for each of the following.
a The product of 5 and x b The product of x and y
c x is multiplied by 3 d a is divided by 3
e The quotient when x is divided by 4
f The quotient when p is divided by q
4 Write an algebraic expression for each of the following.
a The product of 7 and x
b The product of 3 and x
c The product of a and b
d The difference of y and 6 ( where y is greater than 6)
Example 4 e x is multiplied by 4, and 3 is added to the result
f m is multiplied by 5, and 3 is subtracted from the result
g z is multiplied by 6, and 7 is subtracted from the result
h x is multiplied by 4, and 3 is subtracted from the result
i 3 is multiplied by a, and 2 is added to the result
a x is divided by 3, and 2 is added to it
b x is divided by 3, and 2 is subtracted from it
c p, q and r are added together
d The product of x, y and z
Example 5 6 An apricot tree has n apricots on it. How many are left on the tree if
20 apricots drop off ?
Example 6 7 There are 5 boxes, each containing x chocolates. What is the total
number of chocolates?

Example 7 8 There are n bananas to be divided equally among 3 people. How many
bananas does each person receive?
9 John has $w dollars in the bank. He deposits $1000 in the bank.
How much does he have in the bank now?
10 Xiu is 5 years older than Harry, who is x years old. How old is Xiu?
11 The sum of the lengths of the sides of a square (the perimeter) is x cm.
How long is each side?
12 If m boxes each contain 8 toffees, how many toffees are there in total?
13 The sum of two whole numbers is 10. If one of the numbers is n, what
is the other number?
14 John has n cards and collects 20 more. How many cards does John have?
15 A triangle has 3 sides of equal length. The sum of the lengths of the
sides of the triangle is s cm. What is the length of each side?
3B Algebraic notation
In algebra, there are concise ways of expressing multiplication, division

and powers.
Notation for multiplication

In algebra, the × sign is usually omitted. For example, the product 3 × x is
written as 3x instead of 3 × x. If a and b are numbers, then their product is
a × b. This is written as ab. Similarly, we write 3 × a = 3a.
This is done because it looks simpler and because the multiplication sign
could be confused with a letter.
Note that the number is written first. In the example above, 3 × a is written
as 3a and not a3.
Similarly, x × y × z is written as xyz and 7 × x × y × z is written as 7xyz.

Notation for division
The division sign, ÷, is rarely used in algebra. We use the alternative
notation for division, which was introduced in Chapter 1.
Recall that 24 ÷ 6 can also be written as 24 . In a similar way, we use the

6
x x
notation 5 for ‘x divided by 5’. So x ÷ 5 is written as 5 .
Notation for powers

The expressions for powers are written as follows:
x × x is written as x2
y × y × y is written as y3
z × z × z × z is written as z4 ,
and so on.
Example 8
Write without these expressions multiplication signs.

a 3 × b b 8 × x × x × y × y
c 4 × x × 6 × x d c × b × a × 5
Solution
a 3 × b = 3b b 8 × x × x × y × y = 8x2y2
c 4 × x × 6 × x = 24x2 d c × b × a × 5 = 5abc
Example 9
Write each expression using the algebraic way of representing

division.
a a ÷ 5 b m ÷ n
Solution
a m
a a ÷ 5 = 5 b m ÷ n = n

Example 10
Write each statement below in the notation just introduced.
a A number x is multiplied by itself and then doubled.

b A number x is squared and then multiplied by the square of a
second number, y.
Solution
a x × x × 2 = x2 × 2 = 2x2 b x2 × y2 = x2y2
Notation for products, quotients and powers

• 2 × x is written as 2x.
• x × y is written as xy.
• x × y × z is written as xyz.
• x × x is written as x2 and is called ‘x squared’.
• x × x × x is written as x3 and is called ‘x cubed’.
• x × x × x × x is written as x4 and is called ‘x to the fourth’.
x
• x ÷ 3 is written as 3 .
x
• x ÷ z is written as z .
Note that x1 = x (the first power of x is x), 1x = x and 0x = 0.
Exercise 3B
Example 8 1 Write each expression without multiplication signs.

a 5 × x b 2 × a c m × n
d 6 × x × y e 3 × x × x f 7 × 5 × x
g 6 × a × 3 × c h 6 × x × x × y × y i 5 × x × 7 × 3
j 7 × x × 3 × x k 2 × x × x × y × y × y l 3 × x + 9 × y
m 3 × y × y n 4 × x × x × x × x × x o 3 × x × x × x × x

2 Write each expression in simplest form.
a x × y b a × b c 6 × p × p
d 3 × 4 × x e 5 × a × 3 f 6 × p × p × x × x
g 7 × y × y × y h 7 × x × p
Example 9 3 Rewrite each expression using the algebraic way of representing division.
a x ÷ 4 b x ÷ 5 c x ÷ 7 d z ÷ 10
e w ÷ z f q ÷ p g w ÷ x h x ÷ y
4 Rewrite these expressions, using the multiplication sign, ×.
a 5a b a2 c abc d 7a2 e 7x2y
5 Rewrite these expressions, using the division sign, ÷.
x z f w
a 3 b 3 c 3 d z
x a r mn
e y f b g s h p
Example 10 6 Write an algebraic expression for each of the following. Use the
notation for products, quotients and powers introduced in this section.
a The product of 7 and x b The product of 9 and x
c The product of x with itself d The product of 6a and b
e The product of 7a and 3a f The quotient of x divided by 3
g The quotient of p divided by q h The quotient of x divided by y
i x is multiplied by 7, and 5 is added to the result
j m is multiplied by 7, and 2 is subtracted from the result
k z is multiplied by 3, and 4 is subtracted from the result
7 There are x apples to be divided equally among 7 people. How many
apples will each person get?
8 A packet of nuts contains x nuts. How many nuts are there in 5 packets?
9 A small minibus carries 11 passengers and a large minibus carries 18
passengers. If there are x small minibuses and y large minibuses, how
many passengers can be carried in total?

10 Tomatoes are $5 a kilogram and potatoes are $6 a kilogram. What is the
total cost of x kilograms of tomatoes and z kilograms of potatoes?
11 Write each of these statements in algebraic notation.
a The number x is multiplied by itself.
b The number x is multiplied by itself, and 3 is added to the result.
c The cube of a is taken.
d The cube of a is taken and added to 3.
3C Substitution
If we take the algebraic expression 3a2 and replace a by the particular

value 4, then we get the result
3 × 42 = 3 × 16
= 48.
The process in which we replace a pronumeral in an expression by a

particular value is called substitution. In the example above, we substituted
the value 4 for a in the expression 3a2 and got 48.
Example 11
Find the value of each expression if x is given the value 4.
a x + 3 b x – 1 c 5x
x
d 2 e 24
x
f x2
Solution
a x + 3 = 4 + 3 b x – 1 = 4 – 1 c 5x = 5 × 4
= 7 = 3 = 20
d x = 4 e 24
x
= 24 f x2 = 42
2 2 4
= 2 = 6 = 16

Example 12
Find the value of each expression if 6 is substituted for x.

x x
a 3x + 4 b 2x – 5 c 2 – 2 d 3 + 2
Solution
a 3x + 4 = 3 × 6 + 4 b 2x – 5 = 2 × 6 – 5
= 22 =7
x 6 x 6
c 2 – 2 = 2 – 2 d 3 + 2 = 3 + 2
= 1 =4
Example 13
If a = 6 and b = 5, evaluate:
a a + b b a – b
c 10 – a d 4a – 3b
Solution
a a + b = 6 + 5 b a – b = 6 – 5
= 11 =1
c 10 – a = 10 – 6 d 4a – 3b = 4 × 6 – 3 × 5
= 4 = 24 – 15
=9
Example 14
Evaluate each expression for x = 3.
a x2 + 1 b x2 + 4
c 4x2 + 2 d 2x2 – 4

Solution
a x2 + 1 = 32 + 1 b x2 + 4 = 32 + 4
= 10 = 13
c 4x2 + 2 = 4 × 32 + 2 d 2x2 – 4 = 2 × 32 – 4
= 4 × 9 + 2 =2×9–4
= 36 + 2 = 18 – 4
= 38 = 14
Exercise 3C
Example 11a 1 Find the value of each expression if 3 is substituted for a.

a a + 4 b a + 6 c 7 + a d a + 20
e a + 100 f 1000 + a g a + 200 h a + 10 000
Example 11b 2 Find the value of each expression if 9 is substituted for m.
a m – 3 b m – 6 c m – 2 d m – 9
Example 11c 3 Find the value of each expression if 4 is substituted for x.
a 5x b 2x c 10x d 87x
Example 11d 4 Find the value of each expression if 24 is substituted for x.
a x b x c x d x
2 4 6 12
Example 11f 5 Find the value of x for these values of x.
2
a 2 b 3 c 9 d 10
Example 12 6 Find the value of each expression if 12 is substituted for x.
a 2x + 7 b x – 7 c 6x d 3x + 4
e 2x – 1 f 3 + 2x g 23 + 2x h 37 – 3x
i x + 4 j x + 3 k x – 2 l x + 5
2 4 4 12
Example 13 7 If n = 2 and m = 6, evaluate:
a m + 3 b 3m c m + n d m – n e mn f 2m + 4
g 10 – m h 20 – 2n i 3m – 2n j 3n + 6 k 6m + 2n

Example 14 8 Find the value of each expression if 2 is substituted for x.
a x2 + 2 b x2 + 3 c 3x2 + 2 d 3x2 – 2
9 If x = 3, evaluate:
a 3x + 5 b 6 – x c 5x2 + 4 d 10 – 2x e 20 – 6x
10 If v = 12 and t = 3, find the value of:
v
a 6 b v c v – 2 d v – 4 e v + 6
t 4 3 t
11 The cost of n pencils is 2n dollars. Find the cost of 20 pencils.

12 The profit from selling n crates of bananas is 3n dollars. What is the
profit if 100 crates of bananas are sold?
13 The cost of hiring an electric saw for n hours is (3n + 20) dollars. How
much does it cost to hire the saw for 5 hours?
14 The number of seats in a small theatre of x rows of 16 seats is 16x. If
there are 8 rows, how many seats are there?
3D Adding and subtracting like terms
If Tim has 3 pencil cases with the same number, x, of pencils in each,
he has 3x pencils in total.
x pencils x pencils x pencils
If Yuko gives him 2 more pencil cases with x pencils in each, then he has
3x + 2x = 5x pencils in total. This is because the number of pencils in each
case is the same.
Like terms
The terms 3x and 2x are said to be like terms and they have been
collected together.
Consider another example. If Jane has x packets of chocolates, each

containing y chocolates, then she has x × y = xy chocolates. If David has

twice as many chocolates as Jane, he has 2 × xy = 2xy chocolates. Together
they have 2xy + xy = 3xy chocolates.
The terms 2xy and xy above are like terms. The pronumerals are the same
and have the same index. (Remember that x = x1, y = y1 and so on.)
The distributive law can be used to explain the addition and subtraction of
like terms.
2xy + xy = 2 × xy + 1 × xy
= (2 + 1)xy
= 3xy
The terms 2x and 3y are not like terms because the pronumerals are
different. The terms 3x and 3x2 are not like terms because the indices are
different. For the sum 6x + 2y + 3x, the terms 6x and 3x are like terms and
can be added. There are no like terms for 2y, so the sum is
6x + 2y + 3x = 6x + 3x + 2y
= 9x + 2y.
Example 15
Which of the following pairs are like terms?
a 3x, 5x b 4x2, 8x c 4xy, 12xy

d ab, 2ba e 3mn, 5mx
Solution
a 5x and 3x are like terms.
b These are not like terms. The powers of x are different.
c These are like terms because each is a number times x times y.
d These are like terms because ab = ba.
e These are not like terms because one is a number multiplied by
m and then by n, and the other is a number multiplied by m and
then by x.

Adding and subtracting like terms
Like terms can be added and subtracted as shown below.
Example 16
Simplify each expression by adding or subtracting like terms.
a 3m + 5m b 8m – 2m
c 7n + 4n + 6n d 8m + 5m – 2m
e 4m + 6m + 3n + 4n f 7m – 2m + 5n – n
Solution
a 3m + 5m = 8m b 8m – 2m = 6m
c 7n + 4n + 6n = 17n d 8m + 5m – 2m = 11m
e 4m + 6m + 3n + 4n = 10m + 7n
f 7m – 2m + 5n – n = 5m + 4n
Example 17
Simplify each expression by adding or subtracting like terms.
a 2x + 3x + 5x b 3xy + 2xy c 4x2 – 3x2

d 2x2 + 3x + 4x e 4xy – 3xy + 5xy
Solution
a 2x + 3x + 5x = 10x b 3xy + 2xy = 5xy
c 4x2 – 3x2 = 1x2 = x2 d 2x2 + 3x + 4x = 2x2 + 7x
e 4xy – 3xy + 5xy = xy + 5xy

= 6xy

Exercise 3D
Example 15 1 State whether each of the following pairs contains like or unlike terms.
a 6z, 11z b 5y, 6y c 12xy, 16yx
d 6x, 11y e 7yx, 11yx f 16xy, 17yx
g 6m2, 6m h 6a, 11a2 i 6ab, 11ba
Example 16 2 Simplify each expression by adding or subtracting like terms.
a 2x + 7x b 11x – 2x c 5x + 4x + 7x
d 9x + 4x – 2x e 5x + 6x + 7y + 4y f 6x – 2x + 7y – y
g 5x + y + 5x + 3y h 7x + 6y + 2x – 3y i 5y + 8x – 2y – 5x
3 Write down the sum of the terms in each case and simplify by
collecting like terms.
a 5x and 6x b 6b and 9b c 9ab and 6ab
d 11ac and 12ac e 2xy and 3xy f 3xy and 5xz
g 3abc and 5abc h 5x2 and 2x2 i 7x2 and 2y2
Example 17 4 Simplify each expression by adding or subtracting like terms.
a 2x + 5x – 2x b 2xy – xy + 6xy
c 3xy + 2xy – xy d 2a + 3a – a
e 2x + 3x + 5y + 6y f 3x + 5y + 7x + 2y
g 2xy + 3xy + 3xy + 5xy h 5x2 + 3x2

i 5x2 + 3x2 + 2x + 3x j 7x2 + 11x – 4x2 – 7x
5 Write down the sum of the terms in each case and simplify by
collecting like terms.
a 3y and 7y b 6xy and 7xy c 7xz and 11xy
d 5yx and 6xy e 7xy and 23xy f 6ab and 11ba

6 Simplify each expression by adding or subtracting like terms.
a 2x + 3x + 5y + 6y b 5x – 2x + 6y + 2y
c 20x – 18x + 11y + 4y d 60x + 20y + 30x + 5x
e 40a + 20b + 30a + 10b f 100w – 80w + 60w
g 3wv + 4vw – wv h 6xy – 2xy – yx
3E Brackets
Brackets have the same role in algebra as they do in arithmetic. The order
of operations discussed in Chapter 1 also applies in algebra.
Here is an example showing how brackets are used in algebra.
Example 18
‘Six is added to a number and the result is multiplied by 3.’

Write the answer using brackets and a pronumeral.
Solution
Let x be the number. We write (x + 6) × 3, because it is clear that
we are meant to multiply the result of the first step (x + 6) by the
factor 3.
We then write (x + 6) × 3 as 3(x + 6). This uses the convention

that the factor 3 is moved to the front of the expression (x + 6)
without a multiplication sign.
So the result is 3(x + 6).

The multiplication sign is dropped when using algebra. For example:
6 × (n + 2) is written as 6(n + 2).

5 × (x – 2) is written as 5(x – 2).
Example 19
‘Ten is subtracted from a number and the result is multiplied by 5.’

Write the answer using brackets and a pronumeral.
Solution
Let n be the number. We write (n – 10) × 5.
Following the convention that 5 is moved to the front of the
expression, we write 5(n – 10).
Example 20
Evaluate each expression by substituting x = 8.
a 5(x + 2) b 5x + 2 c 4(x – 2)
d 10 + 4(x – 3) e 2(3x + 4) + 6 f 12 + 3(2x – 1)
Solution
a 5(x + 2) = 5(8 + 2) b 5x + 2 = 5 × 8 + 2 c 4(x – 2) = 4(8 – 2)
= 5 × 10 = 42 =4×6
= 50 = 24
d 10 + 4(x – 3) = 10 + 4 × 5 e 2(3x + 4) + 6 = 2(3 × 8 + 4) + 6

= 10 + 20 = 2 × 28 + 6
= 30 = 62
f 12 + 3(2x – 1) = 12 + 3(2 × 8 – 1)
= 12 + 3 × 15
= 12 + 45
= 57

Use of brackets and powers
The following example shows how important it is to follow the order of
operations when working with powers and brackets. Notice how different
the two answers are.
Example 21
Write each statement using algebra.
a A number a is squared and the result is multiplied by 3.

b A number a is multiplied by 3 and the result is squared.
Solution
a 3a2 b (3a)2 = 3a × 3a = 9a2
Example 22
Evaluate each expression for x = 3.
a 2x2 b (2x)2 c 2x3 b (2x)3
Solution
a 2x2 = 2 × x × x b (2x)2 = (2 × x)2
= 2 × 3 × 3 = (2 × 3)2
= 18 = 36
c 2x3 = 2 × x × x × x d (2x)3 = (2 × x)3

= 2 × 3 × 3 × 3 = (2 × 3)3
= 54 = 216

Example 23
For a party, the host has prepared 6 tins of chocolate balls, each
containing n chocolate balls. Two more chocolates are placed in each tin.
a How many chocolates are there in total?

b If n = 12 (that is, there were initially 12 chocolates in each tin),
how many chocolates are there in total?
Solution
a The number of chocolates in each tin is n + 2. There are 6 tins
and therefore there are 6 × (n + 2) = 6(n + 2) chocolates in total.
b If n = 12, the total number of chocolates is
6 × (n + 2) = 6 × (12 + 2)
= 6 × 14
= 84.
Exercise 3E
1 Write each statement using brackets and algebra.

Example 18 a 6 is added to x and the result is multiplied by 3.
Example 19 b 7 is subtracted from x and the result is multiplied by 5.
c 10 is added to x and the result is multiplied by 4.
d 11 is subtracted from x and the result is multiplied by 7.
2 Write each statement using algebra, including brackets
where appropriate.
a A number x is multiplied by 3 and 2 is added to the result.
b 2 is added to x and the result is multiplied by 3.

c A number x is multiplied by 5 and 3 is subtracted from the result.
d 3 is subtracted from a number x and the result is multiplied by 5.
Example 20 3 Evaluate each expression by substituting x = 5.
a 2(x + 3) b 2x + 3 c 5(x + 4)
d 2(x – 2) e 3 + 2(x – 2) f 6(x – 2)
g 3 + 2(x + 2) h (4 + 5x) – 1 i 2 + 3(x + 4)
4 Evaluate each expression by substituting x = 3.
a 2(x + 1) b 5(2x + 1) c 4 + 2(x + 6)
d 6 + 2(x – 1) e 5 + 2(x – 1) f 8 + 3(x – 1)
5 Evaluate each expression for a = 6 and b = 3.
a a(3 + 2) b 4(a – b) c 3 + 2(a – b)
d 3(a – b) + 4 e b(a – 3) + 1 f 2(5a – 4b) + 3b
6 Evaluate each expression for m = 2.
a 2(3m – 1) b 6(m – 1) + 3 c 4(m + 6)
d 5(m + 2) – 8 e 3(6 + m) – 5 f 7(6 – m) + 8
Example 21 7 Write each statement using algebra.
a A number m is squared and the result is multiplied by 5.
b A number x is multiplied by 5 and the result is squared.
c A number z is multiplied by 2 and the result is cubed.
d A number a is cubed and then multiplied by 3.
Example
22a,b 8 Evaluate each expression for x = 4.
a 5x2 b (5x)2
Example
22c,d 9 Evaluate each expression for x = 2.
a 3x3 b (3x)3
10 Evaluate each expression for x = 3.
a 4x3 b (2x)3 c 5x3 + 1
d (3x)2 e (2x)2 + 2 f 6x2 + 1

Example 23 11 Each crate of bananas contains n bananas. Two extra bananas are
placed in each crate.
a How many bananas are now in each crate?
b If there are 5 crates, how many bananas are there in total?
12 Four extra seats are added to each row of seats in a theatre. There were
x seats in each row and there are 20 rows of seats. How many seats are
there in total?
3F Multiplying terms
Multiplying algebraic terms involves the any-order property of

multiplication discussed in Chapter 1.
In this section you will use the standard way of writing powers.
x × x = x2
y × y × y = y3
Remember that you can use other letters besides x and y.
The following shows how the any-order property of multiplication can be used.
3x × 2y × 2xy = 3 × x × 2 × y × 2 × x × y
=3×2×2×x×x×y×y
= 12x2y2
Example 24
Simplify each of the following.
a 5 × 2a b 3a × 2a c 5xy × 2xy
d (2x)2 e (4x)3 f (2x)2 × 3x
(continued on next page)

Solution
a 5 × 2a = 10a b 3a × 2a = 3 × a × 2 × a
= 6a2
c 5xy × 2xy = 5 × 2 × x × x × y × y d (2x)2 = 2x × 2x
= 10x2y2 = 2 × 2 × x × x
= 4x2
e (4x)3 = 4x × 4x × 4x f (2x)2 × 3x = 4x2 × 3x
= 4 × 4 × 4 × x × x × x = 12x3
= 64x3
Exercise 3F
Example
24a,b,c 1 Simplify:
a 3 × 2a b 6 × 2x c 4 × 3m
d 2x × 4x e 7x × 3x f 3x × 2y
g 2xy × 3x h 4xy × 2xy i 2y × 3xy
Example
24e,d 2 Rewrite each expression without brackets.
a (5n)2 b (4z)2 c (16z)2 d (13z)2
3 Find the product of each pair of terms in simplified form.
a 2a and 6b b 3x and 4x c 5xy and 10
d 7ab and 11 e 5a and 2a f 6c and 11c
g 4m and 6n h 7mn and 11mn i 4n2 and 3
j 7m2 and 6m
4 Simplify:
a (2x)2 × x3 b 3x × (4x)2 c 6x2 × 3x
d 2xy × 3xy e (2x)2 × 2xy f 5z2y × 6zy
5 Simplify:
a (3x)2 × 2x × x b 2xy × y × x c (5a)2 × (2a)2
d 4xy2 × (5x)2 e 3x2 × 6y × 2x f 5w2 × (2w)2 × w

3G Describing arrays, areas and number patterns
In Chapter 2 we used arrays of dots to represent products of numbers.

For example:
represents 2 × 6 = 12.
Note that 12 is the sixth non-zero even number. It can be represented by 2

rows of 6 dots.
Any non-zero even number can be represented by an array of 2 rows, each

with the same number of dots.
The tenth non-zero even number can be represented by 2 rows of 10 dots.

The tenth non-zero even number is 2 × 10 = 20.
For the nth non-zero even number, there are two rows each containing n
dots. The nth non-zero even number is 2n.
Example 25
The diagram shows squares formed by dots. The pattern goes on

forever. How many dots are there in the nth square?
Solution
In the 1st diagram, there is 1 × 1 = 12 dot.
In the 2nd diagram, there are 2 × 2 = 22 dots.
In the 3rd diagram, there are 3 × 3 = 32 dots.
In the nth diagram, there are n × n = n2 dots.

Area
The area of a rectangle whose side lengths are 3 cm and 4 cm is 3 × 4 = 12 cm2.
3 cm 12 cm2
4 cm
The area of a rectangle whose side lengths are x cm and y cm is x × y = xy cm2.
x cm xy cm2

y cm
The area of a square whose side length is x cm is x2 cm2.

x2 cm2
x cm
x cm
Example 26
Find the area of the following rectangle in terms of x.
x cm
2x cm
Solution
The area is 2x × x = 2x2 cm2.

Example 27
a Find the area of a square with each side having length a cm.
b If a = 7, find the area of the square.
Solution
a The area is a × a = a2 cm2.
b If a = 7, then area = 72 cm2.

= 49 cm2.
Example 28
Find the total area of the two rectangles in terms of x and y.
A B
x cm
2x cm
y cm
y cm
Solution
The area of rectangle A is xy cm2 and the area of rectangle B is
2xy cm2. Hence the total area is xy + 2xy = 3xy cm2.

Describing number patterns
Algebra is often used to describe patterns that occur among numbers.
Example 29
The nth non-zero even number is 2n.
a What is the square of the nth non-zero even number?

b If the nth non-zero even number is doubled, what is the result?
Solution
a The nth non-zero even number is 2n, so its square is
(2n)2 = 2n × 2n
=2×2×n×n
= 4n2.
b The nth non-zero even number is 2n. Doubling it means

multiplying by 2.
So the result is 2 × 2n = 4n.
Exercise 3G
1 The following diagrams shows arrangements of sticks. The first

diagram has 4 sticks in it, the second diagram has 7 sticks in it, and
the third has 10 in it. The nth diagram has 3n + 1 sticks in it.
a How many sticks are there in the fourth diagram?

b How many sticks are there in the 100th diagram?

Example 26 2 a Write down the area of this rectangle in terms of x.
2x cm

3x cm
b If x = 5, what is the area?

c If x = 10, what is the area?
Example 27 3 Find the total area of the shaded region below in terms of x and y.
y cm
2x cm
x cm
x cm
Example 28 4 The nth non-zero even number is 2n.
a What is the whole number immediately after the nth non-zero
even number?
b What is the next even number after 2n?
5 In each of the following, the area of the square is m cm2 and the
area of the rectangle is n cm2. Give the area of each shaded region
in terms of m and n.
a b c d
6 If x is a multiple of 5, other multiples of 5 can be generated by adding 5,

10, 15 and so on to it. Which of the following would be multiples of 5?
a x + 25 b x + 200 c 50 + x
d x – 15 e 3x f 3x + 20
g 3(x + 20) h 35 – x i 53 – 5x
j 5(x2 – 1) k 5x2 – 1 l 5n – 1

7 a Assuming that b is even, what is the next even number?
b Assuming that a is a multiple of 3, what are the next two multiples of 3?
c Assuming that n is odd and n > 1, what is the previous odd number?
8 If n is an even number, which of the following will be even numbers?
a 2n b 2n + 1 c 2n + 2
d 2n + 3 e 3n + 1 f 3n + 2
g 3n + 4 h 4n + 1 i 4n + 3
9 A rectangle has side lengths 4b cm and 2a cm. Find:
a the perimeter of the rectangle b the area of the rectangle.
10 A square has side length l cm. Find:
a the perimeter of the square b the area of the square.
11 A rectangle has side lengths x + 2 cm and 6 cm. Find:
a the perimeter of the rectangle b the area of the rectangle.

Review exercise
1 Write each of the following using algebra.

a 3 is added to x b 78 is multiplied by y
c 6 is subtracted from z d x is multiplied by 4
e y is multiplied by 5 f 4 is subtracted from a
g 25 is added to x h t is subtracted from 11
i 2 is multiplied by b, and 3 is added to the result
j 6 is added to z, and the result is multiplied by 4
k x is multiplied by x, and 3 is added to the result
l x is divided by a number t and then 3 is added to it
2 Evaluate each of the following expressions, given that m = 4 and n = 7.
a m + 3 b n – 4 c m + n
d n – m e nm f 2n – m
g 2m – n h m2 – 4 i 3m + 2n
j (2m)2 – 4 k 2m2 – 3 l 5 + 2m2
3 The square numbers are the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, .... The nth square
number is n2. What is the 12th square number?
4 The nth odd number is 2n – 1. What is the 21st odd number?
5 Write the following using algebra.
a x is divided by 3 b x is divided by 4, and 2 is added to the result
c z is divided by 6, and 3 is subtracted from the result
6 The sum of the lengths of the sides of a square (the perimeter) is z m.
How long is each side?
7 Kris has $n dollars, Jenny has $m dollars and Anna has $p dollars.
How much do they have in total?
8 The sum of two whole numbers is 24. If one of the numbers is n, what
is the other number?

9 Simplify:
a m × n b 6 × m × m × m c 7 × y × y × y
d 6 × p × p × 4 × p e 3 × x × x × y × 10 f 5 × z × z × z × 8
10 Rewrite each expression using the algebraic way of representing
division.
a x ÷ 5 b 20 ÷ y c m ÷ n
11 Write each of the following in simplified form.
a The product of 11 and z b The quotient of x divided by 3
c The cube of a d The fourth power of x
e The product of 8b and 3b f The cube of 3x
a 10x + 3 b 15 − x c 3x2 + 4 d x3
e 50 − 6x f 10x2 + 4 g x4 h x5
13 Simplify each expression by adding or subtracting like terms.
a 7x + 4x − 2x b 6xy − 3xy + 2xy c 6x2 + 7x2 − 2x2
d 3xy − xy e 2xy + 3xy − xy f 20x + 30y + 40x + 20y
14 Rewrite each statement using brackets and algebra.
a 8 is added to m and the result is multiplied by 6.
b 7 is subtracted from a number d and the result is multiplied by 3.
c 10 is subtracted from a number x and the result is multiplied by 2.
d 3 is subtracted from a number b and the result is multiplied by 6.
15 Rewrite each expression without brackets.
a (3n)2 b (4z)2 c (2n)3 d (5n)2

e (2n)2 × 4n f (5m)2 × 5m g (2x)2 × 2x2
a 2(x + 4) b 2x + 4 c x2 + 3
d 3 + 2(x + 4) e (10 + 6x) − 3 f 6 + 2(x − 2)

17 If x is a multiple of 7, which of the following are multiples of 7?
a x + 4 b x + 200 c 3x + 21
d 4(x + 28) e (x + 1)2 f 700 − 3x
18 Find the area of each shaded region in terms of x.
a 7x cm b 2x cm c 3x cm
2x cm x cm 2x cm 2x
2x x cm cm
x cm
cm
Exercise 3I
a 2(10 – x) b 3(2x – 4) c (2x)2
d 2x2 e (3x)2 f 3x2
20 Evaluate each expression by substituting n = 10.
a 10n + 3 b (10n)2 c 10n
d 3(20 – n) e n f 2n
5 5
21 If a = 20 and b = 4, find the value of:
a a b a – b c 4ab d a + 5
5 5
a
e +5 f a + b
2 2
g a – b 2 2
h 2a – b
5
22 Simplify each expression by collecting like terms.
a 10a + b + a + b b 10a – a + 2b – b
c 20a2 + 10a2 + 16a2 – 4a2 d 4a2b + 6a2b + 11a2b + a2b
e 3wv2 + 3wv + 6wv2 + 3wv f 2c2d + 2cd + 2dc2 + 3cd
23 Find the area of each shaded region in terms of a.

a b a cm
a cm
a cm
a cm

Challenge
exercise
1 Find the area of each of these shapes in terms of x and y.

a b
x cm x cm
y cm y cm y cm
x cm
y cm y cm
x cm
2 Think of a number. Let this number be x.

Write the following using algebra to see what you get.
a Multiply the number you thought of by 2 and subtract 5.
b Multiply the result by 3.
c Add 15.
d Subtract 5 times the number you first thought of. What is the final
answer? Why is it so?

23
x cm 6 cm
B C
x cm 1 2
4 cm 3 4
A D
a Find the area of each of the rectangles 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 .

b Find the area of rectangle ABCD (shaded) as a product of the
lengths of its sides.
c Deduce that (x + 6)(x + 4) = x2 +10x + 24 for all values of x.
d Find the perimeter of each of the rectangles 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 .
e Find the perimeter of rectangle ABCD (shaded).
4 Find: x cm
a the perimeter of the shaded region

3 cm
b the area of the shaded region. 2x cm
3 cm
5 a Find the areas of rectangle ABCD B

x cm
C
and the shaded rectangle.
3 cm
b Find the difference of the two areas
found in part a.
2x cm
3 cm
A D

6 a If a is whole number, what are the possible last digits of a2.
(For example, if a = 87, the last digit is 9.)
b If a is an even number, what are the possible values of the last digit of
a2 + 1? (For example, if a = 86, the last digit of a2 + 1 is 7.)
c If b is an even whole number divisible by 3, what are the possible last
digits of b?
d Is it true that for any even whole number a, a2 + 1 is not divisible by 3?
7 a Fill in this table.
n n+2 n–2 (n + 2)(n – 2) n2
2 4 0 0 4
3
4
5
6
7
b Deduce that (n + 2)(n – 2) = n2 – 4 for n = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

c Why does n2 – 4 = (n + 2)(n – 2) for all whole numbers n?

Chapter 4
Fractions – part 1
In this chapter we look at ways of representing fractions using number lines and
squares. We add and subtract fractions and solve problems involving fractions.
The word fraction comes from the Latin word frangere meaning ‘to break
into pieces’. It has been used in English in the mathematical sense of a
‘broken off piece or fragment’ since the 17th century.
4A What is a fraction?
Fractions are used in everyday language. For example, we

refer to half a loaf of bread or one quarter of a kilogram
of flour.
Fractions are written as one whole number over another

whole number, for example 1 or 2 .
2 3
Numerator
2
–
3
Denominator

The whole number on the top is called the numerator and the whole
number on the bottom is called the denominator. The line that separates
the two is called the vinculum. The denominator tells us how many parts
the whole is broken up into, and the numerator tells us how many of those
parts are taken.
‘u’ in To help you remember, the ‘u’ in

numerator –
up numerator reminds you of the
‘d’ for
uppermost number, and ‘d’ for
denominator – denominator reminds you of the
down number that is down below
the vinculum.
Part of a whole
Fractions can be used to describe the number of
objects out of a group of objects. We think of the 4
cups as ‘the whole’, and one of them as 1 of the whole,
4
so we say that 3 of the cups have eggs in them.
4
Here is another example. We think

of the 5 frogs as the whole. One
frog is then 1 of the whole. In the
5
picture, three of the frogs have spots,
so we say 3 of the frogs have spots.
5
The denominator tells us how many items there are in the whole collection.
The numerator tells us how many items from the whole collection we are
taking.
Fractions can be represented using different models, such as the number line
or regions divided up into pieces of equal area.

Using the number line
Here is how we use the number line to represent 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , and so on.
3 3 3 3
Draw a number line and divide it into segments of equal length. Mark the
dividing points 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on as shown. Each of the segments has
unit length.
0 1 2 3 4 5
Divide each of the unit segments into three equal segments as shown.
There is now a new set of equally spaced markers on the number line.
Name the first of these 1 , the second 2 , the third 3 , and the fourth 4 ,
3 3 3 3
and so on.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
0 1 2 3 4 5
Starting at 0, the marker 4 is reached by taking 4 steps, each of length 1 .

3 3
Now draw a number line with the numbers 1, 2, 3, … marked on it. Divide
each of the unit segments into 5 equal segments as shown. Name the first
of the equally spaced markers as 1 , the second as 2 , the third as 3 , and so on.
5 5 5
0 1 2 5 4 5 10 15
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
0 1 2 3
This gives us all the fractions with denominator 5.
Whole numbers as fractions
Look again at the diagram above showing the fractions with denominator
3. We see that the fraction 3 is the same as the number 1. We can also see
3
that the fraction 6 is the same as the number 2, the fraction 9 is the same
3 3
as 3, and so on.
In the diagram showing the fractions with denominator 5, we see that the
fraction 10 is the same as 2, the fraction 15 is the same as 3, and so on.
5 5

We could draw similar diagrams for fractions with other denominators. That
way, we see that a whole number can be written as a fraction in many ways.
Using areas
We can also represent fractions by shading parts of a
square. We regard the area of the square as 1.
We can shade part of the square to represent a fraction of

the whole.
In each of these cases, the same square is divided into regions of equal area
in different ways. Each shaded region represents 1 . There are other ways
4
to represent 1 . Can you suggest some?
4
Here are some of the many ways to represent 5 . Can you suggest other
9
ways to do this?
5 5 5 5 5
9 9 9 9 9
Proper fractions and improper fractions
We call a fraction a proper fraction if the numerator is less than the

denominator. For example, 1 and 2 are proper fractions.
3 3
If the numerator is greater than or equal to the denominator, the fraction is

said to be improper. For example, 4 and 22 are improper fractions, and so
3 7
is 4 .
4

Fractions
• A fraction is a number that is written as one whole number over
another. The top number is called the numerator and the bottom
number is called the denominator.
• Proper fractions are fractions in which the numerator is smaller than
the denominator.
• Improper fractions are fractions in which the numerator is greater
than or equal to the denominator.
• Fractions can be represented on a number line.
• A fraction can be represented as a shaded part of a square.
• Every whole number can be written as a fraction in many ways.
For example:
4 20 6 9 30 21
1 = 4 , 2 = 10 = 3 , 3 = 3 = 10 = 7 = …
Example 1
Represent the numbers 5 and 10 on a number line.

6 6
Solution
Draw a number line with segments of unit length.
0 1 2
Divide each unit segment (from 0 to 1 and 1 to 2) into 6 segments

of equal length. Each of these smaller segments has length 1 . Mark
6
5
on the fifth marker after 0, and 10 on the tenth marker.
6 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
0 1 2

Example 2
Represent the number 5 using a square with area equal to 1.

6
Solution
Divide the square into 6 equal regions each having area 1 .
6
Shade any 5 of the 6 regions.
or or
There are other possibilities. Can you draw some?
Exercise 4A
Example 1 1 Draw a number line marked in units from 0 to 4, and indicate on it

where the markers for 1 , 4 and 9 are located.
3 3 3
2 Draw a number line marked in units from 0 to 4, and place the
markers for 1 , 9 and 11 on it.
7 7 7
3 Start with a number line marked in units from 0 to 4, and indicate
where the markers for 2 , 5 and 8 are located.
6 6 6
4 What fractions correspond to the positions of the star, triangle and
heart for each of the following number lines?
a
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
b
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Example 2 5 The large squares below have each been divided into 16 regions of
equal area. Shade the squares in six different ways to represent 1 .
4
6 In each part, represent the fraction by shading an appropriate region.

Each large square has area equal to 1. All questions have more than
one correct answer. Give two correct answers for each.
a 3 b 7 c 3
4 16 8

d 18
8

e 5 f 7
4 4

g 2 h 7
3 3

7 What fraction does each of the shaded areas represent, given that the
area of the large square is 1 in each case?
a b
c d
8 In each case, write the fraction that describes the part of the whole.
a 11 errors on a 20-question spelling test
b 1 leg of a chair broken
c 6 days of 1 week
d 3 tyres need replacing on a car
e a 14-day holiday in January
f 4 broken eggs in a dozen
g 43 minutes taken to complete an exam for which 1 hour was allocated
h 7 players of a team of 18 AFL players injured
i 1 digit in an 8-digit phone number incorrect
j of 23 competitors, 19 finish the race

9 Choose the diagram that correctly shows:
a 1 if the whole is
4
A B
b 8 if the whole is
7
A B C
4B Equivalent fractions and simplest form
Equivalent fractions
If 2 kilometres of a 4-kilometre road is sealed, we say that

2
(two quarters) of the road is sealed. We also know this
4
means that 1 (half) the road is sealed. The fractions 2 and
2 4
1
are called equivalent fractions and we write 2 = 1 .
2 4 2
Using a number line

We say that two fractions are equivalent if they are represented by the same
marker on a number line. To show that 1 = 3 , draw a number line and mark
2 6
in 0 and 1. Form two segments of equal length from 0 to 1 and 1 to 1. Each
2 2
segment has length 1 .
2
0 1 1
2
Now subdivide each of these segments into three equal segments to form
six new segments in total. Each of these segments has length 1 .
6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
0 1 1
2
The markers 1 and 3 are at the same point on the number line, so they
2 6
are equivalent.

Calculation and equivalent fractions
As we saw in the above example, 1 is equivalent to 3 .

2 6
There are 2 steps of length 1 to go from 0 to 1.

2
There are 6 steps of length 1 to go from 0 to 1.

6
There is 1 step of length 1 to go from 0 to 1 .

2 2
There are 3 steps of length 1 to go from 0 to 1 .

6 2
We can see that the numerator of 1 is multiplied by 3 and the denominator

2
is multiplied by 3.
1
1 1×3 (3 steps of size 6 to go from 0 to 12 )
= 1
2 2 × 3 (3 × 2 steps of size 6 to go from 0 to 1)
3
=
6
We can also see that the numerator of 3 is divided by 3 and the

6
denominator is divided by 3.
3
= 3÷3
6 6 ÷ 3
= 1
2
To form equivalent fractions from some given fraction, multiply or divide

the numerator and the denominator of the given fraction by the same
(non-zero) whole number.
Using squares
We can also use squares to show that the area representing 1 equals the
2
3
area representing .
6

Equivalent improper fractions
We can use squares to show that 4 is equivalent to 20 . The area of each large
3 15
square is 1.
A B
Shaded area A represents the fraction 4 . Shaded area B represents the

3
fraction 20 . The two areas are the same, so 4 is equivalent to 20 .
15 3 15
Simplest form
A fraction is said to be in simplest form or lowest terms if the only common
factor of the numerator and the denominator is 1.
For example, 2 is in simplest form since the highest common factor of 2 and
15
15 is 1.
However, 6 is not in simplest form since the highest common factor of 6 and
15
15 is 3.
We can use our knowledge of factors and multiples to help us reduce a

fraction to simplest form.
Cancelling
When reducing 6 to its simplest form, we consider all factors of 6 and 8.

8
The highest common factor of 6 and 8 is 2.
We divide the numerator and the denominator by 2.

6
= 6÷2 = 3
8 8÷2 4
We can use cancelling notation to write this process more efficiently.

6 63
= 84 = 3
8 4

Choosing a common factor can be tricky. For example:
105
= 105 ÷ 7 = 15 and 38 = 38 ÷ 19 = 2
49 49 ÷ 7 7 57 57 ÷ 19 3
Sometimes it is more convenient to cancel in steps, rather than finding

the highest common factor. If we do it in stages, we keep going until the
highest common factor of the numerator and the denominator is 1.
30 15
= 15 14 = 5
5
84 42 42 14
Equivalent fractions
• Two fractions are equivalent if they mark the same place on the number line.
• Starting with a fraction, the fractions obtained by multiplying its numerator
and its denominator by the same whole number are equivalent to it.
For example: 2 = 2 × 7
3 3×7
14
=
21
• Starting with a fraction, the fractions obtained by dividing its numerator and
its denominator by a common factor are equivalent to it.
For example: 12 = 12 ÷ 12
36 36 ÷ 12
1
=
3
• The simplest form of a fraction is the fraction obtained by dividing the
numerator and denominator by their highest common factor.
Example 3
Show that 3 and 6 are equivalent fractions by using:

4 8
a squares b a number line

Solution
a Draw two equal squares and divide the first into 4 equal parts
and the second into 8 equal parts. Shade 3 of the 4 regions of
the first square to show 3 and shade 6 of the 8 regions to show 6 .
4 8
When we compare shaded areas, we see that 3 = 6 .

4 8
b Draw a number line, marking in 0 and 1. Divide the segment

from 0 to 1 into four equal parts. Each part has length 1 . Then
4
divide the segment from 0 to 1 into eight equal parts. Each of
these has length 1 . The markers for 3 and 6 are the same.
8 4 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
0 1 2 3 4 5
4 4 4 4 4 4
0 1
Example 4
Fill in the boxes to complete each set of equivalent fractions.

18 21
a 1 = 20 = 25 = 60 b 3 = = 55 =
5 5
Solution
a 1 = 4 (5 × 4 = 20 and 1 × 4 = 4)
5 20
1 5
= (5 × 5 = 25 and 1 × 5 = 5)
5 25
1 12
= (5 × 12 = 60 and 1 × 12 = 12)
5 60
1 4
= = 5 = 12
5 20 25 60

b 3 = 18 (3 × 6 = 18 and 5 × 6 = 30)
5 30
3 33
= (5 × 11 = 55 and 3 × 11 = 33)
5 55
3 21
= (3 × 7 = 21 and 5 × 7 = 35)
5 35
3 18
= = 33 = 21
5 30 55 35
Example 5
Find the simplest form of 8 .

24
Solution
The highest common factor of 8 and 24 is 8. Divide both the
numerator and the denominator by 8.
8
= 8÷8 = 1
24 24 ÷ 8 3
So the simplest form of 8 is 1 .

24 3
Example 6
Simplify 21 .
24
Solution
The highest common factor of 21 and 24 is 3. Divide both the
numerator and the denominator by 3.
21
= 21 8 = 7
7
24 24 8
So the simplest form of 21 is 7 .

24 8

Exercise 4B
Example 3a 1 Use squares to show that the fractions in each pair are equivalent.
4 1 10 2 3 6
a 8 = 2 b 15 = 3 c 5 = 10
2 1 3 15 4 12
d 12 = 6 e 4 = 20 f 3 = 9
Example 3b 2 Use number lines to show that the fractions in each pair are equivalent.
2 1 1 2 2 3 14 7
a 6 = 3 b 8 = 16 c 4 = 6 d 8 = 4
3 Fill in the boxes to show the number by which the numerator and the
denominator were multiplied to arrive at the equivalent fraction. The
first one has been done for you.
a ×6 b c d
1
= 6 3 = 9 17 = 34 8 = 32
4 24 8 24 19 38 25 100
× 6
Example 4 4 Fill in the boxes to complete each set of equivalent fractions.
1 3 6
a 3 = 15 = 75 = 120 b 4 = =
68
=
100
10 1
c 3 = 15 = 96 = 108 d = 6 = = 51
34 102
125
e 8 = = = 2 f 4 = 24 = =
64 16 5 50 100
5 In each part, find the value of n that makes the statement true.
n 25 3 25 3 45
a 100 = 50 b n = 75 c 8 = n
66 10 3 33 n 3
d 99 = n e n = 121 f 108 = 9

Example 5,6 6 Reduce each of these fractions to its simplest form.
2 5 6 4 2 3
a 4 b 10 c 8 d 12 e 6 f 12
3 16 75 18 17 12
g 9 h 20 i 100 j 27 k 34 l 96
25 144 225 364 504 171
m 125 n 9 o 150 p 104 q 72 r 285
27 42 72
s 126 t 91 u 48

4C Mixed numbers and division by whole numbers
Division by whole numbers

Have you ever shared a cake, a block of chocolate or a pie equally with
your family? If the answer is ‘yes’, then you have used division by whole
numbers. If you had a whole lemon meringue pie to share equally among
3 people, each person would get 1 of the pie. You would have divided a
3
whole number, 1, by another whole number, 3, resulting in a fraction, 1 .
3
Sometimes the numbers are a little more interesting. I had four friends over
to dinner and ordered three family-size pizzas. How much did each person
get if I shared the pizzas equally between the five of us? Three pizzas were
shared equally among five people, so each person received 3 of a pizza.
5
Division of a whole number by another non-zero whole number always

gives a fraction. (Note that 2 = 2 is a fraction, as is every whole number.)
1
This partly explains why the alternative notation for division was
introduced in Chapter 1.
Using the number line

When a line segment of unit length is divided into 3 equal segments, each
segment has length 1 ÷ 3 = 1 .
3
0 1
1 1 1
3 3 3
When a line segment of length equal to 4 is divided into 3 equal segments,

each segment has length 4 ÷ 3 = 4 .
3
0 1 2 3 4
4
= 131 4
= 131 4
3 3 3 = 131

Dividing 4 identical cakes equally among 3 people also illustrates the fact
that 4 ÷ 3 = 4 .
3
Each person gets a whole cake and the remaining cake has to be divided
into three pieces. Each person gets 4 = 1 1 cakes.
3 3
Dividing the whole number m by the whole number n results in the fraction m
n.
On the number line, the line segment from 0 to m is divided into n equal
parts, and each part has length m
n.
m÷n= m
n
Mixed numbers
A mixed number is a whole number plus a proper fraction. If a fraction
is improper, then it can be written as a mixed number. As we saw in the
previous section, 4 = 1 1 .
3 3
Another example:
32
= 30 + 2
3 3
30
= + 2
3 3
2
= 10 +
3
= 10 2
3

We saw in Chapter 1 that another way of writing this is 32 ÷ 3 = 10 with
remainder 2.
Now that we have fractions, we can use them to write the result of dividing
a whole number by another non-zero whole number. So 32 ÷ 3 = 32 = 10 2 .
3 3
Note that we can also convert mixed numbers to improper fractions.

For example:
6 3 = 6 + 3
4 4
24
= + 3
4 4
27
=
4
Mixed numbers
• Division of a whole number by a non-zero whole number results in
a fraction.
11
11 ÷ 3 = 3
• A mixed number is a whole number plus a proper fraction.
• An improper fraction can be written as a mixed number or a whole
number.
• In general, answers that are improper fractions should be written as mixed
numbers, with the fractional parts in simplest form.
Example 7
Write 17 as a mixed number.

5
Solution
17
= 3 × 5 + 2
5 5
3×5
= + 2
5 5
2
= 3
5

The division algorithm can be used to convert an improper fraction to a
mixed number.
Example 8
Write 107 as a mixed number.

7
Solution
1 5
remainder 2,
7 ) 1 0 7
so 107 = 15 2 .
7 7
Example 9
Convert each of these mixed numbers to an improper fraction.
a 2 1 b 3 2
2 3
Solution
a 2 1 = 2 × 2 + 1 b 3 2 = 3 × 3 + 2
2 2 3 3
= 5 = 11
2 3
Example 10
Convert 27 3 to an improper fraction.

17
Solution
2 7 27 3 = 27 × 17 + 3
17 17
× 1 7 462

189 =
17
2 7 0
4 5 9

Exercise 4C
1 Use a number line to illustrate each of these divisions.

a 1 ÷ 3 = 1 b 3 ÷ 2 = 1 1 c 5 ÷ 3 = 1 2 d 7 ÷ 4 = 1 3
3 2 3 4
2 Represent each of these numbers on a number line.
a 2 2 b 1 5 c 4 2 d 3 4
3 8 5 9
3 Draw a number line marked in units from 5 to 10 and then indicate on
it where the markers for 22 , 6 3 and 68 are located.
4 4 8
4 Draw a number line marked in units from 0 to 6, and then indicate on
it where the markers for 2 , 10 , 5 1 , 16 , 18 and 4 2 are located.
3 3 3 9 6 6
5 What numbers correspond to the star, the triangle and the heart on
each of the following number lines?
a
4 5 6 7
b
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
c
17 18 19 20
6 Convert each of these improper fractions to a mixed number and
simplify where possible.
11 48 54 44 13 175
Example 7 a 3 b 9 c 12 d 12 e 3 f 100
109 475 308 312 297 412

Example 8 g 27 h 100 i 56 j 35 k 25 l 50

Example 9 7 Convert these mixed numbers to improper fractions.
3 3 3 9 3 5
a 6 7 b 4 4 c 8 5 d 2 11 e 5 5 f 11 9
3 1 2 3 6 5
g 10 10 h 21 2 i 33 3 j 5 4 k 3 7 l 2 8

8 Convert these mixed numbers to improper fractions.
3 11 13 11
a 17 5 b 29 30 c 52 21 d 46 13
9 Find the next five numbers in each of the following sequences. (For
each one, to go from one term to the next you add the same fraction.)
1 1 3 1 1
a 4 , 2 , 4 , 1, 1 4 , 1 2 , ___ , ___ , ___ , ___ , ___
1 2 1 2 1
b 3 , 3 , 1, 1 3 , 1 3 , 2, 2 3 , ___ , ___ , ___ , ___ , ___
3 3 1 1 7
c 8 , 4 , 1 8 , 1 2 , 1 8 , ___ , ___ , ___ , ___ , ___
4 7 1 4 7
d 9 , 9 , 1 9 , 1 9 , 1 9 , ___ , ___ , ___ , ___ , ___
10 Share these 3 chocolate bars equally among 4 friends. What fraction of

a whole chocolate bar will each person get?
4D Comparison of fractions
A number is greater than another if it lies to the right of that number on

the number line.
If two fractions have the same denominator, then it is easy to decide which
is the larger of the two. In the following diagram, we can see that 3 > 1 ,
5 5
and 7 > 4 .
5 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
0 1 2
Using common denominators
Sometimes it is more difficult to see which of two fractions is larger. For

example, it is not easy to see whether 5 is larger than 3 . We need a more
7 4
general method.

To compare 2 and 4 , we first find a common denominator. The lowest
3 5
common denominator is the lowest common multiple of the two
denominators, which in this example is 15.
We then find equivalent fractions for 2 and 4 with a denominator of 15.

3 5
2 2×5 10
3
= 3 × 5 = 15
4 4×3 12
5
= 5 × 3 = 15
12
is larger than 10 , so 4 is larger than 2 .
15 15 5 3
We can picture what we have just discovered on a number line. Consider

the equivalent fractions with a denominator of 15.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
1 1 2 3 2 4
0 5 3 5 5 3 5 1
Comparing fractions
• If two fractions have the same denominator, then the one with the
larger numerator is the larger fraction.
• If two fractions have different denominators, then to compare them
we find equivalent fractions with a common denominator and compare
the numerators.
Example 11
a Which is larger, 5 or 6 ? b Which is smaller, 6 or 7 ?

9 11 7 9
Solution
a The lowest common multiple of 9 and 11 is 99.
5
= 55 and 6
= 54
9 99 11 99
Clearly 55 > 54 , so 5 > 6 .

99 99 9 11

b The lowest common multiple of 7 and 9 is 63.
6 = 54 and 7
= 49
7 63 9 63
49
< 54 so 7
< 6
.
63 63 9 7
Example 12
Which is larger, 2 or 4 ?
3 5
Solution
2
is 1 below 1, and 4 is 1 below 1, so 4 is larger than 2 .
3 3 5 5 5 3
This can be seen on the number line.

1
1 2 3 4
5
5 5 5 5
0 1 2 1
3 3
1
3
Alternatively, 2 = 10 < 12 = 4 .
3 15 15 5
Example 13
Order these fractions from smallest to largest.

1 3 5 5 7 7
, , , , ,
2 4 8 12 24 12
Solution
The lowest common multiple of 2, 4, 8 and 24 is 24.
1
= 12 , 3 = 18 , 5 = 15 , 5 = 10 , 7 = 7 , 7 = 14
2 24 4 24 8 24 12 24 24 24 12 24
Arranging from smallest to largest gives

7 10 12 14 15 18
, , , , ,
24 24 24 24 24 24
so the order of the original fractions is 7 , 5 , 1 , 7 , 5 , 3 .

24 12 2 12 8 4

Exercise 4D
1 Write a fraction that is:

a nearly 8 b close to one half
c a bit more than one quarter
Example 11 2 Find which fraction is larger in each case.

5 6 13 5 11 13
a 7 or 8 b 5 or 2 c 7 or 6
5 12 7 5 9 11
d 2 or 5 e 8 or 6 f 6 or 7
3 Express the following improper fractions as mixed numbers, and then
decide which of each pair is larger.
13 17 21 47 12 3
a 6 and 8 b 4 and 8 c 11 and 2
107 57 130 101 143 143

d 25 and 14 e 64 and 50 f 12 and 13
4 Compare these fractions by finding a common denominator.
Which is smaller?
2 5 9 8 8 1
a 3 or 6 b 8 or 7 c 17 or 2
1 4 4 17
d 8 or 24 e 6 or 27
Example 13 5 Order each set of fractions from smallest to largest.

3 9 10 1 3 4 8 9 3 5 5
a 4 , 8 , 8 , 4 , 8 , 1 b 3 , 9 , 6 , 6 , 3 , 6
2
4 1 19 21 4 11 7 3 3 3 5 5
c 5 , 3 , 10 , 15 , 3 , 6 d 8 , 4 , 5 , 7 , 6 , 9
1 1 3 4 7 8 3 2 3 7 11 23
e 3 , 4 , 5 , 11 , 12 , 16 f 4 , 5 , 8 , 10 , 20 , 40

6 Write a fraction that is between:
1 5 2 3 5 81 38
a 4 and 8 b 3 and 1 c 5 and 3 d 10 and 5

4E Addition and subtraction of fractions
Like other numbers, fractions can be added or subtracted.
Addition of fractions
Fractions that are to be added may have the same or different
denominators. Just as with whole numbers, we can represent addition of
fractions by taking steps on a number line.
Same denominators
Addition is easy if the denominators are the same. For example, to find
4
+ 1 , you take a step of 4 followed by a step of 1 to arrive at 5 .
3 3 3 3 3
4
3
1
3
1 2 4 5 7
0
3 3

1 3 2
3 3
When the denominators of the fractions to be added are the same, simply
add the numerators.
4
+1=5
3 3 3
Different denominators
When the denominators are different, a little preliminary work needs to be done.
First, you need to use equivalent fractions with a common denominator to

choose the right step size.
1 1
For example, to find 2 + 3 , first find a common denominator. Look at the
multiples of 2 and the multiples of 3 until you find the lowest common
multiple. In this case it is 6. Convert 1 and 1 into equivalent fractions with
2 3
6 as the denominator.
1
= 1×3 = 3
2 2×3 6
1
= 1×2 = 2
3 3×2 6

So 1 = 3 and 1 = 2 . Now the fractions have the same denominator, and
2 6 3 6
you can add, as in the previous example.
1 1 3 2
2
+3=6+6

5
=6
This can be shown on the number line.

1
2 1
3
1 1 2
1
3 2 3
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 6 6 6 6 6 6
If you take a step of length 1 and then a step of length 1 , you arrive at
2 3
the same marker on the number line as when you take 3 steps of length 1
6
followed by 2 steps of length 1 .
6
Here you have used the LCM to form the two equivalent fractions 3 and 2 .
6 6
You should always do this when adding fractions with different
denominators. For example:
5
+ 3 = 25 + 9
6 10 30 30
34
=
30
= 14
30
= 12
15
Subtraction of fractions
As with whole numbers, if we want to subtract one fraction from a larger
fraction, we can imagine this as taking a step to the left on the number line.
Same denominators
As with addition of fractions, subtraction of fractions with the same
denominator is easy.

The statement 5 – 4 = 1 means ‘I take 4 from 5 and I have 1 left.’.
3 3 3 3 3 3
4
3
1 2 4 5 7
0 3 3

1 3 3 2 3
When the denominators of the fractions to be subtracted are the same,

simply subtract the second numerator from the first.
5
– 4 = 1 , 11 – 7 = 4 and so on.
3 3 3 13 13 13
Different denominators
It is possible to represent the subtraction of fractions such as 3 – 1 = 1 on
4 2 4
a number line.
1 2
=
2 4
1 1 3
0 4 2 4 1
The subtraction 3 – 1 can be written as 3 – 2 . The statement 3 – 1 = 1

4 2 4 4 4 2 4
means ‘I take 1 from 3 and I have 1 left.’.
2 4 4
The techniques developed for addition may now be extended to

subtraction. When the denominators of two fractions in a subtraction
are different, first find equivalent fractions for each with a common
denominator, and then subtract the second numerator from the first.
For example:
3
– 1 = 3 – 2
4 2 4 4
1
=
4

Addition and subtraction of fractions
• To add two fractions when the denominators are the same, we use the
common denominator and add the numerators. For example:
2 4 6
7
+ 7 = 7
• To add two fractions when the denominators are not the same, we first
find equivalent fractions with the lowest common denominator. We
then proceed as for fractions with the same denominator. For example:
2 1 4 3
3
+ 2 = 6 + 6
7
= 6

1
= 16

• To subtract one fraction from another when the denominators are the
same, we use the common denominator and subtract the numerators.
For example:
4 2 2
7
– 7 = 7
• To subtract one fraction from another when the denominators are

not the same, we first find equivalent fractions with the lowest
common denominator. We then proceed as for fractions with the
same denominator. For example:
2 1 4 3
3
– 2 = 6 – 6
1
= 6

Example 14
a Find 7 + 3 . b Find 1 + 3 . c Find 7 + 2 .
15 15 6 4 15 3
Solution
a 7 + 3 = 10
15 15 15
2
=
3

b 1 + 3 = 2 + 9 (The LCM of 6 and 4 is 12.)
6 4 12 12
11
=
12
c 7 + 2 = 7 + 10 (The LCM of 15 and 3 is 15.)

15 3 15 15
17
=
15
= 12
15
Example 15
Find 3 – 1 .
8 8
Solution
3
– 1 = 2
8 8 8
1
=
4
Example 16
a Find 5 – 4 . b Find 11 – 3 . c Find 4 – 17 .

12 15 12 8 5 65
Solution
a 5 – 4 = 25 – 16 b 11 – 3 = 22 – 9 c 4 – 17 = 52 – 17
12 15 60 60 12 8 24 24 5 65 65 65
9
= = 13 = 35
60 24 65
3 7
= =
20 13

Example 17
Find 2 3 + 1 7 .
4 8
Solution
Deal with the whole numbers first, then find a common denominator.
2 3 + 1 7 = 2 + 1 + 3 + 7
4 8 4 8
3 7
=3+ + Now add 3 and 7 .
4 8 4 8
6 7
=3+ +
8 8
13
=3+
8
=3+ 15
8
= 45
8
Subtraction of mixed numbers will be considered in a later section of this

chapter.
Exercise 4E
1 Use a number line to illustrate what is meant by:

a 3 + 1 b 4 + 1 c 7 + 3
4 2 5 10 8 4
Example 14a 2 Evaluate:
a 2 + 1 b 5 + 8 c 32 + 41
4 4 16 16 100 100
Example
14b,c 3 Find a common denominator and then perform each addition.
a 2 + 3 b 1 + 3 c 3 + 1 d 5 + 1
5 10 3 6 4 8 6 12
e 17 + 3 f 11 + 4 g 13 + 4 h 43 + 14
25 5 30 6 21 7 75 25
i 3 + 1 j 3 + 3 k 1 + 3 l 7 + 3
4 3 5 4 3 10 12 8

4 Perform these additions, writing your answers as mixed numbers.
a 3 + 7 b 2 + 5 c 3 + 8
4 8 3 6 5 10
5
d + 7 e 12 + 3 f 11
+ 1
6 12 15 5 12 3
11
g + 8 h 21 + 4 i 20
+ 5
30 12 25 5 21 7
62 19 3 2 3 7
j + k + l +
75 25 4 3 5 8
m 2 + 7 n 9 + 5 o 13 + 7
3 10 13 8 17 8
Example 15 5 Calculate:
a 6 – 5 b 8 – 7 c 43 – 27
8 8 12 12 100 100
Example 16 d 1 – 1 e 3 – 1 f 8 – 7
4 8 4 8 3 6
g 3 – 3 h 5 – 13 i 4 – 7
5 10 6 18 3 6
j 4 – 8 k 4 – 1 l 3 – 1
5 15 5 7 4 6
m 17 – 8 n 7 – 2 o 11 – 4
20 15 8 9 6 5
6 a Find two different fractions that add to give 1.

b Find two fractions that add to give 1 .
3
c Find three fractions that add to give an answer between 2 and 3.
7 What do you have to add to each of these fractions to make 1?
a 3 b 12 c 19 d 43
7 16 32 144
Example 17 8 Perform these additions. Give your answers as mixed numbers.

a 2 1 + 1 1 b 2 2 + 3 3 c 3 2 + 4 1
4 4 5 5 12 3
d 4 5 + 1 2 e 8 4 + 3 3 f 3 12 + 4 3
6 3 21 7 25 5
g 2 2 + 2 4 h 1 2 + 3 3 i 8 2 + 5 2
3 5 3 4 5 8

4F Word problems involving addition and
subtraction
As with any kind of word problem, ask yourself: ‘What am I being asked to
do here? What mathematics should I use to solve this?’
Here are some of the different types of word problems.
‘What fraction do I have in total?’

Example 18
a Jane has 2 of a litre of water in a jug and then pours in 1 of a

3 5
litre. How much water is in the jug now?
b Max ate 3 of a pizza for dinner and then had 1 of the same
8 2
pizza for breakfast the next day. How much of the pizza did
Max eat in total?
Solution
a This is an addition.
1
+ 2 = 3 + 10
5 3 15 15
3 + 10
=
15
13
=
15
There is now 13 of a litre of water in the jug.

15
b This is also an addition.

3 + 1 = 3 + 4
8 2 8 8
7
=
8
Max ate 7 of the pizza.

8

‘How much more do I need to have?’ or ‘What is the difference?’
Example 19
a I have a length of tape and cut off 2 of it. What fraction of the
7
tape do I have left?
b Fran devotes 1 of the day to schoolwork and she spends 1 of

3 5
the day watching television. As a fraction of the day, how much
more time is spent on schoolwork than on television?
Solution
a 1 – 2 = 7 – 2
7 7 7
= 5
7
There is 5 of the tape left.
7
b This is a difference question.
1 – 1 = 5 – 3
3 5 15 15
2
=
15
The difference in time is 2 of a day.

15
Fran spends 2 of a day more doing schoolwork than

15
watching television.
Exercise 4F
Example 18 1 A jug has 2 of a litre of water in it. David pours 1 of a litre of water
5 3
into the jug. How much water is in the jug now?
2 A family travelling to Sale cover one-third of the journey before 1:00 pm
and a further one-quarter of the journey between 1:00 pm and 2:00 pm.
What fraction of the journey have they travelled by 2:00 pm?

3 Two-thirds of the tiles on a veranda are brown and one-quarter of the
tiles are black. What fraction of the tiles are either black or brown?
4 In a class, 1 of the students are 12 years old and 1 of the students are
3 5
11 years old. What fraction of the students in the class are either 11 or
12 years old?
5 A boy has 3 of a litre of milk and his friend has 2 of a litre of milk.
10 5
How much milk do they have in total?
6 A girl has 1 litre of soft drink and lets her friend drink 2 of it. How
5
much soft drink is left?
Example 19a 7 The sum of two fractions is 11 . One of the fractions is 1 . What is the
9 3
other fraction?
8 The underground petrol tank at service station was filled. Twenty-four
hours later it was 7 full. What fraction of the petrol in the tank had
10
been sold?
9 The difference of two fractions is 1 . The larger of the fractions is 7 .
4 8
What is the smaller of the two fractions?
10 When a particular fraction is added to itself, the result is 1 . What is the
3
original fraction?
11 A unit square is subdivided into 16 squares of equal area. Seven of
these squares are painted blue and the remainder are painted red.
What fraction of the unit square is red?
12 A rectangular chocolate block is broken into 24 equal pieces.
Samantha takes 5 of these pieces and Jacob takes 6 of them.
What fraction of the original chocolate block is left?
13 Patricia takes 2 slices of a pie that was cut into 7 equal slices, and
3 slices of another identical pie that was cut into 9 equal slices.
a What fraction of the first pie did she take?
b What fraction of the second pie did she take?
c What fraction of a pie would she have if she put the slices together?

14 A box contains different coloured glass balls. One-third of the balls are
5
green and 12 of the balls are blue.
a What fraction of the balls are either blue or green?
b What fraction of the balls are neither blue nor green?
1 1
15 In a packet of jellybeans, 3 of the jellybeans are purple, 12 are black
1
and 4 are red.
a What fraction of the jellybeans are either purple or black?
b What fraction of the jellybeans are either purple or red?
c What fraction of the jellybeans are purple or red or black?
d What fraction of the jellybeans are not purple or red or black?
1
16 In a game of Australian football, a team scored 6 of its total points
2 5
in the first quarter, 9 of its points in the second quarter and 27 of its
points in the third quarter.
a What fraction of the team’s points were scored in the first two
quarters?
b What fraction of the team’s points were scored in the first three
quarters?
c What fraction of the team’s points were scored in the final quarter?
1
17 A snail crawling up a post crawls 12 of its length in the first minute,
1 1
8
in the second minute and 6 in the third minute.
a What fraction of the length of the post has the snail crawled up after
2 minutes?
b What fraction of the length of the post has the snail crawled up after
3 minutes?
c What fraction of the length of the post remains for the snail to crawl
up after 3 minutes?
1
18 Four friends split a restaurant bill. The first paid 4 of the bill, the
1 1
second 5 and the third 6 . What fraction of the bill did the fourth pay?

4G Subtraction of mixed numbers
We have learnt how to add mixed numbers earlier. We can subtract mixed
numbers in two ways. In the first method, we deal with the whole numbers
first. In the second, we convert to improper fractions with the same
denominator.
Example 20
What is 3 1 – 2 2 ?
2 5
Solution
Method 1
3 1 – 2 2 = 3 + 1 – 2 + 2
2 5 5 2
1 2
=3–2+ –
2 5
= 1 + 1 – 2
2 5
=1+ 5 – 4 (Find the common denominator.)

10 10
1
=1
10
Method 2
3 1 – 2 2 = 7 – 12
2 5 2 5
7 × 5 12 × 2
= – (Find the common denominator.)
2×5 5×2
35 24
= –
10 10
11
=
10
= 11
10

If the first proper fraction is smaller than the second, then an additional
step is needed in Method 1, as shown below.
Example 21
Calculate 4 1 – 2 1 .
6 2
Solution
Method 1
Deal with the whole numbers first.
4 1 – 2 1 = 3 + 7 – 2 1 Replace 4 by 3 + 1 = 3 + 6 ,
6 2 6 2 6
1 1
because is larger than .
2 6
=3+ 7 –2– 1
6 2
=3–2+ 7 – 3
6 6
7 3
=1+ –
6 6
= 14
6
= 12
3
Method 2
Convert to improper fractions.
4 1 – 2 1 = 25 – 5
6 2 6 2
= 25 – 5×3
(Find the common denominator.)
6 2×3
= 25 – 15
6 6
10
=
6
= 14
6
= 12
3

Exercise 4G
1 Perform these subtractions, giving your answers as mixed fractions in

simplest form where possible.
a 4 4 – 3 3 b 3 8 – 2 5 c 11 1 – 7 3
5 5 9 9 4 4
d 8 7 – 31 e 5 1 – 33 f 5
3 –2 1
8 2 2 4 8 2
g 8 2 – 31 h 6 7 – 63 i 4 1 – 37
5 4 8 5 20 8
2 Calculate each difference.

a 1 1 – 7 b 1 1 – 1 c 1 1 – 3
8 9 5 2 5 4
d 13 1 – 12 1 e 37 1 – 35 5 f 67 7 – 67 2
4 2 3 9 8 3
g 87 – 45 2
1
h 101 1 – 98 3 i 1
2 –1 11
5 3 5 7 13 12
j 3 2 – 7 k 57 7 – 1 9 l 23 2 – 22 4
11 10 11 12 3 5
3 What number when subtracted from 115 7 will leave 37 3 ?

11 4
4 From the sum of 1 1 and 2 1 , take the difference between 5 1 and 4 7 .

8 3 4 8
5 The difference between two numbers is 11 3 , and the smaller of the

28
numbers is 15 5 . Find the greater of them.
21
6 The sum of 1 1 and a larger number is 5 7 . Find the larger number.

5 10
7 Evaluate:
a 2 7 – 1 1 + 3 – 2 1 b 6 7 – 3 2 – 1 1
8 4 2 10 5 10

Review exercise
1 Represent these fractions on a number line and also using squares.

4 3
a 5 b 8
2 Write the fraction that represents each situation.
a Three weeks in December
b Five vowels in the alphabet
c Five bruised fingers on two hands
d 343 sheets out of a ream of 500 sheets of paper
3 Write the highest common factor of each pair of numbers.
a 12 and 44 b 8 and 24 c 16 and 18
d 36 and 42 e 108 and 72 f 144 and 50
4 Write the lowest common multiple of each pair of numbers.
5 Express each as a proper fraction or mixed number in simplest form.
18 16 105 64 98 17
a 24 b 12 c 100 d 54 e 56 f 51
6 Evaluate:
2 7 7 1 11 2 5 1
a 3 + 8 b 12 + 3 c 15 + 3 d 23 + 10

3 2 1 5 2 5 9 10
e 11 + 3 f 2 + 11 g 11 + 3 h 10 + 11

7 Evaluate:
1 7 3 1 7 1 1 7
a 3 2 + 2 8 b 3 4 + 11 5 c 2 8 + 5 7 d 4 3 + 2 8

1 3 5 1 1 1 7 2
e 1 3 + 24 f 57 + 13 g 1 11 + 2 3 h 7 10 + 22 5


8 Evaluate:
7 4 17 7 5 1 11 11
a 8 – 5 b 10 – 8 c 12 – 3 d 15 – 16

4 9 12 1 7 3 16 3
e 3 – 10 f 23 – 10 g 3 – 4 h 15 – 4

9 Evaluate:
2 1 3 1 7 2 1 1
a 3 3 – 1 3 b 5 4 – 2 4 c 6 8 – 3 3 d 6 3 – 2 4

1 3 1 3 7 3 7 7
e 5 3 – 2 4 f 6 2 – 2 4 g 5 12 – 4 4 h 22 12 – 16 10

10 Write in the boxes to show what number the numerator and
denominator were multiplied by to arrive at the equivalent fraction.

a 2 = 54
5 25
b = 33
c = 99
d 17 = 119
3 81 7 35 48 144 18 126

11 Copy the statements below and fill in each square, using either a + sign
or a – sign, to make the statements correct.
a 1 1 1 3
=3 b 1 7 1 3
= 11
4 4 4 4 8 4 8 4
1 1 1 3
1 3
c 2 =2 d 1 =7
2 4 2 4
4 8 8
12 Copy each of the target diagrams below into your book. Add the
fraction in the centre circle to each fraction in the second circle and
write your answer in the outermost circle. One part of the first one has
been done for you.

3
4
3 1 3 1
8 4 4 2
4
5
1
2
+ 3
2
6
11
3
4
+ 2
5
1 1 5 5
6 14 3 8

7
13 In an apartment block, 8 of the people speak English as their native
1
language and 16 speak Chinese as their native language. What
fraction speak a language other than English or Chinese as their
native language?
13 1
14 The sum of two fractions is 12 . If one fraction is 4 , what is the other?
15 In a class of 25 students, 12 are boys.
a What fraction of the class are girls?
b If 5 more girls join the class, what fraction of the class are girls?


Challenge
exercise
2004 2005
1 Which of the two fractions 2005 and 2006 is the larger?
Carefully explain why.
1
2 We can write 6 as the sum of two fractions, each with 1 as the numerator,
as 1 + 1 . This can be done in four other ways. Find these.
742
1
3 Express 8 as the sum of two fractions, each with 1 as the numerator,
in four ways.
1 1
4 Find three fractions between 4 and 2 .
5 Find x if 1 + 1 + x1 = 1.
3 4
1 4
6 Two fractions are equally spaced between 4 and 5 . Find the two
fractions.
7 Complete the following magic squares, in which each row, column and
diagonal must add up to the same sum.
a b
1 4
22 3 25
5 7
16 2 10
1 3
3 16 25
8 Evaluate:
a 1 – 1 + 1 b 1 – 1 + 1 + 1 c 1 – 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
2 4 2 4 8 2 4 8 16
d 1 – 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 e What do you notice?

2 4 8 16 32 64 128

Chapter 5
Fractions – part 2
In this chapter we multiply and divide fractions and solve problems involving the
arithmetic of fractions.
The word fraction comes from the Latin word frangere meaning ‘to break
into pieces’. It has been used in English in the mathematical sense of a
‘broken off piece or fragment’ since the 17th century.
5A Multiplication of fractions
1
In earlier years, you may have done multiplications such as 8 × 4 and used
them to solve problems such as ‘I take 8 quarter oranges from a bowl full
of identical oranges that have been cut into quarters. How many whole
oranges is this?’
8 × 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
=2
That is, you get the same ‘amount’ of orange as you do when you have
2 whole oranges of this size.
Multiplication by a whole number can be thought of as repeated addition.

Recall from Chapter 1 that 5 × 3 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3. We used the same
idea when we calculated 8 × 1 . However, this idea cannot be used to
4
multiply two fractions, so we adopt a different approach.

The word of
In everyday English, we use the word of to mean many things, including
from and belonging to. Here we want to give it a meaning related to fractions.
For example, what does 2 of 18 oranges mean?

3
We take it to mean that we divide the oranges into three equal groups and
then take two of them.
This gives 2 of 18 = 12.

3
Note that the result is the same as 2 × 18 = 36 = 12.

3×1 3
This method can be extended to two fractions.
For example, 3 of 1 can be found by looking at a number line. Divide the

4 2
segment from 0 to 1 into two equal segments. Each of these has length 1 .
2
Divide each segment of length 1 into 4 equal segments. This is the same as
2
dividing the interval from 0 to 1 into 8 equal parts.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
1
0
2 1
1 1
So of is 1 .
4 2 8
3 1
Next, of is 3 times 1 , that is, 3 .
4 2 8 8
3×1
Notice that = 3 also.
4×2 8

In summary:
• 2 of 18 is the same as 2 × 18 .
3 3×1
• 3 of 1 is the same as 3 × 1 .
4 2 4×2
We could repeat these arguments for any other pair of fractions. For
example, 3 of 3 is the same as 3 × 3 .
5 4 5×4
Using area
In Chapter 1, we used the idea that the area of a rectangle is the product
of its length and its width to illustrate multiplication of whole numbers.
The same idea can be used to explain how we multiply fractions.
A series of diagrams is shown below to explain why we take 2 × 3 to

3 4
mean 2 × 3 .
3×4
Start with a square of side length 1. The area of 1
this square is 1. Divide the base into three equal 3

4
intervals and the height into four equal intervals. 1

2
These intervals correspond to the denominators 1
of the two fractions being multiplied. Mark 2 on

4
3
the horizontal number line and 3 on the vertical
4 1
3
2
3 1
number line.
1
Now divide the square into rectangles by drawing
3
vertical lines and horizontal lines, as shown. This 4
produces 3 × 4 rectangles, all of the same area,

so each one has area 1 . Next, shade the rectangle
12
with side lengths 2 and 3 , as shown in the diagram.
3 4
2
3 1
We can see that the shaded region is made up of 2 × 3 = 6 rectangles, each

1
of area 12 , so the area of the shaded region is 2 × 3 . Assuming that the area
3×4
of a rectangle is the length multiplied by the height, the area of the shaded
rectangle is 2 × 3 . We conclude that the product 2 × 3 is the same as 2 × 3 .
3 4 3 4 3×4

Rule for multiplying two fractions
To multiply two fractions, multiply the two numerators together and
the two denominators together. Use these to form the product fraction.
In symbols:
a
× c = a × c
b d b×d
Here is another illustration, using area, of why we take 5 × 3 to mean 5 × 3 .

4 2 4×2
Start with a square of side length 2 because each fraction is larger than 1
and smaller than 2.
2
Divide the two sides into intervals of equal
3
length as shown. 2
Mark the multiples of 1 on the horizontal 1

4
number line and the multiples of 1 on the
2 1
vertical number line. Draw vertical and 2
horizontal lines as shown. There are then

32 rectangles of equal area. Eight of them 1
1 5
2
4 4
make up the unit square marked with cross-
hatching, so each small rectangle has area 1 .
8
The grey shaded region is made up of 5 × 3

of the small rectangles, so its area is 5 × 3 .
4×2
The grey shaded rectangle is 5 long and
4
3
high. The area (by the area formula) is
2
therefore 5 × 3 . It follows then that 5 × 3 3
4 2 4 2 2
must be the same as 5 × 3 . Hence

4×2
5
× 3 = 15 .
4 2 8 5
4

Multiplication of fractions
• To multiply two fractions together, multiply the two numerators
together and the two denominators together to form the new fraction
and simplify if possible.
In symbols:
a c a×c
b × d = b×d
2 7 14 7
For example: 3 × 8 = 24 = 12 .
• Multiplication of two fractions and the corresponding ‘of’ statement
give the same answer.
2 3 1 3 1 1
For example: 3
of 4 = 2 × 3 of 4 = 2 × 4 = 2

2 3 6 1
is the same as 3 × 4 = 12 = 2

Example 1
Evaluate:
3 10 1 5 2 4 7 5
a 4 × 7 b 6 of 2 c 3 of 5 d 12 × 11

Solution
a 3 × 10 = 3 × 10 b 1 of 5 = 1 × 5
4 7 4×7 6 2 6×2
30 5
= =
28 12
15
=
14
= 11
14
2 4 2 4 5
c 3 of 5 = 3 × 5 d 7 × 11 = 7 × 5
12 12 × 11
2×4
= = 35
3 × 5 132
8
=
15

Multiplying a fraction by a whole number
The following example shows how to set out multiplying a fraction by a
whole number so that it fits the same pattern as in Example 3.
Example 2
Find:
a 7 × 2 b 3 of 57
5 4
Solution
a 7 × 2 = 7 × 2
5 1 5
= 14
5
= 24
5
b 3 of 57 = 3 × 57
4 4 1
3 × 57
=
4×1
4 2 remainder 3
= 171
4
4 ) 1 7 3 11
= 42 3
4
Exercise 5A
1 Draw a number line to show:

a 3 × 4 b 4 × 5 c 2 × 3
5 4 2
2 Use the unit square, as described on pages 185 – 6, to illustrate:

a 3 × 1 b 3 × 3 c 6 × 1
4 2 4 4 5 2
Example 1 3 Evaluate each product, simplifying where possible.

3 5 1 1
a 1 × 3 b 4 × 8 c 2 × 8
4 5

d 1 × 2 e 5 × 3 f 5 × 3
3 3 4 7 11 8
g 7 × 7 h 3 × 3 i 7 × 5
2 5 2 7 6 7
j 11 × 5 k 3 × 7 l 13 × 5
6 7 4 11 8 6
Example 2a 4 Evaluate:
a 4 × 5 b 7 × 3 c 5 × 7
7 11 12
d 11 × 2 e 3 × 5 f 4 × 3
3 4 11
5 Evaluate these products and represent the results using unit squares.
a 1 of 1 b 2 of 3 c 1 of 2
2 2 3 4 4 3
Example 2b 6 Find:
a 1 of 1 b 1 of 2 c 5 of 3
3 2 6 3 8 4
d 2 of 3
e 5
of 3
f 2
of 4
3 2 4 5 9 3
g 2 of 4 h 4 of 13 i 5 of 3
3 5 4
5B Division of fractions
In Section 4C, we saw how dividing a whole number by a whole number

gives a whole number or a fraction. We also saw how to divide a fraction
by a whole number. The idea we used was that dividing by a whole number
can be thought of as ‘breaking up into equal parts’. We now look at this
again, from a different point of view.
Dividing a whole number by a whole number – a new idea

Dividing a whole number by a whole number gives a fraction. The answer
may be a whole number. For example,
2÷3= 2 and 6 ÷ 2 = 3.
3 1

There is a very important connection here with multiplication of fractions.
If we multiply 2 by 3 we get
3
2
× 3 = 2 × 3
3 3×1
6
=
3
= 2.

So we can say that when we divide 2 by 3, the answer is the number that,
when multiplied by 3, gives 2. Does this sound familiar? It is the same
idea as we met when we considered multiplication of whole numbers.
For instance, the multiplication statement 3 × 4 = 12 is equivalent to the
division statement 12 ÷ 3 = 4.
The number 12 ÷ 3 is the number that, when multiplied by 3, gives 12.
Dividing a fraction by a whole number
Recall that 3 ÷ 6 is the fraction we get by dividing 3 into 6 equal parts.

5 5
So we see straight away that we have an equivalent multiplication statement.
3
÷6 ×6= 3
5 5
So once again, we can say that 3 ÷ 6 is the number that, when multiplied by 6,
5
gives 3 .
5
Dividing one fraction by another: what we mean

If you think about it for a moment, you may notice that so far, we have not
said what we mean by dividing one fraction by another.
For example, we have not given a meaning to 1 ÷ 1 . We cannot use the

6 4
‘dividing into equal parts’ idea that we have used when dividing a fraction
by a whole number – it does not make sense.
How should we define what we mean by, say, 3 ÷ 1 ? The clue is to look
4 5
back at what we just said about multiplication and division.
We define 3 ÷ 1 to mean the fraction that, when multiplied by 1 , gives 3 .

4 5 5 4

What is this fraction? Let’s start with 1 and see what we can do.
5
If we multiply 1 by 5, we get 1. We want 3, the numerator of the fraction 3 ,

5 4
so we multiply by 3 to produce it.
1
×5×3=3
5
So far, so good, but we still do not have 3 . To get 3 , all we need to do is

4 4
divide 3 by 4. That is, we multiply by 1 .
4
1
×5×3× 1 = 3
5 4 4
To summarise:
1
× 15 × 1 = 3
5 4 4
That is,
1
× 15 = 3 ,
5 4 4
so 15 is the number we multiply 1 by to give 3 . Using our definition of

4 5 4
division of fractions,
3
÷ 1 = 15.
4 5 4
Division and reciprocals
Here is a really important fact. The answer we got when we divided 3 by 1

4 5
is the same as the number we get if we multiply 3 by the reciprocal of 1 .
4 5
The reciprocal of 1 is the fraction we get by swapping the numerator 1 and

5
the denominator 5.
Reciprocal of 1 = 5 = 5.
5 1
So we can say that

3
÷ 1 = 3 × reciprocal of 1 = 3 × 5 = 15.
4 5 4 5 4 4

, Division of fractions
• The reciprocal of a fraction is the fraction we get by swapping the
numerator and denominator.
• Division and multiplication of fractions are inverse operations.
2 1 1
For example: 9 ÷ 8 means the fraction that, when multiplied by 8 ,
2
gives 9 .
• Dividing a fraction by a fraction is the same as multiplying the first
fraction by the reciprocal of the second.
2 1 2 3 4 3 5
So 9 ÷ 8 = 9 × 8 and 7
÷ 5 = 7 × 4

16 15
= 9 = 28

Example 3
2 3
Work out 3 ÷ 5 by multiplying by the reciprocal. Check that the
answer you get is the number that, when multiplied by the divisor
3 2
5
, gives 3 .
Solution
2 3 2 5 5 3
3
÷ 5 = 3 × 3 3
is the reciprocal of 5 .
2×5
= 3×3
10
= 9

Checking:
3 10 30
5
× 9 = 45

2
=3 (common factor 15)


Example 4
Find:
5 7
a 6 ÷ 7 b 5 ÷ 12
Solution
5 7 7 12
a 6 ÷ 7 = 6 × 5 b 5 ÷ 12 = 5 × 7
12
=6×7 =5× 7
1 5 1
= 42 = 60
5 7
2 4
= 8 5 = 87

Example 5
Find each of the following.

2 3 3 4
a 3 ÷ 4 b 5 ÷ 7
Solution
3 4 3 7
a 2 ÷ 3 = 2 × 4 b 5 ÷ 7= 5 × 4
3 4 3 3
2×4
= = 3×7
3 × 3 5×4
8 21
= =
9 20
=11
20
Exercise 5B
a 4 ÷ 3 b 2 ÷ 3 c 2 ÷ 5 d 5 ÷ 4
5 7 6 7
8 6 2
e 3 ÷ f 5 ÷ 11
g 7 ÷ h 11 ÷ 5
9 3 6

Example 5 2 Find:
3 5 2 5 3 5 3 2
a 4 ÷ 7 b 3 ÷ 11 c 11 ÷ 8 d 11 ÷ 3
5 2 1 3 5 7 5 11
e 8 ÷ 3 f 2 ÷ 7 g 12 ÷ 11 h 7 ÷ 13

3 To how many people can I give 2 of a chocolate bar if I have
3
4 chocolate bars?
4 I have 12 oranges. To how many people can I give 3 of an orange?
4
5 A ribbon that is 20 m long is to be divided into lengths of 5 of a metre.
8
How many such lengths are there?
5C Cancelling
Let us look at the multiplication 2 × 3 .

3 4
2 3 2×3
× =
3 4 3×4
3×2
=
3×4
3
= ×2
3 4
2
= 1×
4
1
=
2
There is a shorthand way of writing this, which often simplifies the process
of multiplication.
2
× 3 = 2 × 3
3 4 3 4
2
=
4
2 1
=
4 2
1
=
2
This process is called cancelling. We can cancel because we are dividing the
numerator and the denominator by the same whole number. We know that
this gives an equivalent fraction.

This is the same as simplifying a fraction by writing the numerator and the
denominator as products of their prime factors. For example:
132
= 2 × 2 × 3 × 11 = 12 × 12 × 3 × 11 = 3 × 11 = 33
1 1
500 2×2×5×5×5 2 ×2 ×5×5×5 5×5×5 125
Repeated division of the numerator and denominator is another way of

cancelling common factors. Here is an example of how to set it out.
560
= 560 ÷ 10
840 840 ÷ 10
56 ÷ 7
=
84 ÷ 7
8÷4
=
12 ÷ 4
2
=
3
Cancelling
• Cancelling is used to simplify fractions.
• To simplify a product of fractions, find a common factor of a numerator
and a denominator and cancel. Repeat if possible.
Example 6
Evaluate 5 × 2 .
6 3
Solution
5
× 2 = 53 × 2
1
6 3 6 3
5 1
= ×
3 3
5×1
=
3×3
5
=
9

Example 7
Evaluate 16 × 18 .
27 20
Solution
16
× 18 = 16 3 × 18 5
4 2
27 20 27 20
4 2
= ×
3 5
4×2
=
3×5
8
=
15
Cancelling should be done before multiplication. Cancelling is very helpful

when three or more fractions are involved. Note that, as for multiplication
of whole numbers, order does not matter.
Example 8
Evaluate:
3 1 7 3 3 9
a 4 ÷ 4 b 10 ÷ 5 c 7 ÷ 14

Solution
3 1 7 3 3 9
a 4 ÷ 4 = 31 × 4 b 10 ÷ 5 = 7 2 × 5 c 7 ÷ 14 = 3 1 × 14 3
1 1 1 2
4 1 10 3 7 9
3 7 1 2
= = =1×3
1 6
2
= 3 = 1 1 =3
6
Example 9
Calculate:
2 3 5 11 10 7
a 3 × 4 × 8 b 5 × 14 × 11

Solution
a 2 × 3 × 5 = 2 1 × 3 2 × 5 b 11 × 10 × 7 = 11 1 × 10 2 × 7 1
1 1 1 2 1
3 4 8 3 4 8 5 14 11 5 14 11
5 2
= =
16 2
=1
Example 10
Evaluate:
a 3 × 11 ÷ 11 b 7 ÷ 1 ÷ 2
4 3 2 8 2 7
Solution
a 3 × 11 ÷ 11 = 3 2 × 11 1 × 2 1 b 7 ÷ 1 ÷ 2 = 7 × 2 × 7
1 1 1
4 3 2 4 3 11 8 2 7 8 1 2
1 7 2 1
= = × × 71
2 8 1 2
49
=
8
= 61
8
Exercise 5C
Example 6 1 Find the value of each of:

a 4 × 6 b 5 × 3 c 6 × 7 d 8 × 3
3 8 9 7 14 8 21 40
e 17 × 10 f 12 × 49 g 44 × 21 h 30 × 27
15 34 7 60 28 66 54 75
a 3 ÷ 3 b 3 ÷ 3 c 5 ÷ 5 d 2 ÷ 5
4 8 8 4 6 9 3 6
e 3 ÷ 5 f 2 ÷ 4 g 5 ÷ 7 h 9 ÷ 3
4 8 3 9 12 16 16 20
i 8 ÷ 16 j 7 ÷ 14 k 5 ÷ 15 l 72 ÷ 16
9 27 18 27 24 16 100 25

Example 9 3 Complete each multiplication.
a 1 × 1 × 1 b 3 × 5 × 3 c 1 × 3 × 7
2 3 6 4 6 8 2 4 12
d 3 × 5 × 2 e 7 × 6 × 5 f 2 × 5 × 4
4 6 5 12 7 9 3 6 15
g 3 × 5 × 8 h 24 × 14 × 5 i 8 × 5 × 9
8 9 15 7 15 16 9 18 10
j 3 × 5 × 4 k 14 × 16 × 5 l 8 × 22 × 15
10 9 5 15 21 8 11 25 32
a 4 × 3 ÷ 2 b 5 × 2 ÷ 5 c 2 of 3 ÷ 8
9 4 3 6 3 9 3 4 9
d 7 ÷ 3 × 14 e 2 ÷ 3 × 2 f 5 ÷ 2 × 5
9 4 27 9 4 3 12 3 8
g 3 ÷ 9
×1 h 5 ÷ 2
× 3
i 3
× 4
÷ 3
4 16 6 9 3 5 12 5 25
j 4 ÷ 2 × 3 k 2 ÷ 5 ÷ 4 l 4 × 3 ÷ 7
3 5 3 12 9 5 15
m 1 ÷ 1 ÷ 1 ÷ 1 n 1 × 1 ÷ 1 × 1 ÷ 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
o 4 × 14 ÷ 34 ÷ 11 p 24 ÷ 96 × 132 ÷ 55
7 100 110 17 81 18 72 24
5D Multiplying and dividing mixed numbers
When multiplying and dividing mixed numbers, convert to improper

fractions and then proceed as usual.
Example 11
2 1
Evaluate 1 3 × 4 2 .

Solution
1 2 × 4 1 = 5 × 9 (Change to improper fractions.)
3 2 3 2
= 45
6
45 15
= 2
6
= 15
2
= 7 1 (Convert to a mixed number.)

2
Example 12
Evaluate 4 1 ÷ 5 .
6 6
Solution
4 1 ÷ 5 = 25 ÷ 5 (Change to improper fractions.)
6 6 6 6
25 6
= × (Invert and multiply.)
6 5
25 5 6 1
= 1 × (Cancel.)
6 5 1
=5
Example 13
Evaluate 7 3 ÷ 2 1 .
4 3
Solution
7 3 ÷ 2 1 = 31 ÷ 7 (Change to improper fractions.)
4 3 4 3
= 31 × 3 (Invert and multiply.)

4 7
= 93
28
=39 (Convert to a mixed number.)

28

Some exercises require common sense instead of an algorithm.
1
If we were asked to calculate 2 × 2 2 , we could say to ourselves:
‘2 × 2 is 4, 2 × 1 is 1, 4 + 1 = 5, so 2 × 2 1 = 5.’
2 2
or
‘2 × 2 1 = 2 1 + 2 1 = 5.’
2 2 2
or
‘2 1 is one half of 5, so twice 2 1 is 5.’
2 2
Operations with mixed numbers

When dealing with multiplication and division and mixed numbers, the
following strategy is normally used:
• Convert each mixed number to an improper fraction and proceed as usual.
Exercise 5D
Example 11 1 Find:
1 1 4 3 2 1 1 2
a 5 2 × 6 4 b 4 5 × 3 4 c 2 9 × 1 3 d 3 × 3 3
1 1 7 3 1 2 1 1
e 7 × 4 2 f 8 × 3 5 g 5 9 × 3 h 2 4 × 5
1 1 3 3
i 3 3 × 5 j 8 2 × 4 k 6 × 2 7 l 5 × 3 5
Example 12 2 Find:
1 1 2 5 5 3
a 1 3 ÷ 3 b 2 3 ÷ 6 c 1 12 ÷ 4
1 1 1 1 1
d 6 ÷ 1 3 e 7 4 ÷ 1 5 f 2 5 ÷ 1 3

1 1 2 5 1 7
g 5 3 ÷ 4 4 h 3 5 ÷ 8 i 2 4 ÷ 1 8
3 Find:
1 1 1 1 3 1 1 7
a 2 2 ÷ 1 4 b 4 3 ÷ 1 2 c 6 5 ÷ 2 3 d 10 2 ÷ 5 8
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
e 5 3 ÷ 6 4 f 4 5 ÷ 1 4 g 2 8 ÷ 7 5 h 5 2 ÷ 7 3


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
i 2 9 ÷ 2 4 j 1 8 ÷ 7 2 k 5 25 ÷ 4 5 l 21 2 ÷ 14 4

1
4 Five boys each have 1 4 litres of lemonade. How many litres of
lemonade do the boys have in total?
5 Find:
2 1 3 1 7 1
a 3 of 3 4 b 4 of 512 c 8 of 6 5

6 Jake shares his liquorice strap equally between himself and five friends.
If the strap is 1 2 m long, how much will each person get?
3
7 Alexa cuts a yellow ribbon, of length 2 5 m, into four equal pieces.
6
How long is each of the pieces?
8 Sarah’s pension is $105 per fortnight. How much is this per day?
9 Fran’s family want to make their 689 Easter eggs last for one year.
a How many Easter eggs can they eat per week?
b If there are 7 people in Fran’s family, how many Easter eggs will
one person eat per week if the eggs are shared equally?
5E Word problems
There are a number of things to consider when tackling word problems

involving fractions. We need to think about which operations are required,
and to think carefully about what is ‘the whole’.
Example 14
Two-thirds of the chocolates in a box contain nuts. There are

54 chocolates in the box.
a How many chocolates in the box contain nuts?

b What fraction of the chocolates in the box do not contain nuts?

Solution
2 5418
a 2 of 54 = 31 × 1
3
= 2 × 18
= 36
36 of the chocolates in the box contain nuts.
1
b 1 – 2 = 3
3
1
3 of the chocolates in the box do not contain nuts.
Example 15
3
At Toocastle College, 5 of the students are boys.
a What fraction of students are girls?

b If there are 360 boys, how many girls are there?
Solution
a 3 of the students are boys. Therefore 1 – 3 = 2 of students are girls.
5 5 5
3 1
b is 360. This means that 5 of the number of students is
5
360 ÷ 3 = 120. Therefore the number of girls is 2 × 120 = 240.
Example 16
2 1 1
In a library, 5 of the books are fiction, 10 are travel and 14 are
historical. There are 6360 other books. How many fiction books
are there?

Solution
2 1 1 7 5
+ 10 + 14 = 28 + 70 + 70
5 70
40
=
70
4
=
7
Therefore 1 – 4 = 3 are ‘other’ books.

7 7
3
of the number of books = 6360
7
1
7
of the number of books = 2120
The total number of books = 7 × 2120

= 14 840
The total number of fiction books = 2 × 14 840
5
= 2 × 2968
= 5936
Exercise 5E
Example 14 1 Two-thirds of the jellybeans in a jar are black. There are 96 jellybeans
in the jar. How many of them are black?
2 Five-twelfths of the students in a particular school are girls. There are
1344 students in the school.
a How many girls are there in the school?
b What fraction of the students in the school are boys?
3 Seven-eighths of the trees in a forest are eucalypts. It is known that
there are 5000 trees in the forest.
a How many eucalypts are there in the forest?
b What fraction of the trees are not eucalypts?

4 It is known that 7 of the people who work in a large office building
12
bring their lunch from home. It is known that 1560 people work in the
building.
a How many people bring their lunch from home?
b What fraction of people do not bring their lunch from home?
Example 15 5 In a box of chocolates, 3 of the chocolates have soft centres.
5
a What fraction of the chocolates do not have soft centres?
b If there are 15 chocolates with soft centres, how many chocolates are
there altogether?
6 A piece of land is divided among three people, Jan, David and Greg.
Jan is allocated 7 of the land and David receives 1 of the land.
12 6
a What fraction of the land does Greg receive?
b The land is worth $96 000. What is the value of each person’s share?
7 In a theatre, 5 of the seats are in the back stalls, 1 are in the front
12 4
stalls and the remainder are in the balcony.
a What fraction of the seating capacity of the theatre is in the balcony?
b If the theatre can hold 1080 people, how many people can sit in each
of the sections?
8 Kenric made 200 meat pies. He sold 2 of them and gave 1 of the
5 4
remainder to a friend. How many meat pies did he have left?
9 A container of cooking oil is 3 full. A further 4 1 L of cooking oil is
5 2
required to fill it. How much oil does the container hold?
10 Complete each of the following magic squares. Each row, column and
diagonal sums to the same mixed number.
2
1 1
12 4 141 241
1 1 2
3 4 3

11 Of a group of 50 students, 3 are girls.
5
a What fraction of the group are boys?
b How many of the students are boys?
12 In a school, 2 of the students are girls. There are 600 boys.
5
a How many girls are there?
b How many students are there?
Example 16 13 Each month, a family spends 5 of its income on food, 1 on housing
12 3
and 1 on transport. If there is $960 left over, calculate the family’s
24
income.
14 A salesman sells half of his stock of books in the first half of the
3
month and then sells 5 of the remaining stock in the second half of
the month. What fraction of his stock is left?
7 1
15 A farmer has 12 of his land cultivated. He also has 6 of his land used
1
for buildings. Of the remaining land, 3 is marsh and is unable to be
farmed. The rest of the land is forest. What fraction of his land is forest?
4 4
16 At an election, 7 of the electors voted for the first candidate and 11
for the second candidate. The remaining 635 votes were invalid.
How many votes did each candidate receive?

5F Order of operations with fractions
The conventions of order of operations that we discussed for whole

numbers in Chapter 1 apply also to the arithmetic of fractions.
• Evaluate expressions inside brackets first.

• In the absence of brackets, carry out operations in the following order:
– multiplication and division from left to right, then
First, we look at an example in which the denominators are the same.
Example 17
Evaluate:
a 2 + 3 + 1 b 2 + 6 – 5
7 7 7 7 7 7
Solution
a 2 + 3 + 1 = 2 + 3 + 1 b 2 + 6 – 5 = 2 + 6 – 5
7 7 7 77 7 7 7
= 6 =3
7 7
If the denominators are different, we must first find a common

denominator and use equivalent fractions.
Example 18
5 2 1
Evaluate 6 + 3 + 4 .

Solution
5 2 (The lowest common
+ 3 + 1 = 5×2 + 2×4 + 1×3
6 4 6×2 3×4 4 × 3 denominator of 6, 3 and 4
= 10 + 8 + 3 is 12.)
12
21
=
12
7
=
4
= 13
4
Sometimes it is more efficient to work with an appropriate pair of closely

related fractions.
Example 19
Evaluate:
3 1 1 1 5 1 1
a 4 + 8 + 4 b 7 + 8 + 2 – 8
Solution
a It is much easier to b It is much easier to rearrange
rearrange the expression the expression so that we first
so that we first add subtract 1 from 5 to get 4 .
8 8 8
3 to 1 to get 1. 1
4 4 +5+ 1 1
– =1+1+5–1
3 1 1 1 7 8 2 8 7 2 8 8
4 + 4 + 8 = 1 + 8
= + +4
1 1
1 7 2 8
= 18
=1+1+1
7 2 2
1
= 17

Example 20
Evaluate:
a 7 – 1 + 1 b 1 – 1 + 1 c 1 – 1 – 1
8 4 3 4 3 4 3
Solution
a 7 – 1 + 1 = 7 – 3 + 4
8 4 3 8 12
21 14
= –
24 24
7
=
24
b 1 – 1 + 1 = 1 – 3 + 4
4 3 12 12
= 1– 7
12
12
= – 7
12 12
5
=
12
c 1 – 1 – 1 = 1 – 3 – 4
4 3 12 12
12
= – 3 – 4
12 12 12
5
=
12
Example 21
Evaluate:
a 1 + 5 × 2 b 4 – 3 ÷ 6
2 6 3 3 5 11

Solution
3 1 11
a 1 + 53 × 2 = 1 + 5 b 4 – 3 ÷ 6 = 4 – 5 × 6 2
1
2 6 3 2 9 3 5 11 3
= 9 + 10 = 4 – 11
18 18 3 10
= 19 = 40 – 33
18 30 30
=11 = 7
18 30

The distributive law for multiplication, which we discussed for whole
numbers in Chapter 1, also holds for fractions. This can be used to find
arithmetic shortcuts.
Distributive law for multiplication over addition and subtraction

a(b + c) = ab + ac and a(b – c) = ab – ac
Example 22
Evaluate:
2 1 2
a 3 × 5 + 3 × 4 b 3 × 11 – 3 × 1
5 4 5 4 5
Solution
In each part, we have a common factor in both products.
a 2 × 1 + 2 × 4 = 2 × 1 + 4 b 3 × 11 – 3 × 1 = 3 × 11 – 1
3 5 3 5 3 5 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 5
2
= × 1 = 3 × 10
3 4 5
2 3
= = ×2
3 4
= 3
2

Exercise 5F
8 3 4 4 5 3
a 1 + 2 + 3 b 17 + 17 + 17 c 3 – 3 + 3
5 5 5
1 3 2 5 12 6 1
d 3 + 3 + 3 e 7 + 7 + 7 f 25 + 25 + 25 + 25
4 4 4
8 4 2 4 1 3
g 7 – 1 – 3 h 9 – 9 – 9 i 3 – 3 + 3
8 8 8
3 3 3 7 1 1
Example 18 j 8 + 4 + 2 k 12 – 4 + 6 l 4 – 2 – 1
3 5 6
1 1 1 5 4 3
m 4 + 5 + 6 n 9 – 8 + 7 o 5 + 5 + 5
12 3 4
7 1 17 2 7 2 7 3 15 7
p 6 + 3 – 18 + 9 q 8 + 3 – 11 + 2 r 4 + 11 – 8 – 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
a 11 – 4 + 3 b 1 – 5 + 3 c 1 – 3 – 5
8
3 Evaluate:
3 3 3 1 4 3 3 1 1
a 4 + 4 × 4 b 2 ÷ 3 + 4 c 4 – 2 × 4
11 44 7 1 1 1 1 3 5 1 3
d 18 ÷ 3 + 9 e 2 + 2 × 2 – 2 f 4 + 4 × 4 ÷ 4
16 8 5 7 5 4 5 2 1 5
g 15 ÷ 25 + 4 h 8 + 4 × 15 – 12 i 3 × 4 ÷ 9
3 8 1 2 5 5 5 1 1 1
j 5 ÷ 20 × 4 k 3 + 6 × 9 l 4 ÷ 2 + 4 + 8
4 2 2 5 1 2 2 4 2 5 1 2
m 5 – 3 × 6 + 8 ÷ 2 + 3 n 3 – 5 × 6 + 8 ÷ 4 + 3
4 Use the distributive law to evaluate:

2 7 2 5 3 9 3 6 3 33 3 12
a 3 × 9 + 3 × 9 b 8 × 14 + 8 × 7 c 4 × 50 – 4 × 75

Review exercise
1 Evaluate:
2 3 1 1 2 1
a 3 × 4 b 5 6 × 2 c 1 2 × 3 d 3 4 ÷ 13
1 1 4 22 1 1 1
e 5 2 × 2 2 f 11 × 25 g 6 ÷ 11 h 5 2 × 3 4
1 2 2 5 2 1 1
i 3 4 ÷ 1 3 j 1 3 ÷ 6 k 5 3 ÷ 5 l 1 4 ÷ 5
2 Evaluate:
2 3 1 5 3 1 1
a 3 × 5 ÷ 4 b 11 × 5 + 2 c 6 ÷ 3 + 2
4 5 7 1 1 1 1
d 3 ÷ 6 × 8 e 1 3 × 1 4 + 2 f 6 – 3 × 2

3 Find:
2 1 2 1 7 1
a 6 3 × 1 4 b 5 3 ÷ 1 4 c 6 8 × 5 3
1 2 3 3 4 5
d 6 3 ÷ 5 3 e 5 8 × 2 4 f 611 ÷ 1 8

2
4 Find 3 of 63.
3
5 4
of a number is 27. Find the number.
6 A rope 6 m long is divided into 4 equal pieces. How long is each piece?
1 1 1
7 Find the sum of 4 of 2 and 4 .
2 3 1
8 Evaluate 3 × 4 – 2 .
3
9 a Find 5 of 20 m.
3
b Find 4 of $20.
7
c Find 8 of 1500 kg.
1 1
10 What is the sum of 5 and half of 5 ?

2 3
11 David reads 11 of the pages of a book one day, 5 the next day and the
remaining 84 pages the following day. How many pages are in the book?
3 4
12 7 of a sum of money is $21. How much is 5 of the sum of money?
13 Five-sixths of a farm covers 325 hectares (ha). What is the area of the
whole farm?
2 5
14 The difference between 3 and 8 of a sum of money is $2. What is the
sum of money?
15 A train from Alston to Brampton stops at two intermediate stations.

1
At the first of these, 2 of its passengers leave it and 135 new passengers
1
board. At the second station, 3 of the passengers who arrived on the train
leave it and 110 new passengers board. The train arrives at Brampton
with 350 passengers. With how many passengers did it leave Alston?

Challenge
exercise
1 A half is a third of the number x. What is the number x?

2 A quarter is a third of the number x. What is the number x?
1 1 1 1
3 What is the value of 1 – 2 × 1 – 3 × 1 – 4 × 1 – 5 ?
1 1 1 1 1
4 What is the value of 1 + 5 × 1 + 6 × 1 + 7 × 1 + 8 × 1 + 9 ?

5 Evaluate:
1 1
a 1 + b 1 +
1+ 1 1+ 1
2
1+ 1
2
6 Using the numbers 1, 2 and 3, fill in the boxes to make these

statements true.
a ×2= b × 12 =
3 5
1
7 How many times do you need to write the fraction 3 to make this
statement true?
1
÷ 1 ÷ 1 ÷ … ÷ 1 = 81
3 3 3 3
1 1
8 The fractions 7 and 8 are special because when they are multiplied,
the answer is the same as the difference between them.
That is, 1 × 1 = 1 – 1 = 1 . Find five other such pairs of numbers.
7 8 7 8 56

9 Johan was hungry late one night. He looked in the freezer and found
a 4-litre tub of ice cream. Johan started eating the ice cream, but so he
would not get into trouble for using it all up, he stopped when he had
eaten half of it. The next night he was hungry again, so he went back
to the ice cream and again stopped when he had eaten half of what was
there. This went on for five nights in a row before his mother finally
caught him. How much ice cream was left at the end of each of the five
nights? If his mother had not caught him, would he ever have finished
all the ice cream?
3
10 The school lap-a-thon circuit is 2 4 kilometres in length. Benjamin
1 1 1
walked 4 3 laps, Nathan walked 5 2 laps and Alicia walked 3 4 laps.
a Who covered the greatest distance?
b What was the total distance walked by the three students?
c How much further than Benjamin did Nathan walk?
11 In a cricket test match lasting 5 days, 1 of the runs were scored in the
6
first day, 1 in the second day, 2 in the third day, 7 in the fourth day
5 5 32
and the remaining 21 runs on the last day. How many runs were scored
on each day?
1 97 × 95
12 Calculate 96 + 96
– 95.
37
13 Find the whole numbers a, b and c if 13 = 2 + 1 .
a+ 1
b+ 1
c

Chapter 6
An introduction to geometry
Geometry starts with some of the things that we see around us.
Some examples are:
• the sharp line of the horizon out to sea
• the surfaces and edges of a city building
• the circular disc of the moon
• the path of a stone thrown through the air
• the wavy surface of the sea
• the patterns on a cat’s fur coat
• the complicated patterns that clouds often make against the blue sky.
As in all of mathematics, we start with the very simplest patterns and

gradually examine more complicated ones.
6A Points, lines and planes
The simplest objects of geometry are points, lines and planes. Because
they are so simple, it is hard to give precise definitions of them, just as
it is hard to say precisely what a number is. The following descriptions
do not really say what points, lines and planes are, but they will help
us to talk about them with some agreement about what they mean in
our imagination.

Point
A point marks a position, but has no size. The mark
opposite has a definite width, so it is not really a point, P
but it represents a point in our imagination. We usually
use capital letters such as P, Q, A and B to name points.
Line
A line has no width, but extends infinitely in both
directions. The drawing on the right has width and
has ends, so it is not really a line, but it represents
a line in our imagination.
The word ‘line’ always means straight line, and does not include curves
such as circles or squiggles.
Plane
A plane has no thickness, but extends infinitely.
The drawing opposite is intended to represent
a plane, but the plane does not stop at the four
edges that have been drawn.
The word ‘plane’ always means flat plane, and does not include curved
surfaces such as cylinders, cones or spheres.
Points, lines and planes

• Points, lines and planes are the fundamental objects of geometry.
• Points, lines and planes are idealisations of everyday objects – they exist
in our imaginations, even though they do not exist in the physical world.
Exercise 6A
This exercise is intended for exploration and discussion.

1 List some familiar objects around you that are like points, or like
lines, or like planes. Explain how they differ from the ideal points,
lines and planes of geometry.

2 a What is the smallest point-like object that you have ever seen?
b What is the longest line-like object that you have ever seen?
c What is the largest plane-like object that you have ever seen?
3 What objects have you seen that are made up entirely of points,
line intervals and pieces of planes, with no curves at all?
4 a What does the word ‘infinitely’ mean when we say that a line ‘extends
infinitely in both directions’, and that a plane ‘extends infinitely’?
b How similar is this to the way in which the word ‘infinitely’ is
used when talking about numbers?
6B Points and lines in a plane
We will draw the diagrams for geometry in a plane on a piece of paper, a

whiteboard or a screen. We will sometimes have to imagine that the paper
or whiteboard or screen extends infinitely.
Geometry requires neat and accurate drawings. In this chapter you will need:
• a sharp pencil and a rubber
• a ruler with a straight edge
• a protractor.
In later geometry chapters, you will also need compasses.
Here are some simple observations we can make about points and lines in
a plane. Some of them may seem very obvious, but that is as it should be –
good mathematics should always start as simply as possible.
A point and a line

Given a point and a line, there are two possibilities:
• The point lies on the line.

• The point does not lie on the line.
Two distinct points

Given two distinct points A and B, there is one line, and B
only one line, that passes through both points A and B.
This line through A and B can be named either AB or BA. A
A straight edge, such as a ruler, is used to construct the line. Bring the ruler
up against the two points, then draw a line through the two points.
Two distinct lines – lines meet at a point or are parallel lines

Given two distinct lines in a plane, there are two possibilities:
• The two lines meet at a single point. This point is

called the intersection of the two lines.
• The two lines have no point in common, no matter

how far the lines are produced in either direction
(the word ‘produced’ means ‘extended’). The two
lines are then called parallel lines.
The arrows on the two lines in the second diagram

are used to indicate that the lines are parallel.
Notation for parallel lines

B
In the diagram to the right, the lines AB and PQ are
parallel. This is written as AB || PQ.
Q A

Three parallel lines Q
If two distinct lines AB and PQ are each parallel to a P

third line ST, then the lines AB and PQ are parallel
to each other. This is written as AB || PQ || ST. T
S B
A
Three distinct points – collinear points or non-collinear points
Given three distinct points A, B and C in a plane, there are two possibilities:
• The three points all lie on one line. The three

points are then called collinear points, meaning A
‘together on a line’. B
C
• The three lines AB, BC and CA are all distinct and A

enclose a triangular region. The three points A, B B
and C are then called non-collinear points.
C
Three distinct lines – concurrent lines or

non-concurrent lines
Given three distinct lines in a plane, with no two lines parallel, there are
two possibilities:
• The three lines all pass through one point.

The three lines are then called concurrent lines,
meaning ‘meeting lines’.
• The three lines enclose a triangular region. The

three lines are then called non-concurrent lines.

Points and lines in a plane
• A point either lies on a line, or does not lie on it.
• There is exactly one line passing through two distinct points.
• Two distinct lines in the plane either meet at a point or are parallel.
• Two lines in a plane are called parallel if they never meet, no matter
how far they are produced (meaning extended). This is written as
AB || PQ.
• Two lines parallel to a third line are parallel to each other.
• Three points that all lie on one line are called collinear.
• Three lines that all pass through one point are called concurrent.
Exercise 6B
1 The three lines in the diagram to the right C B

enclose a triangular region. Name the
three lines in the figure. A
2 The diagram to the right shows two pairs of parallel lines.

a In symbols, write ‘AB is parallel to DC’.
C
b In symbols, write ‘BC is parallel to AD’. D
c What is the intersection of the lines AB and BC?
B
d What point lies on both BC and CD?
A
e Do any points lie on both lines AB and CD?
3 Look at the diagram to the right. Y
a Name the four concurrent lines passing

X
through the point X.
C
b Name the two parallel lines, using the
B
correct symbol for ‘is parallel to’. A
c Name the intersection of the lines BX and AC.

d Name the line joining C and the intersection of AX and BX.
e What points belong to both lines AC and CB?
f What points belong to both lines AC and XY?
4 Trace the six-point diagram to the right A
carefully into your exercise book.
a Use your ruler to construct lines Z Y
showing that:
i the points B, X and C are
collinear
B X C
ii the points C, Y and A are collinear
iii the points A, Z and B are collinear.
b Draw the lines AX, BY and CZ. What can you say about these three lines?
5 Draw a half-page version of the diagram to the right. Then use your
ruler to carry out each of the following constructions.
a Join AY and XB and let them intersect at R. A
B
b Join BZ and YC and let them intersect at P. C
c Join CX and ZA and let them intersect at Q.

Z
If your diagram has been drawn accurately, Y
X
P, Q and R should be collinear. (This is a famous
result called Pappus’ theorem, after the ancient
Greek mathematician Pappus.)
6 a Trace the four-point diagram to the right A D
carefully into your exercise book.
b Use your ruler to construct the lines AB and DC,
and produce them until they intersect at X. C
c Use your ruler to construct the lines AD and BC, B

and produce them until they intersect at Y.
d Use your ruler to construct the lines AC and BD, and let them
intersect at Z.

7 a There are infinitely many points on every line. Explain the use of
the word infinitely in this statement.
b There are infinitely many lines passing through every point. Explain
the use of the word infinitely in this statement.
8 There are four possible ways to place three distinct lines in a plane.
Two of these configurations involve parallel lines, the other two do
not. Draw all four of them, and find the one that encloses a region.
9 There are eight possible ways to place four distinct lines in a plane.
Five of these configurations involve parallel lines, the other three do
not. Draw all eight of them.
6C Points, lines and planes in space
Geometry in space can be much harder to imagine than geometry in a

plane. You should use things around you to help. For example you can use:
• the walls, edges and corners of the room
• the pages of your book fanned out from the spine
• rulers and books held up in space above your desk
• coins and erasers used to represent points in space.
Here are some observations about geometry in space. They may look very
simple, but some of them will each need a great deal of thought and some
examples.
Complete Exercise 6C below as you are reading the following subsections –

it is intended to give some concrete examples.

A point and a plane
Given a point and a plane, there are two possibilities:
• The point lies in the plane. • The point does not lie in the plane.
A line and a plane

Given a line and a plane, there are three possibilities:
• The line lies entirely • The line meets the • The line never meets
within the plane. plane at a single the plane, no matter
point. (The line how far the line
passes through the and the plane are
plane.) produced. In this
case, we say that the
line and the plane are
parallel.

Two distinct planes
Given two distinct planes, there are two possibilities:
• The two planes meet in a line. • The two planes never meet
at all, no matter how far
they are produced. In this
case, we say that the two
planes are parallel.
Note: Two planes cannot meet in a point.
Two distinct lines – parallel lines and skew lines

Given two distinct lines in space, there are three possibilities:
• The two lines meet in • The two lines lie in • The two lines do not
a single point. In this a single plane, but meet at all, and do
case, the two lines lie they never meet, no not lie in any single
in a single plane. matter how far they plane. The two lines
are produced. In this are then called skew
case the two lines are lines.
said to be parallel.
Skew lines cannot occur in plane geometry, and it may be a surprise to realise
that skew lines exist at all. In fact, it is normal for two lines in space to be
skew – the first two cases are special because both lines need to be in the
one plane.

Points, lines and planes in space
• A given point either lies on a given plane, or does not lie on it.
• Given a line and a plane, there are three possibilities:
– The line lies entirely within the plane.
– The line meets the plane at a single point.
– The line is parallel to the plane.
• Two distinct planes either meet in a line or are parallel.
• Given two distinct lines in space, there are three possibilities:
– The lines lie in a single plane and meet in a single point.
– The lines lie in a single plane and are parallel.
– The lines do not lie in a single plane – they are then called skew lines.
Exercise 6C
1 Use the desktop (representing a plane) and a coin (representing a

point) to illustrate:
a a point lying in a plane
b a point not lying in a plane.
2 Use a ruler and the desktop to illustrate the three configurations of a
line and a plane.
a The line may lie in the plane.
b The line may meet the plane at a single point.
c The line may be parallel to the plane.
3 Use a flat book and the desktop to illustrate the two configurations of
two distinct planes.
a The planes may meet in a line.
b The planes may be parallel and not meet at all.

4 Hold up two pencils to illustrate the three configurations of two
lines in space.
a The two lines may intersect in a point. Bring up a book to represent
the single plane that contains both lines and their point of
intersection.
b The two lines may be parallel. Bring up a book to represent the
single plane that contains both parallel lines.
c The two lines may be skew. Convince yourself that there is no plane
that contains both these skew lines.
5 Hold up a book and let the pages fan out. Notice how the plane of
each page passes through the spine. This should demonstrate the
further observation that:
‘Given any line in space, there are infinitely many planes containing it.’
6 Look around your room at the six planes formed by the ceiling,
the four walls and the floor. (If your room doesn’t happen to be a
rectangular prism, you will have to pretend that it is.)
a How do the planes of the front wall and the floor intersect?
b What can you say about the planes of the front and back walls?
c Identify all three pairs of parallel planes.
7 Still considering your room, identify the 12 lines formed where these
six planes intersect.
a Point out a pair of intersecting lines, and the plane that they lie in.
b Take any one line, then point out all four lines that meet it.
c Point out a pair of parallel lines, and the plane that they lie in.
d Take any one line, then point out all the three lines that are parallel to it.
e Point out a pair of skew lines.
f Take any one line, then point out all four lines that are skew to it.

8 The diagram to the right below shows a box (rectangular prism)
ABCDPQRS.
a Name the three lines in the diagram that are parallel to AB.
b Name the four lines that are skew to AB.
c Name the three lines that pass through R.
d Name the three planes that pass through R.
e Name all points that lie in the plane PQRS.
f Name all lines that lie in the plane PQRS.
g Name all planes that are parallel to the plane PQRS.
h Name all lines that are D C
parallel to the plane PQRS. A B
i Name all lines that meet the
plane PQRS in a point.
j Name all planes that meet S R
the plane PQRS in a line. P Q
9 The figure ABCDV to the right is a square pyramid

(its base is a square).
a Find and name the two pairs of parallel lines.
b Find and name the set of four concurrent lines.
c What is the intersection of V
the planes ABCD and ABV?
d What is the intersection of
all of the three planes
ABCD, ABV and BCV?
e Name the two lines that are D C
skew to the line AB.
f Name the two lines that are
skew to the line AV. A B
Chapter 6 An introduction to geometry

10 The figure ABCD to the right is called a tetrahedron (meaning ‘four
faces’) or a triangular pyramid.
a Find and name all six lines in the figure.
b Find and name the four planes in the figure.
c What is the intersection of the
D
two planes ABC and BCD?
d What is the intersection of the
three planes ABC, BCD and CDA?
e Every line of the tetrahedron has
C
exactly one other line that is skew
to it. Write down the three pairs of
skew lines. A
f Can you find any pair of parallel lines

or parallel planes in the figure? B
11 Imagine and draw a three-dimensional figure in which there are five

concurrent lines through one of the vertices.
6D Intervals, rays and angles
This section introduces intervals, rays and angles, and explains how to
name them.
Intervals
Let A and B be two points on a line. The interval AB is the B
part of the line between A and B, including the two endpoints. A
Rays
The point A in the diagram to the right divides the line
QAP into two pieces, called rays. The ray AP is the piece
P
that contains the point P; it is drawn unbroken. The
opposite ray, AQ, is the other piece of the line and A
contains the point Q. Q

Each ray includes the endpoint A, which is called the vertex of the ray. The
two opposite rays AP and AQ have only the vertex A in common.
Thus the ray AP starts at A and goes on forever in a fixed direction, like a
thin ray of light coming from a torch held at the vertex A.
Angles
In the diagram on the left below, the two rays OA and OB have
a common vertex, O.
The region between the rays is shaded. We can also shade the ‘outside’,
as shown on the right.
A
A
O B
O B
We say that we have formed two angles. The first one is between the two
rays; the second is ‘outside’. This is similar to taking a slice out of a round
cake. This produces two pieces as shown.
A A
O O
B
B
Clearly, the second piece is larger than the first. We can describe both the
situations above in a useful way.

Imagine that the ray OB is rotated about the point O until it lies along OA.
There are two ways of doing this:
A A

O B and O B
Figure 1 Figure 2
The amount of turning in Figure 1 is smaller, and is called the size of the
angle between OA and OB. The amount of turning in Figure 2 is called the
size of the reflex angle formed by OA and OB.
In this chapter, we are going to work with the angle between two rays
nearly all the time. We may write both ∠AOB and ∠BOA for the angle
shown in Figure 1.
Naming an angle
The angle shown above can be named either ∠AOB or ∠BOA. Notice that
the vertex O must go in the middle, but the points A and B can be written
either way around.
Intervals, rays and angles

• An interval AB is the section of line AB between A and B, and includes
the points A and B.
• A point on a line divides the line into two opposite rays. The point is
the vertex of both rays.
• The name of an angle has the vertex in the middle, for example, ∠AOB.
Exercise 6D
1 a In the diagram below, name all the labelled points in:

i the line BC ii the ray BC
D
iii the interval BC iv the ray DB C
A B
v the interval CA vi the interval AD

b Copy and complete: The rays BD and BA are _______________ rays.
c What is the intersection of the ray BC and the ray CB? (That is,
what do they have in common?)
2 There are five lines in the diagram to the right.
a Copy and complete: The lines AK, BL and O
CM are _______________.
b Does L lie on the ray OB? A C
B
P
c Does L lie on the interval PK? K
L
M
d Name the two rays with vertex P.
e Name the four rays with vertex A.
3 Draw two distinct points L and M, and construct the line LM. Choose
a point N between L and M. Then choose another point P so that M is
between L and P.
a Does N lie in the interval LM?
b Does P lie in the interval LM?
4 Name each angle below, using three letters (for example, ∠AOB).
a A b c V
K
Z
L X
B C M
5 Name all the angles of each figure below.

a F b R S
G H
U T

6 Name each angle indicated in the diagrams below.
a A b L M
O C O N
c V d A D
M
C B
F G H
e Y f P
X Q
R
B S
A
L M
7 a Name all eight angles associated with the figure below.

A
C
b Name all twelve angles formed at the vertices of the tetrahedron below.
A

D

6E Measuring angles
In this section, we discuss how to measure angles. We also describe some

important types and properties of angles.
Revolution
A revolution is the amount of turning required to rotate a ray about its
endpoint until it falls back onto itself.
There are several systems of units for measuring the size of an angle. The
best-known system divides the full revolution into 360 equal parts, called
degrees, and was developed by Babylonian mathematicians in the ancient
1
world. This system has an astronomical basis – there are about 365 4
days in the year, so the Sun moves approximately 1 degree (written as 1˚)
against the fixed stars every day.
The size of 1 revolution is 360 degrees, which is written as 360˚.
360˚
Straight angle
A straight angle is the angle formed by 180˚
taking a ray and its opposite ray.
A straight angle is half of a revolution,
and so has size equal to 180˚.
Right angle X
Let AOB be a line, and let OX be a ray making A

equal angles with the ray OA and the ray OB.
Then the equal angles ∠AOX and ∠BOX are O
called right angles. B
A right angle is half of a straight angle, and so is equal to 90˚.
The conventional way to indicate a right angle is to use a small square at

the vertex, as shown in the diagram above for ∠BOX.

Acute angles, obtuse angles and reflex angles
These types of angles are defined by comparing them with right angles,
straight angles and revolutions.
Acute angle
An acute angle is an angle that is larger than 0˚
and less than a right angle.
Obtuse angle
An obtuse angle is an angle that is larger than
a right angle and less than a straight angle.
Reflex angle
A reflex angle is greater than a straight angle
but smaller than a revolution.
A right angle is not an acute angle

A right angle is neither acute nor obtuse – it is the boundary between the
two. Similarly, a straight angle is neither obtuse nor reflex, a revolution is
not a reflex angle, and an angle of size 0˚ is not an acute angle.
Using a protractor to measure and construct angles

A protractor allows angles to be measured and constructed correct to about
the nearest degree. The most common version consists of a semicircular
piece of clear plastic with 181 equally spaced markers placed around
its circumference, allowing the measurement of angles from 0˚ to 180˚.
Another type of protractor is a full circle with 360 equally spaced markers,
allowing the measurement of angles from 0˚ to 360˚.
The steps for measuring or constructing an angle are almost the same.
• Identify the centre of the semicircle or circle on the protractor.

• Place the centre precisely over the vertex of the angle.
• Rotate the protractor until its baseline lies along one arm of the angle.

• The protractor has two scales, going in opposite directions. They are
there for your convenience – make sure that they do not become your
downfall! The two angles at each marker add to 180˚ (e.g. 70˚ and
110˚). Such angles are said to be supplementary and will be discussed
in the next section.
A
80 90 100
70 110
100 90 80 12
60 110 70 0
0 60 13
50 12 0
0 50
13
14
40
0
0
40
14
15
30
0
0
30
15
160
20
160
20

170
10
180 170
10
180
B
0
0
O
In the diagram above, the protractor is being used to measure ∠AOB.

The angle is obtuse, with size 125˚.
If you read the wrong scale, you would read the size as the supplement 55˚,
which is an acute angle. It is a good idea to establish first whether the angle
is acute, obtuse or reflex!
80 90 100
70 110
100 90 80 12
60 110 70 0
0 60 13
50 12 0
0 50
13
14
40
Q
0
40
14
15
30
0
0
30
15
160
20
160
20
170
10
180 170
10
P
180
0
In the diagram above, a protractor is being used to construct an angle

of size 160˚, given that the ray OP is one arm. First the base line of the
protractor is lined up with OP. Then a point Q is placed at the 160˚ marker
(Q), using a sharp pencil. Finally the ray from O to Q is drawn.
This angle is also obtuse – a wrong move here will result in an acute angle of
20˚, the supplement of 160˚.

Complementary angles and supplementary angles
Angles that add to 90˚ or 180˚ occur so often that it is helpful to have
special words to describe them.
Two angles that add to 90˚ are called complementary angles. For example,
30˚ and 60˚ are complementary angles, since 30˚ + 60˚ = 90˚.
Two angles that add to 180˚ are called supplementary angles. For example,
30˚ and 150˚ are supplementary angles, since 30˚ + 150˚ = 180˚.
Notice how the two scales on the protractor are related to each other.
At each marker, the two scales (the inner and the outer one) give
supplementary angles, such as 70˚ and 110˚.
Example 1
Write down the complement and the supplement of 25˚.
Solution
The complement of 25˚ is 90˚ – 25˚ = 65˚.
The supplement of 25˚ is 180˚ – 25˚ = 155˚.
Angles
• A revolution is 360˚, a straight angle is 180˚ and a right angle is 90˚.
• An acute angle has size between 0˚ and 90˚.
• An obtuse angle has size between 90˚ and 180˚.
• The size of an angle is normally taken to be between 0˚ and 180˚.
• When the reflex size of an angle is required, it is written ‘reflex ∠AOB’.
The reflex size of an angle is between 180˚ and 360˚.
• Two angles are called complementary if they add to 90˚.
• Two angles are called supplementary if they add to 180˚.
• Angles can be approximately measured and constructed with a protractor.

Exercise 6E
Example 1 1 Write down the complement of:

a 15˚ b 35˚ c 72˚ d 88˚ e 56˚
Example 1 2 Write down the supplement of:
a 160˚ b 100˚ c 75˚ d 88˚ e 146˚
3 Classify each angle as acute, obtuse or reflex.
a b
c d
4 What is the size of the angle between the hour hand and the minute
hand at:
a 6:00 am? b 3:00 am? c 1:00 pm?
d 2:00 pm? e 4:00 am? f 8:00 pm?
g 10:00 am? h 7:00 am?
5 Through how many degrees does the minute hand of a clock move in:
a 1 hour? b 30 minutes? c 45 minutes?
d 5 minutes? e 50 minutes? f 25 minutes?
1
g 2 hours? h 1 2 hours?

6 Read the angle AOB that is being measured by the protractor in each
of these diagrams.
a
70
80 90 100
110 B
100 90 80 12
60 110 70 0
0 60 13
50 12 0
0 50
13
14
40
0
0
40
14
15
30
0
0
30
15
160
20
160
20
170
10
180 170
10
A
180
0
0
O
b 90 100
B
80 110
70 90 80
60 100 70 12
0
110 60 13
0
50 12 0
0 50
13
14
40
0
0
40
14
15
30
0
0
30
15
160
20
160
20
170
10
180 170
10
A
180
0
7 a Use your protractor to find the size of each angle. Be careful to place
the centre of the semicircle precisely over the vertex of the angle.
i

ii
iii

iv


vi

vii
viii
b Write down the size of the reflex angle in each of the subparts i – viii
of part a.
8 a Copy the diagram below, leaving about 6 cm of space above the

diagram for angles to be drawn.

A P

b Use your protractor to construct rays, pointing upwards, that make
angles with the ray AP of:
i 24˚ ii 160˚ iii 70˚ iv 170˚
v 82˚ vi 116˚ vii 5˚ viii 133˚
9 a Measure the sizes D
of angles ∠AOB, C
∠BOC and ∠COD.

b Measure the size of
∠AOD. B
c Complete: The size of

angle ∠AOD is the sum
of _______________.
d What is the reflex size A O
of ∠AOD?
e What is the reflex size of ∠AOB?
A
10 a Measure the sizes of ∠ALP
and ∠ALQ in the diagram.
b Complete: The angles ∠ALP
and ∠ALQ are ___________. P
c Measure the sizes of ∠ALP

and ∠BLQ in the diagram. L
Q
d Complete: The angles

∠ALP and ∠BLQ are B
____________.
e What is ∠ALP + ∠PLB + ∠BLQ + ∠QLA?
(Note: We have omitted the word ‘size’ here to simplify the setting
out. This will be done quite often in the rest of this chapter.)

11 a Measure the sizes of M
∠PQA and ∠PRL in S
B
the diagram.
R
b Complete: The angles
∠PQA and ∠PRL are
_________________. Q
c Measure the sizes of

∠AQR and ∠LRQ in
the diagram.
L
d Complete: The angles P
A
∠AQR and ∠LRQ are
__________________.
e Measure the sizes of ∠BQR and ∠QRL in the diagram.
f Complete: The angles ∠BQR and ∠QRL are _____________.
12 a Measure the sizes of ∠URS and T

∠UTS in the diagram.
b Complete: The angles ∠URS
and ∠UTS are ____________.
U
c Measure the sizes of ∠RUT and
∠STU in the diagram.
d Complete: The angles ∠RUT and
∠STU are ___________________.
e Measure all four interior angles S
and add them up. What do they
add to?
f Classify the four interior angles
R
as acute or obtuse.

6F Angles at a point – geometric arguments
Clear logical reasoning has always been an important part of geometry.

The diagrams of geometry make it easier to understand and construct
convincing arguments in geometry than in most other branches of
mathematics.
When setting out geometrical arguments, we state the appropriate reason

in brackets after any geometrical statement. Reasons should always be as
specific as possible and should name any figure that they refer to.
This section develops four reasons that can be given when dealing with
problems about angles at a point.
Adjacent angles
Two angles are said to be adjacent if they share a common ray.
Example 2
Find ∠AOC in the diagram shown. B

C
27˚
A
O
Solution
∠AOB = 90˚
∠AOC + 27˚ = 90˚ (adjacent angles at O)
so ∠AOC = 63˚.
Adjacent angles can be added and subtracted in the obvious ways.

Angles in a revolution add to 360˚
Example 3
Find ∠AOD in the diagram to the right. D A
O
B
160˚
C
Solution
∠AOD + 90˚ + 160˚ + 90˚ = 360˚ (revolution at O)
so ∠AOD = 20˚.
Angles in a straight angle add to 180˚

Example 4
Find ∠BOC in the diagram shown. B
135˚
C O A
Solution
∠BOC + 135˚ = 180˚ (straight angle at O)
so ∠BOC = 45˚.

Vertically opposite angles are equal
When two lines intersect, four angles are Y B
formed at the point of intersection, as
shown. The two marked angles ∠AOX
O
and ∠BOY are called vertically opposite
angles, because they are opposite each
other across the vertex O. A X
These two angles must always be equal.

• ∠AOX is the supplement of ∠BOX (straight angle O).
• ∠BOY is also the supplement of ∠BOX (straight angle O).
Since ∠AOX and ∠BOY are supplements of the same angle, they are equal.
Example 5
P T
Find ∠TAQ and ∠SAQ in
the diagram opposite. A
40˚
S Q
Solution
∠TAQ = 40˚ (vertically opposite angles at A).
Also ∠SAQ + 40˚ = 180˚ (straight angle at A),
so ∠SAQ = 140 ˚ .
Using Greek letters for angle size

Letters are very useful in geometry, as in all mathematics. In this book,
angle sizes will usually be represented by lower-case Greek letters. Four
Greek letters will be sufficient at this stage:
• a, called alpha (the Greek letter a)
• b, called beta (the Greek letter b)

• c, called gamma (the Greek letter g)
• i, called theta (the Greek letter for th).
Our English word alphabet comes from the first two letters of the Greek
alphabet – alpha and beta.
Perpendicular lines
Two lines are called perpendicular if they intersect
so that the four angles so formed are right angles.
As adjacent angles on a straight line are
supplementary, and vertically opposite angles are
equal, it is only ever necessary to prove that one of
the four angles is a right angle.
Angles at a point – geometric arguments

• Four reasons to be used in arguments (preferably with the names of vertices):
1 Adjacent angles can be added and subtracted.
2 Angles in a revolution add to 360˚.
3 Angles in a straight angle add to 180˚.
4 Vertically opposite angles are equal.
• Two lines are called perpendicular if they meet at right angles.
• Four Greek letters – a (alpha), b (beta), c (gamma), i (theta) – are often
used to represent angle size in geometry.
Exercise 6F
1 a On a large diagram (at least 10 cm by 10 cm), place O to the left of

your page.
b Draw three rays OA, OB and OC going off to the right in
different directions.
c Using your protractor, measure the sizes of ∠AOB, ∠BOC and ∠AOC.
d Check that they obey the statement ‘Adjacent angles can be added’.

2 a On a large diagram, draw a horizontal line AOB.
b Draw another ray OP going diagonally upwards from O.
c Measure ∠AOP and ∠BOP.
d Check they obey the statement ‘Angles in a straight angle add to 180˚’.
3 a On a large diagram, place O in the centre of your page.
b Draw two rays OA and OB going off to the right, one upwards,
one downwards.
c Draw a third ray OC going to the left.
d Measure the sizes of ∠AOB, ∠BOC and ∠COA.
e Check they obey the statement ‘Angles in a revolution add to 360˚’.
4 a On a large diagram, draw two lines AB and PQ intersecting at O.
b Measure the sizes of ∠AOP, ∠POB, ∠BOQ and ∠QOA.
c Check that they obey the statement ‘Vertically opposite angles
are equal’.
Note: You are now beginning to learn how to set out a mathematical
argument. Reasons must be given in geometrical exercises, as in the
examples on the previous pages. The correct reasons are as important
as the correct answers.
Example
2,3,4 5 Find the size of ∠AOB in each diagram below, giving reasons for
your answer.
a B b B c
A
M
A 25˚
85˚
O 15˚ C O 30˚ A C O B

d B N e A f
Y
33˚
100˚
30˚ A O B

O A X O B


g B
h A i
F T
B
S
50˚
34˚ 33˚ R
O N O 55˚ 32˚
60˚
60˚ 40˚ G O 31˚ A
45˚
A
M B H
B
j C k l C
N M A 80˚
170˚ A L O
170˚ 40˚ 30˚
O 50˚ 30˚ 70˚
20˚ K G
10˚ 40˚
A 60˚ D
B O J 50˚
B
F
E
6 Name the angle that is vertically opposite to ∠PQR in each of the

diagrams below.
a P R b U
V
Q
T S Q
P
R
c B P d P O
Q Q
A R R N
Example 5 7 Find the values of a, b, c and i in each diagram below, giving careful
reasons for all of your statements.
a A E b M c
B
D
a b
B i 50˚ a
J L
K V C
70˚ b A

D C
N

d A C e U F f A X
M 40˚ 35˚ B
60˚
i 40˚ i
R O 60˚ S
E c a F c O
b a
b i
D B C
G V D

A
g U R h
130˚ b
W a Y
T
80˚ B a b 40˚ i c X
L M 70˚ D
D 150˚
C
8 In each diagram below, angles marked with the same Greek letter are
equal in size. Find the value of each, giving reasons for your answers.
a D E b M
N
a b
a a 100˚ b
A B C J K L
c A d Y
i M
i
D 40˚ V C b O
b X
B
Z
e f
B A
A

B
2a
a a a
V V W X
a
a a E
C
D

g M h D
i 60˚ a + 50 a
E 3c G J K L
c
N P
6G Angles associated with transversals
This section and the next involve the relationships between angles and
parallel lines.
Reasons are important in this section – make sure that all reasons are as
specific as possible. In particular, always name any parallel lines that you are
using in your argument.
Transversal
A transversal is a line that crosses two other lines. In both diagrams below,
the line PQ is a transversal to the lines AB and CD.
B
Q Q B
A
A D
P P D
C
Notice that PQ is a transversal whether or not the other two lines are parallel.

Corresponding angles
In each diagram below, the two marked angles are called corresponding
angles, because they are in corresponding positions around the two vertices
F and G.
F F
G
G
F F
G
G
Corresponding angles and parallel lines

The situation becomes interesting when the two lines are parallel, as in the
diagram below.
If lines AB and CD are parallel, then the corresponding angles ∠DGQ and
∠BFQ, marked a and b, are equal.
Q D
a
G
C B
b
F
A
P

The following is a discussion of this idea. The diagrams below show the
situation if the angles a and b are not equal.
Q D C Q
b
b
G G
B B
a a
F F
A A P
P D
C
• If angle b is smaller than angle a, • If angle b is greater than angle a,

then line CD will cross line AB to then line CD will cross line AB to
the left of P. the right of P.
Since the line AB is parallel to the line CD, we know that line AB never
crosses line CD. This means that angle b is neither smaller nor greater than
angle a, so the two angles must be equal.
The following example shows how to set out your reasoning when solving
a problem involving parallel lines and corresponding angles. Your solution
must mention corresponding angles, and it must mention that the lines are
parallel.
Example 6
Find i in the diagram opposite. B D
110˚ i
A C
Solution
i = 110˚ (corresponding angles, AB || CD).

Alternate angles
In each diagram below, the two marked angles are called alternate angles,
because they are on alternate sides of the transversal PQ. The two angles
must also be between the two lines.
Q Q
B B
A A
C D C D
P P
Alternate angles and parallel lines
When the lines AB and CD are parallel, as in the
Q
diagram to the right, the alternate angles ∠BFG
D
and ∠FGC, marked a and b, are equal.
This result can be proved using the previous result C G

b
that the corresponding angles are equal.
a B
∠DGQ = a (corresponding angles, AB || CD) F
and ∠DGQ = b (vertically opposite angles at G). A

P
So a = b.
When this result is given as a reason, you must mention alternate angles
and name the parallel lines, as in the next example.
Example 7
Q D
Find a in the diagram to the right.
C a G
20˚ B
F
A P
Solution
a = 20˚ (alternate angles, AB || CD).

Example 8
Find ∠AST in the diagram to the right. A C
R S T
38˚ U
B D
Solution
∠AST = 38˚ (alternate angles, AB || CD).
Co-interior angles
In each diagram below, the two marked angles are called co-interior angles,
because they are between the two lines and on the same side of the
transversal PQ. Q
Q
P P
Co-interior angles and parallel lines

Suppose now that the two lines are parallel, Q
as in the diagram shown. In this situation, the D
co-interior angles ∠AFG and ∠CGF, marked
G B
a and b, cannot be equal, because one is acute C b
and the other obtuse (unless they are both a
F
right angles). A
P
The co-interior angles are supplementary,
that is, their sum is 180˚.
To prove this, we note that ∠BFG = b (alternate angles, AB || CD).
Hence a + b = 180˚ (straight angle at F).

When you use this result, you will need to mention co-interior angles and
name the parallel lines, as in the next example.
Example 9
L
Find a in the diagram to the right. N
35˚
K
M
Solution
a + 35˚ = 180˚ (co-interior angles, KL || MN)
a = 145˚
Problems with two steps

The solution of the problem below needs two steps, with a reason for each
step. Notice that a different pair of parallel lines is used in each step. As with
many geometrical problems, different proofs are available.
Example 10
Find ∠BAC in the diagram opposite. B A
D C
102˚
Solution
First, ∠DCA = 102˚ (alternate angles, AC || BD).
So ∠BAC = 78˚ (co-interior angles, AB || CD).

Angles associated with transversals
A transversal is a line that crosses two other lines. If the lines crossed by
the transversal are parallel, then:
• the corresponding angles are equal
• the alternate angles are equal
• the co-interior angles are supplementary.
Exercise 6G
1 In each diagram below, identify each pair of angles marked with a and
b as corresponding angles, alternating angles or co-interior angles.
a b
b
b
a
c d

b a
a
e f
b
a
a b

g a h a
b b
i j
b a
a b
k l a
b
a b
2 a Draw a large capital Z and mark two alternate angles with a and b.
b Draw a large capital N and mark two alternate angles with a and b.
c Draw a large capital H and mark two co-interior angles with a and b.
d Draw a large capital H and mark two alternate angles with a and b.
e Draw a large capital F and mark two corresponding angles with a and b.
f Draw a large capital E and mark two co-interior angles with a and b.
g Draw a large capital E and mark two corresponding angles with a and b.
h Draw a large capital W and mark two alternate angles with a and b.
3 For each diagram on the next page, name:

a the angle corresponding to the marked angle
b the angle alternate to the marked angle
c the angle co-interior to the marked angle.


i ii

P P R
B
J
D K
Q
L
A
M
R
Q S
C S
iii iv
X S O A
F
N B
M
V
C
W
D
L Y T
4 a Draw two horizontal parallel lines A B

AB and CD, using opposite edges of
C D
your ruler.
b Draw a transversal crossing these two parallel lines at an angle.
c Let the transversal meet AB at X and CD at Y.
d Measure ∠AXY and ∠XYD.
e Write down the result that these measurements confirm.
5 a Draw two vertical parallel lines ST and UV, S U
using opposite edges of your ruler.
b Draw a transversal JK crossing these two parallel lines
at an angle.
c Let the transversal meet ST at X and UV at Y.
d Measure ∠JXS and ∠JYU. T V

6 a Draw two oblique parallel lines AB and CD, using opposite edges of
your ruler.
b Draw a transversal crossing these two parallel lines at an angle.
c Let the transversal meet AB at X and CD at Y.
d Measure ∠AXY and ∠CYX.
Note: This is the second exercise in which you are setting out mathematical
arguments. Write your reasons carefully, as in the six examples on the
previous pages. Some questions require more than one step, each with its
own reason.
7 Find the values of a, b, c and i in the diagrams below. Give careful
Example
6,7,8,9 reasons for all your statements, mentioning the relevant parallel lines.
a U b P c
H B
B D
i

T C G
A Q i
D
D R 130˚
70˚ i A 50˚
S
C B F
S
R A
C
d S e L f K L
R a

96˚ M
O
42˚ U 75˚ c
b A B C D
T N
g D E h C i L
B F
116˚ i A 52˚
a a
24˚
X
M
Y G
G F

j k l
S C O
R
B b
69˚ O A B c Y
b 38˚
E
T A X
U D
Example
6,7,8,9,10 8 Find the values of the letters a, b, c and i in the diagrams below.
Give a reason for each step in your arguments, and name the relevant
parallel lines.
a b c
R P Q F G
a b b 82˚
a B
S
b c
A 75˚ c
70˚ D I H
T S R c
C U J
d e f
M N B Q W C X
c
i 50˚
i I J
c H b
G
F a F
110˚
b
42˚ 71˚ a
P O A P V A B E
g h
G H C
43˚ 76˚ B
b
D a F
E
c i
125˚ c
C L A M
A B

9 Find the size of the marked angle ∠AVB in each diagram below. The
solution to each part will require at least two steps, each with its own
reason.
a b A Q
W
43˚
A
B
85˚
V P
c d B V
P

R A
45˚
A 35˚ Q
B V C S T

6H Further problems involving parallel lines
This section deals with more complicated problems involving parallel lines:
• problems where construction lines need to be added

• problems involving algebra.

Adding construction lines to solve a problem
Some problems cannot be solved until one or more extra lines, called
construction lines, have been added to the diagram, as in the example below.
Example 11
Find ∠BCD in the diagram to the right. A B

50˚
45˚
E D
Solution
Construct the line CM through C parallel to AB and ED, as
shown in the diagram to the right.
A B
Then ∠BCM = 50˚ (alternate angles, 50˚
AB || CM).
C M
Also, ∠DCM = 45˚ (alternate angles,
ED || CM).
45˚
Hence ∠BCD = 95˚ (adjacent angles at C).
E D
Example 12
Find the value of a in F H

the diagram.
110˚ V
U 130˚
a
O W

Solution
Construct OG || UF, as shown. F G H
∠VOG = 70˚ (co-interior angles, HV || GO)

∠UOG = 50˚ (co-interior angles, FU || GO) 110˚ V
U 130˚
So a = 60˚ (straight angle at O). a
W
O
Problems involving algebra

In the example below, the value of i is found by using geometric arguments
and algebra.
Example 13
A
Find i in the diagram opposite. D
3i
i
B C
Solution
i + 3i = 180˚ (co-interior angles, AD || BC)

4i = 180˚
i = 45˚
Exercise 6H
Note: Each problem in this exercise requires you to set out a mathematical
argument, with carefully written reasons. Some questions require two or
more steps, each with its own reason.
Example
11,12 1 Find the values of a, b, c and i in each of the diagrams below. Give
careful reasons for all your statements.

a b
A C B
P
Q D
P
20˚ 60˚
Q A R
c F
a R a S b
c C i
S T
b
E
B D
c d
A B C M
70˚ a X
40˚
b Y
A
i
i B 50˚
M D E 60˚
L N
e f
K C M

C 80˚
J b
a c
30˚ S
B
70˚
b
A 65˚ c a
A B E
g h
P Q
A C

a D a
A B
i E b O
c
30˚
R 60˚ S
B

2 Find the size of the marked angle ∠POQ in each diagram below.
Each solution will require two or more steps, each with its own
reason.
a b
P O N M O
45˚ G
55˚ Q
P 25˚
18˚
Q R F R
c d
Q
P 35˚ X P
45˚
160˚
O
Y
O
B
A 150˚
Z Q
3 Copy each diagram, then add a suitable construction line in order to

find the size of the marked angle ∠VOW – the construction line has
been drawn for you in the first one. Give careful reasons for all your
statements.
a b
B P V
100˚
V
O
A 60˚
D
125˚
X 60˚ W Q W
O

c d
A H G V W

25˚
Q
O
B M
65˚
V
W 135˚ 300˚
F U
e O f
A V
L
V 21˚
B
W O
C 35˚
W
O
31˚
30˚ M
g h
F G A V
20˚
70˚
132˚ V W
U 150˚
O
O
W B M
Example 13 4 Find the values of a, b, c and i, giving reasons for your answers.
a b c
L M Q S P
Q
b
A b
A a a D
B C
B 144˚ R
80˚ i + 20˚ P R S
A B C D

d e f
F E S R
2a
G A B
130˚ a
I P Q
c + 10˚ i
D i C
H
g h
G H L M

c i + 40˚
F
c i
b N O
b b
A B C D
6I Proving that two lines are parallel
Corresponding, alternate and co-interior angles can be used to prove that

two lines are parallel.
Equal corresponding angles mean the lines are parallel

In the diagram to the right, we are told that the B P
corresponding angles ∠AFQ and ∠CGQ, both
marked i, are equal. In this situation, we can F
i A
conclude that the two lines are parallel. D
We know that there is only one line through F C

G
that is parallel to DC. For that line, the angle i
corresponding to ∠QGC is also i. So it must
coincide with the line BFA. Q
When using equal corresponding angles to prove that two lines are parallel,
the reason must be stated as ‘corresponding angles are equal’.

Below is a typical problem.
Example 14
Find any parallel lines in the diagram to K

a
the right. A
a M
B
L
Solution
JK || LM (corresponding angles are equal).
Equal alternate angles mean the lines are parallel

In the diagram to the right, the two alternate angles X
∠BFG and ∠FGC, both marked i, are equal.
D
Hence ∠DGX = i (vertically opposite at G). G
i
Then ∠BFG = ∠DGX = i. i B
C
That is, corresponding angles are equal. F
Therefore the lines CD and AB are parallel. A
When using equal alternate angles to prove that two lines are parallel,
the reason must be stated as: ‘alternate angles are equal’, as in the next
example.

Example 15
Find any parallel lines in the diagram shown. S Y
115˚
115˚
T Z
Solution
ST || YZ (alternate angles are equal).
Supplementary co-interior angles mean the lines are parallel

In the diagram to the right, we are told that the two C
co-interior angles ∠AFG and ∠CGF, marked i and
180˚ – i, are supplementary. This again means that G
the two lines are parallel. 180˚ – i
D A
i
This can be demonstrated as follows.
F
∠FGD = i (straight angle at G).
B
So AB || CD (alternate angles are equal).
This reason should be stated as ‘co-interior angles are supplementary’ when

used in arguments.

Example 16
A
Find any parallel lines in the diagram on
the right.
B
135˚
C
45˚
Solution
AB || CD (co-interior angles are supplementary).
All other lines intersect and so are not parallel.
Proving that two lines are parallel

Suppose that a transversal crosses two other lines.
• If the corresponding angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.
• If the alternate angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.
• If the co-interior angles are supplementary, then the lines are parallel.
A statement and its converse

The statements in this section are the converses of the statements in
section 6G, meaning that they are formed from the previous statements by
reversing the logic. For example:
Statement: If the lines are parallel, then the corresponding angles are equal.
Converse: If the corresponding angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.
Pairs like this, consisting of a statement and its converse, occur routinely
throughout mathematics, and are particularly prominent in geometry. In
this case, both the statement and its converse are true.
It is most important to realise that, in general, a statement and its converse
are quite different. Never assume that because a statement is true, then the
converse must be true. For example, consider the following statement and
its converse.

Statement: If a number is a multiple of 4, then it is even.
Converse: If a number is even, then it is a multiple of 4.
The first statement is clearly true, but its converse is false because,
for example, 10 is even but is not a multiple of 4.
Here is an example from surfing.

Statement: If you catch a wave, then you will be happy.
Converse: If you are happy, then you will catch a wave.
Many people would agree with the first statement, but everyone knows that
its converse is plain silly – you need skill to catch waves, not happiness.
So the truth of a statement has little to do with the truth of its converse.
Just as much care has been taken in justifying the converse statements
in this section as was taken in justifying the original statements of the
previous section.
Exercise 6I
1 For each diagram below, name all pairs of parallel lines,

giving reasons.
a b c
A 51˚ B
F P
H K
G Q I 75˚ 105˚ L
C 51˚ Z H J M
d e f
R 70˚ R T D E
110˚ S
65˚ 25˚
A B C D 70˚
E 65˚ 70˚ H 75˚

25˚
F G
U 110˚ 70˚ T S U G F


g h
K L V
60˚
50˚
D 50˚ E F
50˚
40˚
30˚ 50˚
N M A B C
2 In each diagram below, give a reason why AB || CD. Hence find the
values of a, b, c and i. Give all reasons.
a b
A U V B O
75˚ 98˚
b B
50˚ D
A 35˚
50˚
75˚ i
C X W D C
c d
A B A B
a 40˚ 30˚
65˚ c 40˚
C D C D
3 In each diagram below, find the values of a, b, c and i that will make
AB parallel to CD. Give all reasons.
a b
A C A B
a + 20˚
50˚
B D C D

c d
A B A B
110˚ 60˚
C D
2b
3c
F C D
e f
A B A B
2a 100˚
40˚ a + 30˚
D C D C
g h
A B A B
60˚ 100˚
b + 10˚ a + 50˚
C D C D
4 State whether each statement below is true or false. Then write down
its converse and state whether the converse is true or false.
a If you can run, then you can walk.
b If a number is greater than 10, then it is greater than 1000.
c If a man lives in Australia, then he lives in Melbourne.
d If a number is divisible by 5, then its last digit is 5.
e If a woman has a daughter, then she is a mother.
f If a whole number has fewer than four digits, then it is less than 1000.
g If a dog has black and white hair, then it can stand on its hind legs.
h If one side of a rectangle has length 8 cm, then its area is 40 cm2.

Review exercise
1 Find the values of a, b, c and i in each of the following. Give reasons

in each case.
a b c
U Q S A 110˚ B
B
T i
A b b
A D C D
B C 2a
S 75˚ D
P R F
C
d e
A C L M
b
P 20˚
Q
a R
c
b
b
B D S N O
2 State the complement of each of the following angles.

a 30˚ b 63˚ c 74˚ d 84˚
3 State the supplement of each of the following angles.
a 127˚ b 76˚ c 134˚ d 15˚
4 Find ∠AOC in the diagram shown.
B
C
32˚
A
O

5 Find ∠AOD in the diagram shown.
D
A

O
B
170˚
C
6 Give the size of the reflex angle ∠AOB in each of the diagrams below.
a A b
A
O 55˚
120˚
B B
O
c d
A O

30˚ O 130˚
A
B
B
7 Find the size of ∠AOB in each of the diagrams below.

a b
A

B
100˚ 28˚ A
35˚ 33˚ 29˚
O B 30˚

c d
A
A
120˚ B
85˚
O
89˚ 40˚
60˚
O
B
8 State whether each sentence is true or false.

a If a number ends in 0, then it is divisible by 5.
b If a number is divisible by 5, then it ends in 0.
c If a number is not divisible by 10, then it does not end in 0.
d If a number does not end in zero, then it is not divisible by 10.
9 Find the value of a in each of the diagrams below.
a b
20˚
50˚

a
55˚ a
c d
30˚ 123˚
a a
35˚
150˚
10 State whether each of the following sentences is true or false.

Then write down the converse of each, and state whether the converse
is true or false.
a If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by 3, then the
number is divisible by 3.
b If the last digit of a number is 0 or 5, then the number is divisible by 5.

Challenge
exercise
1 Calculate the unknown angle.

90˚ 110˚
115˚
a
2 a Find the value of a.

20˚
a
50˚
30˚
b Find x in terms of a, b and c.

c
x
3 Find x in terms of b, c and d.

d
x

4 There are five possible configurations of three distinct planes in space.
Two involve parallel planes, and the other three do not. Draw a
picture of each one.
5 a Questions 1e and f of Exercise 6H show that the sum of the angles
in a triangle is 180˚ in two particular cases.
Prove that a + b + c = 180˚,
b
that is, the sum of the angles
in any triangle is 180˚. a c
b Draw the general diagram corresponding

to Question 1f of Exercise 6H to obtain
a second proof of the result.
c By dividing the quadrilateral into two B
triangles, show that the sum of the A
angles in a quadrilateral is 360˚.
C
d A heptagon is a seven-sided figure,

as shown opposite. What is the angle
sum of a heptagon?

Chapter 7
Algebra with fractions
Algebra is a very important part of mathematics. It allows us to use

letters to represent numbers. In Chapter 3, we used letters to represent
whole numbers and we developed some of the rules of algebra. We
will now extend our work to include fractions, and use letters in
problems involving division.
7A Division in algebra
We begin with some examples to show how division can be used with algebra.
Example 1
If x oranges are divided equally among 5 people, how many

oranges does each person receive if:
a x = 50? b x = 37? c x = 41?
Solution
x x
a Oranges per person = 5 b Oranges per person = 5
50 37
= 5 = 5
2
= 10 = 75

x
c Oranges per person = 5
41
= 5
1
= 85
Example 2
Write each of these expressions using algebraic notation.

a A number is divided by 5, and 6 is added to the result.
b Five is added to a number, and the result is divided by 3.
Solution
a Let x be the number.
x
Dividing by 5 gives 5 .
x
Adding 6 to this result gives 5 + 6.
b Let x be the number.
Adding 5 gives x + 5.
x+5
Dividing this by 3 gives 3 .
Notice that the fraction line (the vinculum) acts like a bracket.
x+5 (x + 5)
That is, 3 = 3 .
Example 3
If x = 10, find the value of:

x x x+4 x–4
a 2 b 5 + 3 c 3 d 4
Solution
x 10 x 10
a 2 = 2 b 5 + 3 = 5 +3

= 5 =2+3
=5

x+4 10 + 4 x–4 10 – 4
c 3 = 3 d 4 = 4
14 6
= 3 = 4
2 3
= 4 3 = 2
1
= 12
Example 4
A vat initially contains n litres of oil. 40 litres of oil are then

added to the vat.
a How many litres of oil are there now in the vat?
b The oil is then divided into 50 containers. How much oil is
there in each container?
Solution
a There is a total of n + 40 litres of oil in the vat.
n + 40
b Each container holds 50 litres.
The following table gives the meanings of some commonly occurring types
of algebraic expressions.
Algebraic expression Meaning

x+3
5 3 is added to x, and the result is divided by 5.
x–5
7 5 is subtracted from x, and the result is divided by 7.
Exercise 7A
Example 2 1 Write each division as a fraction.

a A number x is divided by 5.
b A number x is divided by 6.

c A number x is divided by 5, and 3 is added to the result.
d 7 is added to a number m, and the result is divided by 3.
e A number z is divided by 6, and 3 is subtracted from the result.
f 5 is added to a number k, and the result is divided by 10.
g 6 is subtracted from a number p, and the result is divided by 3.
h 7 is added to a number y, and the result is divided by 4.
i 11 is subtracted from a number m, and the result is divided by 7.
j A number m is divided by 11, 3 is subtracted from the result, and
the result of this is multiplied by 6.
2 Write each of these divisions as a fraction.
a (b + 2) ÷ 2 b (c – 5) ÷ 4 c ( y + 11) ÷ 4 d (23 – x) ÷ 7
Example 3 3 Evaluate each of these expressions for x = 20.
x x x+2 x–2
a 2 b 5 + 7 c 3 d 4
x + 10 40 – x x+5 x+2
e 6 f 10 g 6 + 3 h 7
Example 4 4 Evaluate each of these expressions for m = 5 and n = 10.
m n m+n n–m
a n b m c 5 d 5
m 20 m+n 3m – n
e 5 + 10 f m + 3 g 3 h m

5 A pile of n bananas is divided into 5 heaps.
a How many bananas are there in each heap?
b Three bananas are added to each heap. How many bananas are
there in each heap now?
6 n tonnes of coal are stored in a shed. An extra 1000 tonnes are then added.
a How many tonnes of coal are there in the shed now?
b It is decided to ship the coal in 10 equal loads. How many tonnes
of coal are there in each load?

7 On a maths test paper, there are x questions. Before the test starts, it is
announced that the last two questions are wrong and should be ignored.
a How many questions do the students have to complete now?
b The students are given an hour to do the test. How many minutes
should they spend on each question, on average?
8 Peter joined three of his friends for dinner. They decided to share the
bill of $y equally.
a How much did Peter have to pay?
b Peter had a 50-dollar note in his wallet. How much did he have left
after the meal?
7B Multiplication and division in algebra
The following examples introduce algebraic expressions involving

multiplication and division.
Example 5
Write each of these expressions using algebraic notation.

a A number x is multiplied by 3 and divided by 2.
1
b 4 of x.
2
c A number x is multiplied by 3.
d A number x is divided by 3, 5 is added to the result, and the
result of this is multiplied by 7.
Solution
a Let x be the number.
Multiplying by 3 gives the result 3x.
3x
Dividing the result by 2 gives 2 .

1 1 x
b 4 of x = 4 × 1
x
= 4
2
c Let x be the number. Multiply by 3.
2 2 x
3 of x = 3 × 1
2x
= 3
d Let x be the number.
x
Dividing by 3 gives the result 3.
x
Adding 5 gives 3 + 5.
x
Finally, multiplying this by 7 gives 7 3 +5.
Note that brackets must be used here because the whole

x
expression 3 + 5 is multiplied by 7.
The following table gives the meanings of some commonly occurring types
of algebraic expressions.
Algebraic
Meaning
expression
x is multiplied by 2 and divided by 3.
2
x is multiplied by .
2x 3
2
3 of x
3
1
of 2x
3
2x + 3 x is multiplied by 2, and 3 is added. The result is divided

5 by 5.
3x – 5 x is multiplied by 3, and 5 is subtracted. The result is

7 divided by 7.
2
6 is added to of x.
3
2
2x 6 is added to × x.
+6 3
3 1
6 is added to of 2x.
3

x2 x is squared and the result is divided by 3.
3
x is divided by 4, 5 is added to the result,

6 x +5 and the result of this is multiplied by 6.
4
Exercise 7B
Example 5 1 Write each of these expressions using algebraic notation. In each part,
use the pronumeral x.
a A number is multiplied by 7 and then divided by 3.
b A number is multiplied by 10 and then divided by 3.
c A number is divided by 4 and then multiplied by 3.
d A number is multiplied by 3, then divided by 2, and 5 is added to
the result.
e A number is multiplied by 3, then 2 is added to the result, and the
result of this is then divided by 4.
f A number is multiplied by 5, then 2 is subtracted from the result,
and the result of this is then divided by 5.
3
g 4 of a number.
7
h 6 is added to 8 of a number.
3
i 7 is added to a number multiplied by 8 .
j A number is divided by 3, then 7 is added to the result, and the
result of this is then multiplied by 7.
k A number is divided by 8, then 5 is subtracted from the result, and
the result of this is then multiplied by 9.
l A number is divided by 11, then 3 is subtracted from the result and
the result of this is then multiplied by 6.
2
m 3 is taken away from 5 of a number, and the result of this is then
multiplied by 4.

4
n 9of a number is subtracted from 23, and the result of this is then
3
multiplied by 7 .
2
o 3 is taken away from 5 of a number, and the result of this is then
2
multiplied by 11 .
4 2
p 9of a number is subtracted from 3 , and the result of this is then
2
multiplied by 13 .
2
q A number is multiplied by itself, and the result is then multiplied by 3 .
3
r A number is multiplied by itself, and the result is then multiplied by 7 .
7C Substitution
We recall that the process in which we replace a letter by a particular value

is called substitution.
Example 6
Evaluate each of these expressions for x = 24.

2x 3x 2(x + 6)
a 3 b 2 c 5
Solution
2x 2 × 248 2(x + 6) 2(24 + 6)
a 3 = 31 5 = 5c
2 × 306
= 16 = 51
3x 3 × 2412
b 2 = 21 =2×6

= 36 = 12

Exercise 7C
Example 6 1 Evaluate each of these expression for x = 12.

3x 4x 2(x + 6)
a 4 b 3 c 9
3x 3x 3(x + 2)
d 4 + 9 e 4 – 9 f 7

2 Evaluate these expressions for x = 2.
3x 2x 2(x + 5) 2x
a 4 b 5 c 7 d 10 + 10
x–1 3x 4x – 8 6x – 4
e 7 5 f 4 – 2 g 4 h 3

2x 3x 2(x + 50) 2x
a 5 b 5 c 5 d 15 + 10
x – 20 3x 360 2x + 54
e 3 5 f 40 – 5 g 5 – 2x h 11 + 10
3(200 – 3x) 260 – 2x 5x x – 34
i 5 j 3 7 –8 k 6 – 36 l 8 13
1
4 Evaluate these expressions for m = 5 and n = 2.
a m + n b m – n c 2m + n d 2m – 3n
m
e 5m – 7n f 4 g n ÷ 5 h mn
2m m+n
i n ÷ m j m ÷ n k 3 l 11

5 The perimeter of a triangle, with all sides of equal length, is x cm.
What is the length of each side, in terms of x? If x = 22, what is the
length of each side?
6 The perimeter of a square is x cm. What is the length of each side, in
terms of x? If x = 27, what is the length of each side?
7 A piece of string is x metres in length. It is divided into 5 equal parts.
a Find the length of each part, in terms of x.
b Find the length of each part for:
i x = 20 ii x = 42 iii x = 96
t
8 A shop charges $ 3 for t kg of tomatoes. If 12 kg are bought, what is
the cost?

9 A number x is doubled and the result is divided by 8. Write this using
algebraic notation. If x = 7, what is the final result?
4
10 A number, x, is multiplied by 7 , and 5 is subtracted from the result.
Write this using algebraic notation. If x = 10, find the final result.
1
11 For m = 6 and n = 2 , evaluate these expressions.
m 35 – m 3m – 34n m + 23
a 3 n + 10 b n 3 c m + 4 d n – 4m
b c
12 A supermarket charges $ 3 for b kg of potatoes, and $ 2 for c kg of
oranges. If 12 kg of potatoes and 10 kg of oranges are bought, what is
the cost?
13 A ribbon of length 12 m is divided into x parts of equal length.
a What is the length of each part, in terms of x?
b If x = 10, what is the length of each part?
14 x kg of a pool chemical cost $90. How much, in terms of x, did
1 kg cost?
15 The area of a rectangle is 6x2 cm2. The width of the rectangle is 2 cm.
a What is the length of the rectangle, in terms of x?
b What is the length of the rectangle if x = 4?
16 The area of a rectangle is 6x2 cm2. The width of the rectangle is 5 cm.
a What is the length of the rectangle, in terms of x?
b What is the length of the rectangle if x = 4?
2 3
17 Evaluate these expressions for a = 3 and b = 5.
a a + b b a – b c 2a d 3a
e 2a + 3b f 2 – a g 4a – b h 4a
i ab j a ÷ b k b ÷ a l 2b ÷ a

7D Dividing and cancellation
In Chapters 2 and 3, indices were used as a shorthand notation. For

example, x × x × x = x3 and y × y = y2. In Chapter 4, we learnt how to
cancel fractions. The methods of arithmetic, introduced in earlier chapters,
can all be used in the same way with algebra. It is assumed in the following
examples that pronumerals in the denominator cannot take the value 0.
Example 7
Simplify:
8x 7xy 42xyz 56abc
a 2 b x c xz d 35c
Solution
8x 84x 7xy 7x1y
a 2 = 21 b x = x1

= 4x = 7y
42xyz 42x1yz1 56abc 56 8abc1
c xz = x1z1 35c = 35 5c 1 d
8ab
= 42y = 5
Example 8
Simplify:
x x2 x3
a x b x c x2
Solution
x x2 x × x1 x3 x × x1× x1
a = x1
x = 1 b
c x2 = x1× x1 x

= x = x

Example 9
Simplify:
60p2q 50x2y2
a 12p b 20xa
Solution
60p2q 605 × p1 × p × q 50x2y2 505 × x1 × x × y × y
a 12p = 121 × p1 b 20xa = 202 × x1 × a
5xy2
= 5pq = 2a
Example 10
Simplify:
3 8a 2a 3b a 3a
a 4 × 3 b 3 × 4 c 5 × 7
Solution
3 8a 3 1 × 8 2a 2a 3b 2 1a × 3 1b a 3a a × 3a
a 4 × 3 = 41 × 3 1 b 3 × 4 = 3 1 × 4 2 c 5 × 7 = 5 × 7

ab 3a 2
= 2a = 2 = 35
Exercise 7D
Example 7 1 Simplify:
4x 20x 4x 2d e
a 8 b 5 c 20 d d
4xy 7a 5xy 3a
e y f 21 g x h 12a
6x 8xy 24xyz mnp
a x b y c xz d 5m
9zx 18xy 18xyz 72abc
e 3z f y g yz h 16c
36zyx 42xaby 72def 34abc
i 4zya j 7ydc k 54dfyz l 6cd

a2 a3 a3 4ab
a a b a2 c a d ab
3a 2 b 5ab

abcd
e a f a2 g defg
48x2y 25x2y2 45x3y2
a 4x b 20xa c 20xy
5 8a 2a 3b 2a a a
a 4 × 10 b 3 × 8 c 5 × 3 d a × 3
2a 5b 2a 3a 5 3 4a
e 5 × 12 f 3 × 5 g 4 of 20a h 4 of 15
6 Evaluate each expression for x = 2 and y = 3.

x2 x 2y 5x2y 2 3x + y 6 3x2
a 2 b 2 c 6 d 3x e xy f 2y2

x
7 A rectangle has length x cm and width 3 cm. What is the area of the
rectangle? Find the area if x = 9.
2x 3x
8 A rectangle has length 3 m and width 4 m. What is the area of the
2x
9 The cost of x kg of a type of meat is $ 5 .
a How much would 1 kg cost? b How much would z kg cost?

2
10 David spends 3 of his income on entertainment. If he earns $x a
month, how much does he spend on entertainment each month?
11 The cost of a certain type of material for curtains costs $x a metre.
4
How much would 1 5 m cost?
12 Twenty people go to the theatre. Each ticket costs x dollars. The cost
of the tickets is to be shared equally between 15 people. How much
does each of these people pay?
13 A newspaper agent employs a team of y newspaper boys. The whole
team has to distribute 6x daily papers to the local residential area
every morning.
a How many papers, on average, does each boy have to distribute?
b What is the average number of papers each boy distributes each
morning if x is 100 and y is 12?
Review exercise
1 Write each of these expressions using algebraic notation.

a A number x is divided by 10.
b A number a is divided by 11.
c A number m is divided by 3, and 4 is added to the result.
d 6 is added to a number x, and the result is divided by 5.
e A number z is divided by 7, and 4 is subtracted from the result.
f A number m is multiplied by 7, and divided by 3.
g A number a is divided by 2 and multiplied 5.
h A number b is multiplied by 8 and divided by 7, and 5 is added to
the result.
i A number c is divided by 7, then 5 is subtracted from the result,
and the result of this is then multiplied by 10.
j A number n is divided by 13, then 4 is subtracted from the result,
and the result of this is then multiplied by 9.
2
k 6 is taken away from 5 of a number p, and the result of this is then
2
multiplied by 5 .
4
l 11 of a number q is subtracted from 23, and the result of this is
3
then multiplied by 8 .
3
m 3 is taken away from 5 of a number r, and the result of this is then
3
multiplied by 5 .
5
n 9of a number p is subtracted from 22, and the result of this is then
3
multiplied by 13 .
3
o A number r is multiplied by itself, and the result is multiplied by 4 .
5
p A number q is multiplied by itself, and the result is multiplied by 11 .

2 For x = 30, evaluate:
x x x+2
a 3 b 5 + 8 c 7
3 For a = 72, evaluate:

a a a + 24
a 3 b 24 + 3 c 8

5x 4x 3(x + 5) 2x
a 4 b 5 c 10 d 5 + 12
x–2 5x 5x – 8 3x – 4
e 6 5 f 25 – 2 g 5 h 3
5 Evaluate these expressions for m = 15.

3m 7m 3(m + 5) 20 – m
a 4 b 12 c 20 d 7 5
m2 m – 10 m m
e 5 f 2 g 6 – 30 h 25 – 3
6 Evaluate these expressions for m = 6 and n = 7.
m n m+n n–m
a n b m c 5 d 5
m m n m+2 m–3
e 3 + n f 3 + 2 g 5 h 7
7 An artist had x litres of red paint and y litres of blue paint. In order to
1 6
spray her sculpture in purple, she mixed 18 of the red paint with 35 of
the blue paint. How much purple paint did she produce?
8 Simplify:
8x 6mn 24mnp xyz
a 4 b m c mn d 5x
16mn 11ab 18abc 48abc
e 4m f b g bc h 16c
4 3
9 Evaluate these expressions for a = 5 and b = 4 .
a a + b b a – b c 3a d 5a
e 2a + 3b f 5 – a g 6a – b h 3b
i ab j a ÷ b k b ÷ a l 4b ÷ a
3 7
10 Evaluate these expressions for a = 7 and b = 8 .
a a + b b b – a c 2a d 2b
1
e 2b – 2a f 3(a + b) g 2 (a + b) h b ÷ a
i a ÷ b j a2 + b2 k 5 – a l 5 – b

11 Complete these statements.
2x2 4 2 2a
a 5x × … = 5x2 b 3 ×…= 9x c 3 × … = 6a2
45a2
6a 5z

d 7 ÷ … = 5a e 11 ÷ … = 24a
2
f 12 ÷…=z
12 Simplify:
3a z2 z3 4xy
a ab b z c z2 d zy
3x2y z3 5m3n3 xyzw
e y f z g m2 h yzwx
2x
13 A rectangle has length x cm and width 5 cm. What is the area of the
5x 3x
14 A rectangle has length 4 m and width 4 m. What is the area of the

Challenge
exercise
1 a A rectangle has area 56 cm2 and width 7 cm. What is the length of
the rectangle?
b A rectangle has area x cm2 and width 3 cm. What is the length of
the rectangle?
c A rectangle has area (x + 4) cm2 and width 3 cm. What is the length
of the rectangle?
d A rectangle has area 3 cm2 and width x cm. What is the length of
the rectangle?
2 a A rectangle has area x cm2 and width 2 cm. What is the perimeter
of the rectangle?
b A rectangle has area (x + 3) cm2 and width 2 cm. What is the
perimeter of the rectangle?
3 a A car travels at 60 km/h for 3 hours. What is the distance travelled
in the 3 hours?
b A car travels at 60 km/h for n hours. What is the distance travelled
in the n hours?
c A car travels at x km/h for 3 hours. What is the distance travelled in
the 3 hours?
d A car travels at x km/h for n hours. What is the distance travelled in
the n hours?
4 a A boat is 50 km due east of Brisbane at 3:00 pm. It then travels in
an easterly direction at 30 km/h.
i How far from Brisbane is the boat at 6:00 pm?
ii How far from Brisbane is the boat after travelling for n hours
after 3:00 pm?
b A boat is 500 km due east of Sydney at 11:00 am. It then travels in
a westerly direction at 25 km/h.
i How far from Sydney is the boat at 4:00 pm?
ii How far from Sydney is the boat after travelling for n hours
after 11:00 am (up to the time it reaches Sydney)?
5 a A car travels at a constant speed for 2 hours. It travels 120 km in
this time. What is the speed of the car?
b A car travels at a constant speed for 3 hours. It travels n km in this
time. What is the speed of the car?
c A car travels at a constant speed for m hours. It travels n km in this
time. What is the speed of the car?
6 If a car is travelling at 50 km/h, how long does it take for the car to
travel n km?
7 The area of the rectangle ABCD is 16 cm2. B C
The length of BA is x cm.

a Find the length of BC, in terms of x.
b Write down an expression for the perimeter A D
of the rectangle, in terms of x.
c If x = 4, find the perimeter of the rectangle.
1
d If x = 4, find the perimeter of the rectangle.
8 A car travels 20 km from Cranung to Doville. It travels d km at 60 km/h
and the remainder at 80 km/h.
a How far does the car travel at 80 km/h?
b For how long, in terms of d, does the car travel at:
i 60 km/h? ii 80 km/h?
c What is the total time for the journey, in terms of d ?
d Find the total time taken, in minutes, if:
i d = 6 km ii d = 12 km iii d = 20 km

Chapter 8
Decimals
You have become accustomed to using fractions to represent

quantities that are not whole numbers. We are now going to see how
to use decimals to represent certain kinds of fractions. Decimals are
very useful when making measurements, such as the heights of people
in your class, the price of petrol or the amount of gas used for heating
your home. Decimals are universal in commerce.
8A Place value and comparison of decimals
Decimal place value

The word decimal comes from the Latin word decem, meaning ‘ten’.
Decimals are an extension of the base-ten place-value number system
for whole numbers, which was discussed in Chapter 1 (see Section 1G).
In the decimal system, we use tenths, hundreds, thousandths, and so on
as well as units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on. Here are some
basic facts connecting decimals and fractions:
1 2 9
10 is written as 0.1 10 is written as 0.2 10 is written as 0.9
1 3 9
1 4 9
and so on.

The decimal 0.359 is a shorthand for
3 5 9
10 + 100 + 1000 .
Similarly, the decimal 8.463 is a shorthand for

4 6 3
8+ 10 + 100 + 1000 .
The decimal 256.584 is a shorthand for

5 8 4
2 × 100 + 5 × 10 + 6 + 10 + 100 + 1000 .
The decimal point separates the units column from the tenths column. To
the right of the decimal point, we read the names of the digits individually.
For example, 125.2408 is read as ‘one hundred and twenty-five point two,
four, zero, eight’ or ‘one, two, five point two, four, zero, eight’.
Here is a chart indicating the place values in the decimal system.

Thousandths
thousandths
thousandths
Hundreds of
Hundredths
Thousands
thousands
thousands
Millionths
Hundreds
Hundred-
Tens of
Million
Tenths
Units
Tens
Ten-
Keep going!
Keep going!
1 2 5 2 4 0 8
1 1 1 1 1 1
10 100 1000 10 000 100 000 1000 000
1 000 000
100 000
10 000
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
0.000001
Example 1
Using the place values of the digits, write the decimal number
125.2408 as a sum of hundreds, tens, units, tenths, hundredths,
thousandths and ten-thousandths.
Solution
2 4 0 8
125.2408 = 100 + 2 × 10 + 5 × 1 + 10 + 100 + 1000 + 10 000

Decimal notation is a convenient and powerful way of writing fractions
that have denominators that are powers of 10.
Example 2
Write 3.142 as a fraction with denominator a power of 10.
Solution
1 4 2
3.142 = 3 + 10 + 100 + 1000
3000 100 40 2
= 1000 + 1000 + 1000 + 1000
3000 + 100 + 40 + 2
= 1000

3142
= 1000

The process can be reversed. A fraction with a denominator that is a power

of 10 can be written as a decimal.
Example 3
34
Write 1000 as a decimal.
Solution
34 30 + 4
1000 = 1000
30 4
= 1000 + 1000
3 4
= 100 + 1000

0 3 4
= 10 + 100 + 1000

= 0.034

Decimal places
The number of places occupied by the digits after (that is, to the right of)
the decimal point is called the number of decimal places. Thus 345.607 has
3 decimal places, and 0.2 has 1 decimal place.

Class discussion
Which is larger:
• 2.12 or 2.4?
• 0.8 or 0.836?
• 4.04 or 4.048?
• 9.52 or 9.02981643?
• 0.37 or 0.37082?
• 5.9 or 5.897?
• 0.35 or 0.6?
How can you tell which is larger? What is a useful strategy for comparing
decimal numbers?
Comparing decimals
Look at 0.8 and 0.345. In the past, when you worked with whole numbers,
you used the ‘longer numbers are larger’ idea to help you. This does not
work with decimal numbers. The number line makes it easy to see which
decimal is larger.
Comparing decimals using the number line

On the number line, 0.8 and 0.34 are both between 0 and 1.
Because 0.8 is to the right of 0.34, we know that 0.8 > 0.34.
0.8
0.34
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
To make a decision about which is the largest of 4.2, 4.54 and 4.362, we
locate each number on the number line.

4.2
4.362 4.54
4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6
4.362
4.3 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38 4.39 4.4
It is necessary to ‘zoom in’ on a section of the number line to show that

4.362 is between 4.36 and 4.37.
So we find that 4.2 < 4.362 < 4.54.
Comparing numbers by comparing the digits left to right
When using this method, it is important to write the numbers one

underneath the other, with the decimal points lined up.
For example, to compare 3.78 and 3.612, we first write the numbers one
beneath the other, aligning the decimal points.
3.78
3.612
Next, we compare the whole-number parts. Both are the same, so we
proceed to the next step.
Finally, we compare the tenths: 7 tenths is larger than 6 tenths. So 3.78 is

larger than 3.612.

Comparing decimals using areas
Shading decimal fractions of areas can also help us to visualise the

numbers and make comparisons. In the diagrams below, the ‘one’ or
‘whole’ is represented by the shaded square.
one
• When the whole is cut into 10 equal pieces, each piece is a tenth of the
whole. Each piece is equivalent to 0.1.
• When the whole is cut into 100 equal pieces, each piece is a hundredth of
the whole. Each piece is equivalent to 0.01.
Different decimal numbers can be represented by shading the appropriate

number of parts.
0.9 0.23
2.45
This model is difficult to use beyond the hundredths place, because the
thousandths are too small to see (or draw!).

Decimal place value
• In decimal numbers, the places filled by the digits after the decimal
point are called the decimal places. For example, 3.146 is a number
with 3 decimal places and 14.1256 has 4 decimal places.
• Every decimal number can be written as a fraction in which the
denominator is a power of 10.
• Fractions with denominators that are powers of ten can easily be
written as decimals.
• To compare decimals, line up the decimal point and compare the digits
from left to right.
Example 4
Write down the place value of the digit 3 in each of these decimals.
a 231.45 b 24.31 c 27.031 d 2.7503
Solution
3 3 3
a 30 b 10 c 100 d 10 000
Example 5
Use a number line to show which is the largest of 2.03, 2.3 and 2.33.
Solution
All of the numbers are between 2 and 3. Draw the number line,
including divisions into hundredths.
2.3
2.03 2.33
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
So 2.33 is the largest.

Example 6
Which is larger, 2.52 or 2.57483? Use left-to-right comparison

of digits.
Solution
Align the digits and the decimal points.
2.52
2.57483
The whole numbers are the same and the tenths digits are the same.
In the hundredths column, 7 is larger than 2, so 2.57483 is larger
than 2.52.
Example 7
Represent 0.6 and 0.57 using the area model and then find which
one is larger.
Solution
Compare using the area model.
0.6 0.57
0.6 covers a greater area than 0.57 and is therefore larger.

Exercise 8A
Example 1 1 Using the place values of the digits, write the decimal number
276.3507 as a sum of hundreds, tens, units, tenths, hundredths,
thousandths and ten-thousandths.
Example 2 2 Write 4.276 as a fraction with denominator a power of 10.
57
Example 3 3 Write 1000 as a decimal.
Example 4 4 Write down the place value of the digit 2 in each of these decimals.
a 32.45 b 4.92 c 0.21
d 23.09 e 0.002 f 45.978723
5 List 10 numbers that can be made from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3 and a
decimal point, using each digit only once in each number.
6 Using a number line, find the whole number closest to each of
these decimals.
a 3.09 b 3.9 c 1.28493
d 5.700001 e 4.499 f 9.09999
Example 6 7 Copy these numbers and circle the number that is the larger of
each pair.
a 0.4 or 0.32 b 1.8 or 1.93
c 6.8 or 6.08 d 5.63 or 5.064
e 7.34 or 7.3412 f 5.001 or 5.1
g 8.99978 or 8.342 h 3.67 or 3.5
i 297.2357 or 297.23 j 11.3 or 1.13
k 434.89769 or 434.81198 l 3.56 or 3.49999
8 Order these numbers from smallest to largest.
a 2.3, 0.2, 8.153, 7.2, 4.08 b 1.09, 1.93, 1.39, 1.9, 1.30
c 7.000023, 7.230000, 7.99, 7.4109572, 7.0748
d 6.66, 6.4, 6.9234, 6.888, 6.98574

9 State whether each number is closer to 4 or closer to 5.
a 4.102534 b 4.99 c 4.6 d 4.52
e 4.01 f 4.09879562 g 4.49 h 4.00003
i 4.499989 j 4.49494 k 4.83112 l 4.12109
10 Complete these statements. (One has been done for you.)
a 6 tenths = ___ thousandths
b 6 tenths = ___ hundredths
c 6 tenths = 0.6 units
d 6 tenths = ____ tens
e 6 tenths = ____ hundreds
f 6 tenths = ____ thousands
a 89 hundredths = ___ thousandths
b 89 hundredths = ___ tenths
c 89 hundredths = 0.89 units
d 89 hundredths = ___ tens
e 89 hundredths = ____ hundreds
f 89 hundredths = ____ thousands
a 723 thousandths = ____ hundredths
b 723 thousandths = ___ tenths
c 723 thousandths = 0.723 units
d 723 thousandths = ___ tens
e 723 thousandths = ____ hundreds
f 723 thousandths = ___ thousands

8B Decimals to fractions and fractions to decimals
In this section, you will learn more about how to convert decimals to
fractions and fractions to decimals.
Converting decimals to fractions

To convert from a decimal to a fraction or mixed numeral, first translate
the numbers into a whole number, tenths, hundredths, thousandths and so
on. Then add these up and simplify.
Example 8
Convert 2.36 to a mixed number.
Solution
3 6
2.36 = 2 + 10 + 100
30 6
=2+ 100 + 100
36
= 2 100 (Now simplify.)
9
= 2 25
It is not always necessary to show all of these steps.
Example 9
Convert 0.85 to a fraction.
Solution
85
0.85 = 100 (Now simplify.)
17
= 20

Converting fractions to decimals
If we have a fraction or mixed number in which the denominator is a power
of 10, it is easy to convert it to a decimal, as we saw earlier.
34 30 4
2 100 = 2 + 100 + 100
3 4
=2+ 10 + 100
= 2.34
To convert a fraction that does not have a denominator that is already a
power of 10 into a decimal, first try to find an equivalent fraction with a
denominator that is a power of 10.
Example 10
Convert these fractions to decimals by finding an equivalent

fraction for each with a denominator that is a power of 10.
1 3 3 17 7
a 2 b 5 c 4 d 20 e 8
Solution
In each case, ask yourself whether the denominator is a factor of
a power of 10.
1 1×5 3 3×2
a 2 = 2×5 b 5 = 5×2
5 6
= 10 = 10
= 0.5 = 0.6
3 3 × 25 17 17 × 5
c 4 = 4 × 25 d 20 = 20 × 5
75 85
= 100 = 100
= 0.75 = 0.85
7 7 × 125
e 8 = 8 × 125
875
= 1000
= 0.875

You may have noticed that each of the denominators of the fractions above
could be written as a product of powers of 2 and 5. The factors of numbers
that are powers of 10 are always products of powers of 2 and 5. The
method used in Example 10 can be used to convert any fraction in which
the denominator is a product of powers of 2 and powers of 5 to a decimal.
The division process

An alternative method of converting a fraction to a decimal is to divide the
numerator of the fraction by its denominator, as shown in the following
example. The algorithm is an extension of the short division algorithm
discussed in Chapter 1 (see Section 1I).
Example 11
Convert each fraction to a decimal, using the division process.

281 743
a 5 b 8
Solution
281
a Write 5 = 281 ÷ 5.
Set out 28 ÷ 5 using the short division algorithm as shown:
5 36. 1 2
5 ) 2 8 1. 0
281
So 5 = 56.2.
743
b Write 8 = 743 ÷ 8.
Set out 743 ÷ 8 using the short division algorithm as shown:
9 22. 78 67 45
8 ) 7 4 3. 0 0 0
743
So 8 = 92.875.

Basic decimals
You have already seen the fractions equivalent to 0.1, 0.01 and 0.001.
You probably already know some of these fractions and their decimal
equivalents.
Decimal number Equivalent fraction

1
0.5 2
1
0.25 4
3
0.75 4
1
0.125 8
3
0.375 8
5
0.625 8
7
0.875 8
In earlier chapters, you will have found that memorising a good range of
number facts is extremely helpful. Knowing the equivalents of a few simple
fractions and decimals between 0 and 1, such as those given above, will also
be very useful in everyday life.
Converting between fractions and decimals

• A decimal can be converted to a fraction by writing it as a fraction
whose denominator is a power of ten, and then simplifying.
• A fraction can sometimes be converted to a decimal by finding an
equivalent fraction with a denominator that is a power of 10, or by
division.
Exercise 8B
Example 1 Express each decimal as a fraction or mixed number.

8,9
a 0.75 b 15.25 c 0.34 d 4.125 e 0.025
f 0.009 g 0.806 h 8.75 i 0.0125 j 54.625

2 Express each fraction or mixed number as a decimal.
5 43 5 5 57
a 10 b 100 c 100 d 1000 e 1000
30 27 9 230 3
f 1000 g 100 h 10000 i 10 j 2 10
96 96 35 101 101
k 16 100 l 16 1000 m 24 1000 n 101 1000 o 101 10000
Example 3 Convert each fraction to a decimal.
10,11
22 100 13 43
a 4 b 8 c 2 d 5
574 381 1095 27
e 10 f 4 g 20 h 5
4 Convert each fraction to a decimal.

22 46 3 21 33
a 20 b 50 c 5 d 20 e 250
163 8 26 267 135
f 200 g 500 h 25 i 250 j 50
2 3 31 3 2
k 5 5 l 19 25 m 2 50 n 25 o 125

5 Insert the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 in the boxes to make these
statements true.
1 3 8
a = 0.5 b 4 = 0. 5 c 5 = 1.
1 5
d = 0.25 e = 0.625 f 16 = 0. 125
8
6 Match each decimal to its equivalent fraction.
Decimal Fraction
1
0.01 5
1
0.125 100
1
0.25 2
1
0.2 4
1
0.5 8

8C Addition and subtraction of decimals
Addition and subtraction of decimals can be carried out using the standard
algorithms.
Adding decimals
The vertical addition algorithm is shorthand for adding hundreds to hundreds,
tens to tens, ones to ones, tenths to tenths, and so on. It is important to line up
the place value columns by lining up the decimal points.
Example 12
Add 4.326 and 15.09.
Solution
4 . 3 2 6
+ 1 5 . 01 9 0
1 9 . 4 1 6
Example 13
Add 3.90172 to 238.178.
Solution
3 . 9 0 1 7 2
+ 2 31 81 . 1 7 8 0 0
(Fill out with 0s to match

2 4 2 . 0 7 9 7 2 the places above.)

Subtracting decimals
When subtracting one decimal from another, write the numbers one under
the other, as for whole number subtraction, making sure the decimal points
are aligned. Then proceed as for whole numbers. The decimal point in the
answer is placed directly under the decimal points in the two numbers.
Here are the two standard subtraction algorithms showing the methods
used for subtracting 16.532 from 23.84.
Method 1 Method 2
1 1 1 1 3 1
2 3 . 8 4 0 2 3 . 8 4 0

– 11 6 . 5 31 2 – 1 6 . 5 3 2
7 . 3 0 8 7 . 3 0 8
Sometimes, the numbers of decimal places are different in the two numbers.
It is helpful when doing subtractions with these ‘ragged’ decimals to place
additional zeros at the end of the ‘shorter’ number (in this case 23.84). This
does not change the number; it simply says that, in this case, there are ‘no
thousandths’, and makes the algorithm work.
Addition and subtraction of decimals

Addition and subtraction of decimal numbers follows the same procedures
as for whole numbers. The decimal points and decimal places should
always be aligned one under the other.
Example 14
Add 4.28 and 10.097.
Solution
4 . 2 8 0
+ 1 0 . 0 1 9 7
1 4 . 3 7 7

Example 15
Subtract 8.38757 from 10.102.
Solution
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 . 1 0 2 0 0
– 81 . 31 81 71 51 7
1 . 7 1 4 4 3
Exercise 8C
a 2.4 b 4.1 c 6.8
+ 3.5 + 3.2 + 2.1

d 3.12 + 3.2 e 6.08 + 3.1 f 0.34 + 9.63

g 2.312 + 7.25 h 7.301 + 2.5987 i 3.12 + 4.888
j 5.783 + 6.032 k 2.967 + 7.2323 l 63.8924 + 24.167
m 3.692 + 36.19501 n 24.0349 + 102.939 o 201.012 + 36.1008
a 7.8 b 9.3 c 3.4
– 3.4 – 1.2 – 2.3
d 10.8 – 9.03 e 12.6 – 7.35 f 23.9 – 8.4

g 18.6 – 12.7 h 35.7 – 23.8 i 13.456 – 9.978
j 36.24 – 27.985 k 819.3407 – 738.9657
l 8.3459038 – 0.948567024
3 Two parcels together have a total weight of 54.7 kg. The first weighs
29.44 kg. Find the weight of the second parcel.

4 A carpenter needs to cut two lengths, 1.04 m and 0.7 m, from a
2 m-long piece of timber. How long is the leftover piece?
5 Three girls ran first, second and third in a 100 m race, with times of
12.30, 12.63 and 13.16 s, respectively. If the national record time for
this race is 11.47 s, how far behind the record is each of these girls?
6 Four members of a school walkathon team completed a total of 6 km.
The distances walked by three of the members were 1.4, 1.25 and
1.1 km. How far did the fourth person walk?
7 A boy walked 500 m to the bus stop, travelled 1.8 km on the bus to the
station, made two consecutive train trips of 3.5 and 2.3 km, and then
walked 700 m to the school gate. How far was his journey to school,
in kilometres?
8 Four pieces of string, each of length 2.79 m, were cut from a roll,
leaving 1.56 m. How long was the original roll of string?
8D Multiplication and division by powers of 10
Multiplying by 10
When any number is multiplied by 10, each digit is multiplied by 10.
27.928 × 10 = 20 × 10 + 7 × 10 + 0.9 × 10 + 0.02 × 10 + 0.008 × 10

9 2 8
= 200 + 70 + 10 × 10 + 100 × 10 + 1000 × 10
2 8
= 200 + 70 + 9 + 10 + 100
= 279.28
We see that multiplying by 10 corresponds to moving the decimal point one
place to the right.
Example 16
Calculate 7.18 × 10.


Solution
7.18 × 10 = 71.8 (Decimal point is moved one place to the right.)
Multiplying by powers of 10
When any number is multiplied by a power of 10, each digit is multiplied
by the same power of 10.
32.7103 × 1000 = 30 × 1000 + 2 × 1000 + 0.7 × 1000

+ 0.01 × 1000 + 0.0003 × 1000
= 30 000 + 2000 + 700 + 10 + 0.3
= 32 710.3
• Multiplying by 100 = 102 corresponds to moving the decimal point two

places to the right and inserting zeros where necessary. For example:
8.7 × 100 = 870
• Multiplying by 1000 = 103 corresponds to moving the decimal point
three places to the right and inserting zeros where necessary.
For example:
8.7 × 1000 = 8700
• Multiplying by 10 000 = 104 corresponds to moving the decimal point
four places to the right and inserting zeros where necessary.
For example:
8.7 × 10 000 = 87 000
Example 17
a Calculate 26.235 × 100. b Calculate 42.9 × 1000.
Solution
a 26.235 × 100 = 2623.5 (Move decimal point 2 places
to the right.)
b 42.9 × 1000 = 42 900 (Move decimal point 3 places
to the right.)

Dividing by 10
When any number is divided by 10, each digit is divided by 10.
8
4.8 ÷ 10 = 4 10 ÷ 10
48 1
= 10 × 10
48
= 100
= 0.48
Dividing by 10 corresponds to moving the decimal point one place to the
left and inserting a zero if necessary.
Example 18
Calculate:
a 98.72 ÷ 10 b 0.982 ÷ 10
c 0.46 ÷ 10
Solution
a 98.72 ÷ 10 = 9.872 b 0.982 ÷ 10 = 0.0982
c 0.46 ÷ 10 = 0.046
Dividing by powers of 10
When any number is divided by a power of 10, each digit is divided by the
same power of 10.
78.4302 ÷ 1000 = 70 ÷ 1000 + 8 ÷ 1000 + 0.4 ÷ 1000
+ 0.03 ÷ 1000 + 0.0002 ÷ 1000
= 0.07 + 0.008 + 0.0004 + 0.00003 + 0.0000002
= 0.0784302
• Dividing by 100 = 102 corresponds to moving the decimal point 2 places
to the left and inserting zeros if necessary.
• Dividing by 1000 = 103 corresponds to moving the decimal point 3 places
to the left and inserting zeros if necessary.

• Dividing by 10 000 = 104 corresponds to moving the decimal point 4
places to the left and inserting zeros if necessary.
Example 19
Calculate:
a 3576 ÷ 100 b 3.576 ÷ 1000
Solution
a 3576 ÷ 100 = 35.76 b 3.576 ÷ 1000 = 0.003576
Class discussion
Start with 23 × 1 and fill in the rest of the following table. What patterns
do you notice?
23 × 1 = 23 ÷ 1 =
23 × 10 = 23 ÷ 10 =
23 × 100 = 23 ÷ 100 =
23 × 1000 = 23 ÷ 1000 =
Here is a table that summarises what happens when we multiply and divide
23 by powers of 10.
Thousandths
Hundredths
Hundreds
Tenths
Units
Tens
2 3 0
× 10 ÷ 10
2 3
× 10 ÷ 10
2. 3
× 10 ÷ 10
0. 2 3
× 10 ÷ 10
0. 0 2 3


Multiplication and division by powers of 10
• When any number is multiplied by 10, each digit is multiplied by 10.
This corresponds to moving the decimal point one place to the right
and inserting a zero if necessary.
• Multiplying by 100 = 102 corresponds to moving the decimal point
2 places to the right and inserting zeros if necessary.
Multiplying by 1000 = 103 corresponds to moving the decimal point
Multiplying by 10 000 = 104 corresponds to moving the decimal point
• When any number is divided by 10, each digit is divided by 10.
This corresponds to moving the decimal point one place to the left and
inserting a zero if necessary.
• Dividing by 100 = 102 corresponds to moving the decimal point
2 places to the left and inserting zeros if necessary.
Dividing by 1000 = 103 corresponds to moving the decimal point
Dividing by 10 000 = 104 corresponds to moving the decimal point
Exercise 8D
Example 16 1 Write the number that is 10 times:

a 0.8 b 8.3 c 0.08 d 0.5
e 0.05 f 0.005 g 92.89432 h 392.001
i 5.635 j 100.9302 k 427.009 l 2701.0902
Example 17 2 Write the number that is 100 times:

a 0.34 b 4.78 c 0.013 d 0.8
e 0.004 f 28.304 g 4.309387 h 201.201201
i 1.3 j 12.08 k 2.1 l 137.2

Example 18 3 What is the result when each of these numbers is divided by 10?
a 1.2 b 5.7 c 0.08 d 0.7
e 0.002 f 10.023 g 4.309387 h 201.201201
Example 19 4 What is the result when each of these numbers is divided by 100?
a 240.6 b 2.3 c 14.06 d 0.06
e 55.703 f 576.2 g 0.006 h 2.0006
5 Calculate:
a 5.07 × 100 b 789.028 × 1000 c 230.0001 ÷ 100
d 23.456 × 10 000 e 1.0462 ÷ 100 f 60 ÷ 100
g 2.5 × 10 000 h 3 ÷ 0.1 i 12 × 0.1
j 34.35 ÷ 10 k 4025.21 ÷ 10 l 1000 ÷ 100
6 Mentally complete these multiplications and divisions.
a 0.0082 × 100 b 0.0082 × 10 c 0.0082 × 1000
d 85.7 × 1000 e 85.7 × 100 f 85.7 × 10
g 5.02 ÷ 10 h 5.02 ÷ 100 i 5.02 ÷ 1000
j 1763.4 ÷ 100 k 1763.4 ÷ 10 l 1763.4 ÷ 1000
m 0.00543 ÷ 1000 n 0.00543 ÷ 100 o 0.00543 ÷ 10
p 102.3 ÷ 100 q 102.3 ÷ 1000 r 102.3 ÷ 10
7 A $325.80 restaurant bill for dinner for 10 people is shared equally.
How much does each person pay?
8 At a factory, it takes 408 seconds to make 100 chocolates.
a How long, in minutes, does it take to make 10 000 chocolates?
b How long, in seconds, does it take to make 10 chocolates?
c How many chocolates can be made in 4080 seconds?

8E Multiplication of one decimal by another
Multiplication of decimals is best done by converting the decimals to

fractions. The fractions are multiplied in the usual way (without cancelling)
and the result is then converted back to a decimal.
For example:
6 4
0.6 × 0.4 = 10 × 10
24
= 100
= 0.24
6 4
0.6 × 4 = 10 × 1
24
= 10
= 2.4
5 2
0.5 × 0.2 = 10 × 10
10
= 100
= 0.1
Multiplication of decimals
• We multiply decimals by converting each decimal to a fraction,
multiplying the fractions (without cancelling) and converting the result
back to a decimal.
Example 20
Calculate 0.03 × 0.18.
Solution
3 18
0.03 × 0.18 = 100 × 100
54
= 10 000
= 0.0054

Exercise 8E
a 1.2 × 1.5 b 0.2 × 0.4 c 0.02 × 0.04
d 0.7 × 1.4 e 0.84 × 0.12 f 2.5 × 4.1
g 5.6 × 9.2 h 4.3 × 1.2 i 5.01 × 2.18
j 1.23 × 2.421 k 3.92 × 4.3 l 7.93 × 7.8
2 Complete the table.
× 0.009 0.09 0.9 9 90 900 9000

0.008
0.08
0.8
8 72
80
800
8000
3 Complete these multiplications.

a 0.2 × 1.5 b 3 × 0.6 c 2.1 × 3
d 1.03 × 2 e 0.14 × 0.03 f 1.08 × 1.09
g 1.23 × 2.12 h 1.123 × 1.123 i 2.8 × 1.7
4 Multiply each number by 0.1.
a 12 b 10 c 43 d 0.5 e 2.6 f 1.08
a 15 b 10 c 63 d 0.5 e 4.3 f 2.06
a 23 b 100 c 10 d 0.05 e 0.5 f 4.07
7 Calculate the total cost of buying:
a 4.5 m of rope at $2.70 per metre
b 2.01 minutes of talk time at $0.35 per minute

c 4.32 m of PVC pipe at $3.45 per metre
d 1.97 kg of breadcrumbs at $0.95 per kilogram
e 2.2 L of ice cream at $4.95 per litre.
8F Division of decimals
Dividing decimals by whole numbers

Suppose we have a piece of rope that is 9.6 m long and we want to cut
it into 5 equal pieces. We need to divide 9.6 by 5. We do this using the
division algorithm.
1. 9 2
5 ) 9. 6
4 1
0 (Notice that a zero has been placed to the right of the 6.)
Each piece is 1.92 metres long.
Dividing decimals by decimals

Suppose we have 1.8 m of ribbon and we want to cut it into lengths of
0.3 m. To find out how many such lengths we can make, we need to divide
1.8 by 0.3.
Here are two methods that can be used to divide 1.8 by 0.3.
Method 1 Method 2
Convert both decimals to fractions. Write the division as a quotient

(write one decimal over the other)
and multiply top and bottom by a
power of 10 so that the denominator
is a whole number.
18 3 1.8
1.8 ÷ 0.3 = 10 ÷ 10 1.8 ÷ 0.3 = 0.3
1
18 10 1.8 × 10
= 10 1 × 3 = 0.3 × 10

18 18
= 3 = 3

= 6 =6

We can cut 6 pieces of ribbon 0.3 m in length from 1.8 m of ribbon.

Sometimes we can perform such a calculation mentally. We can do this
here. We know that 6 × 3 = 18, so 6 × 0.3 = 1.8 and 1.8 ÷ 0.3 = 6.
The division 1.8 ÷ 0.3 can also be visualised on a number line. Starting at 0,
we take jumps of 0.3 until we get to 1.8. It takes 6 jumps of 0.3 to get from
0 to 1.8 because 18 ÷ 3 = 6.
0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1 1.2 1.5 1.8 2
Example 21
Use method 1 and method 2 as shown above to divide 0.427 by 0.07.
Solution
Method 1 Method 2
427 7 0.427
0.427 ÷ 0.07 = 1000 ÷ 100 0.427 ÷ 0.07 = 0.07

427 61 100 1 0.427 × 100
= 1000 × 71 = 0.07 × 100

61 42.7
= 10 = 7

= 6.1 = 6.1

Division of decimals
• To divide a decimal by a whole number, follow the same algorithm as
for whole number division.
• To divide a decimal by another decimal, either:
– convert each decimal to a fraction, perform the division and then
convert back to a decimal
or
– write the division as a quotient, and multiply top and bottom by a
power of 10 so as to make the denominator a whole number. Then
do the division.

Exercise 8F
Example 21 1 Calculate (mentally if possible):

a 2.4 ÷ 6 b 1.8 ÷ 9 c 7.2 ÷ 8
d 14.4 ÷ 12 e 2.4 ÷ 0.2 f 9.6 ÷ 0.4
g 3.6 ÷ 0.6 h 4.5 ÷ 0.05 i 0.8 ÷ 0.2
j 1.28 ÷ 0.4 k 0.2 ÷ 0.8 l 2.17 ÷ 0.7
m 45.81 ÷ 0.3 n 1.297 ÷ 4 o 286.395 ÷ 0.08
2 Divide each number below by 0.1, then by 0.01 and finally by 0.001.
a 12 b 10 c 43 d 0.5 e 2.6 f 100
3 We will investigate the effect of dividing. You know that 24 ÷ 6 = 4.
From this you can calculate many related facts. Complete this division
grid by dividing each number in the cells in the left most column by
each number in the cells in the top row.
÷ 0.006 0.06 0.6 6 60 600 6000

0.024 4
0.24 4
2.4 4
24 4
240 4
2400 4
24000 4
4 Sharon paid $13.56 to fill her lawn mower with 12 L of fuel. What was
the price per litre of the fuel she purchased?
5 Alex buys 96.8 m of timber to make picture frames requiring 0.8 m of
timber each. How many frames can he make?

8G Repeating decimals
When some fractions are converted to decimals, they produce decimals

that terminate. That is, the decimal has a finite number of digits after the
1 1 1
decimal point. For example, 2 = 0.5, 4 = 0.25 and 8 = 0.125.
Fractions convert to decimals that terminate when they have denominators

that factor into a product of powers of 2 and 5. For example:
2 2
25 = 5 × 5
2×2×2
= 5×5×2×2
8
= 100
= 0.08
Here is another example:
1 1
40 = 5 × 2 × 2 × 2
5×5
= 5×2×2×2×5×5
25
= 1000
= 0.025
In many cases, a fraction cannot be converted to a terminating decimal,
because the division algorithm produces an unending string of digits. This
infinite string will always contain a repeating cycle, and so the decimal is
called a repeating (or recurring) decimal.
Example 22
1
Convert 3 to a repeating decimal.
Solution
0 . 3 3 3 3 3 …
3 ) 1 . 0
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 …
1 .
Hence 3 = 0.33333… = 0. 3

1 .
We write 3 = 0. 3, with the dot above the 3 indicating that ‘3’ is the
repeated digit.
The word ‘truncate’ means ‘cut off’ or ‘shorten’. If we start with the
repeating decimal 0.333… and truncate it after 1, 2, 3 … decimal places,
we get the fractions
3 33 333
0.3 = 10 , 0.33 = 100 , 0.333 = 1000 , ….
1
These numbers are increasing and getting closer to 3 . In fact, they get as
1
close as you like to 3 .
1 1
333 333 1
For example, 0.333 = 1000 differs from 10003 by only 1000
3
= 3000. None of the
1
truncated decimals is ever actually equal to 3 .
Example 23
3
Convert 11 to a repeating decimal.
Solution
0 . 2 7 2 7 …
11 ) 3 . 0
3 8
0 30 80 …
The digits 2 and 7 repeat indefinitely and we get
3
11 =
0.272727…
..
= 0.27.
..
0.27 is a repeating decimal; the dots above the 2 and the 7 indicate that ‘27’
is the repeating cycle. Other fractions can give longer repeating cycles. The
3
decimals 0.27, 0.2727, … are increasing and get as close as we like to 11 .
Example 24
3
Convert 7 to a decimal.

Solution
3
To convert 7 to a decimal, divide 3 by 7.
0 . 4 2 8 5 7 1 4 2 8 5 7 1 4 …
7 ) 3 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 …
3 2 6 4 5 1 3 2 6 4 5 1 3
3 . .
So 7 = 0. 42857 1.
Example 25
5
Convert 12 to a decimal.
Solution
0 . 4 1 6 6 6 …
12 ) 5 . 5 0 2 0 8 0 80 8 0 …
5 .
So 12 = 0.416.
Terminating and repeating decimals

• A terminating decimal is one with a finite number of digits after the
decimal point.
• If the denominator of a fraction is a product of powers of 2 and 5,
then the equivalent decimal will terminate.
• Decimal numbers with repeating digits that cycle indefinitely are called
repeating (or recurring) decimals. A repeating decimal can be
written using a dot above the first and last repeating digits (or a bar
over the digits that cycle). For example:
1 =
0.333333333…
.
1
= 0.09090909…
..
3 11
= 0.3 = 0.0 9
1
The decimals 0.3, 0.33, … are increasing and get as close as we like to 3 .
The decimals 0.09, 0.0909, 0.090909, … are increasing and get as close as
1
we like to 11 .

Exercise 8G
Example 23 1 Express these fractions as decimals.

1 2 1 2 3
a 3 b 3 c 9 d 9 e 9
4 5 6 7 8
f 9 g 9 h 9 i 9 j 9
2 Express these fractions as decimals.

1 2 3 4 5
a 11 b 11 c 11 d 11 e 11
6 7 8 9 10
f 11 g 11 h 11 i 11 j 11

1 2 3 4 5 1
a 6 b 6 c 6 d 6 e 6 f 12
3 5 7 9 11
g 12 h 12 i 12 j 12 k 12
4 Express as decimals the fractions between 0 and 1 that have 7 as a

denominator. Can you see a pattern?
5 Perform these divisions. (They will result in repeating decimals.)
a 4.8 ÷ 7 b 2.9 ÷ 3 c 50 ÷ 11 d 7.9 ÷ 6
e 6.47 ÷ 7 f 2.58 ÷ 7 g 62 ÷ 12 h 59 ÷ 11
i 52.6 ÷ 11 j 42.2 ÷ 9 k 472 ÷ 3 l 2.36 ÷ 6
6 Which of these fractions is closest to 0.51?
1 1 1 1 1
50 , 2 , 5 , 4 , 3

Review exercise
1 Write each fraction as a decimal.

1 3 9 1 2 9
a 10 b 10 c 10 d 100 e 100 f 100
39 81 47 1 8 4
g 100 h 100 i 100 j 1000 k 1000 l 1000
28 61 298 784 205 1
m
1000 n 1000 o 1000 p 1000 q 1000 r 10000
9 3 19 241 187 6939
s 10000 t 10000 u 10000 v 10000 w 10000 x 10000
4862 2006
y 10000 z 10000
2 Write down the place value of the digit 8 in each number.

a 3.8 b 1.08 c 8.45 d 4.998 e 6.0008 f 80.9038275
3 Write down the place value of the digit 4 in each number.
a 1.4 b 4.612 c 40.12
d 2.04 e 2.18942 f 0.00974
4 Choose the larger of each pair of decimal numbers.
a 0.8 and 0.7 b 1.3 and 1.9 c 2.9 and 2.3
d 1.91 and 1.87 e 2.45 and 2.64 f 3.09 and 3.11
g 2.6832 and 2.8 h 4.2396 and 4.999 i 5.501 and 5.4999
j 5.00003 and 5.12 k 1.098798 and 1.231 l 4.5 and 4.51
5 Arrange each set of numbers from largest to smallest.
a 1.5, 1.28, 1.09, 1.4732 b 1.2, 1.36, 1.928, 1.2849
c 9.09, 9.909, 9.9, 9.999 d 23.5, 23.451, 23.0001, 23.09
6 Write down the whole number that is closest to:
a 1.3 b 2.9 c 1.8 d 4.03
e 27.00929 f 43.92 g 68.010101 h 299.9
i 0.0019 j 187.409 k 213.5002 l 627.099999

7 Express each decimal as a fraction and simplify where possible.
a 0.3 b 3.9 c 1.4 d 0.32 e 0.98 f 0.04
g 0.111 h 0.204 i 0.099 j 0.75 k 0.125 l 2.848
8 Express each fraction or mixed number as a terminating decimal.
2 4 2 4 32
a 10 b 8 c 1 100 d 50 e 40
9 2 3 2 47
f 10 30 g 25 h 4 75 i 500 j 10
101 48 1 3 196
k 10 l 20 m 1 16 n 125 o 200
33 318 19 104 18
p 40 q 400 r 20 s 400 t 125
9 Match each fraction to its decimal equivalent.
Decimal Fraction
.
1. 3 42
9
1
1.25
2
0.4 11
3
. 9
4. 2
100
2
0.50
5
5
0.09
8
1
0.625 1
4
10 Which of these fractions is closest to 1.45?

1 33 2 147
1 2 , 1 50 , 1 5 , 100
11 Express each fraction as a decimal.

3 2 5 6 5 7
a 7 b 11 c 12 d 13 e 6 f 12


12 Arrange each set of numbers from smallest to largest.
1 3 5 1 1
a 5 , 0.5, 1, 4 , 8 , 0.1 b 2.4, 4 , 4.1, 0.24, 0.4, 24
5 1 1 290 23 1
c 0.08, 8 , 0, 5 , 0.9, 25 d 2, 100 , 2.07, 11 , 2.7, 25
13 Calculate:
a 0.4 + 3.5 b 8.7 + 1.1 c 3.7 + 5.2
d 8.15 – 1.2 e 9.08 + 0.1 f 5.34 + 3.63
g 4.75 – 4.012 h 7.301 + 2.5987 i 17.8 – 3.4
j 7.3 + 15.8 k 3.4 – 2.3 l 10.8 + 9.3
m 12.6 – 7.3 n 23.9 – 18.7 o 18.6 – 12.7
p 25.3 – 23.8 q 10.456 – 9.794 r 36.204 + 27.985
s 247.4967 – 138.968 t 8.3459038 – 0.948567024
14 Write down the result when each of these numbers is multiplied by 10,
100 and 1000.
a 4.5 b 0.3 c 0.06 d 1.396 e 100.485 f 0.0002
15 Write down the result when the each of these numbers is divided by 10,
100 and 1000.
a 4.5 b 0.3 c 0.06 d 1.396 e 43.8 f 100.485
16 Complete the grid.
× 0.007 0.07 0.7 7 70 700 7000
0.003
0.03
0.3
3 21
30
300
3000

17 Calculate:
a 6.03 × 7 b 4.8 × 8 c 4.92 × 3
d 5.9 × 3 e 23.8 ×12 f 2.486 × 8
g 1.2 × 3.4 h 24.907 × 2 i 5.947 × 2.6
18 Complete the grid.
× 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
0.052
0.52
5.2
52
520
5200
52 000
19 Calculate:
a 2.4 ÷ 0.8 b 1 ÷ 0.2 c 3.6 ÷ 0.06
d 20 ÷ 0.03 e 0.06 ÷ 1.2 f 5.3 ÷ 7
g 12.256 ÷ 1.2 h 10.4 ÷ 1.25 i 28.2 ÷ 0.008

Challenge
exercise
1 Write down the next five numbers, continuing the obvious pattern in
each case.
a 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___
b 3.1, 3.4, 3.7, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___
c 12.5, 12.4, 12.3, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___
d 12.4, 11.3, 10.2, ___, ___, ___, ___, ___
2 Using each of the digits 5, 6, 7 and 8 once only, fill in the spaces to
make these products as large as possible.
a 0. __ × 0. __ __ __ b 0. __ __ × 0. __ __
3 Jessica was preparing for her birthday party. She spent $3 less than
3 3
5 of her money on soft drink and $3 more than 4 of her remaining
money on food. She still had $3 left. How much did she start with?
4 Write the truncated decimals 0.3, 0.33, 0.333, 0.3333 and 0.33333 as
fractions whose denominators are powers of 10. For example:
3 33
0.3 = 10 , 0.33 =
100 .
1 1
1 3 33
Then write 3 as 103 , 1003 , and so on.
1 1
Now show that 3 – 0.33333 = 300 000 .

1 ..
5 Show that 11 = 0. 0 9 by using the division algorithm.
1
Now, write 11 as
1 1 × 100
11 = 11 × 100
100
= 11
100
1
911
= 100
.
1
Next, write 11 as
1 1 × 10 000
11 = 11 × 10 000
10 000
= 11
10 000
1
90911
= 10 000
.
and so on.
1
Hence show that the truncated decimal 0.090909 differs from 11 by
1
exactly 11 × 106 .
1 1
Can you now guess what the difference is between 11 and 11 × 108 ?
6 The number 1101.10112 is called a number in base 2, which means that

1101.10112 = 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 2 + 1 × 1
1 1 1 1
+1× 2 +0× 22 +1× 23 +1× 24 .
We can convert this number, written in base 2, into a decimal

(that is, in base 10).
1
Start with 1 × 2 .
1×5 5
This can be written as 1 × 1×5 1 × 10
=
= 0.5.
1
Next, start with 0 × 22 .
1 × 52 25
This can be written as 0 × 22 × 52 = 0 × 100 ,
and so on.


Then 1101.10112 can be written as
1101.10112 = 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 2 + 1 × 1
1 1 1 1
+ 1 × 2 +0× 22 +1× 23 +1× 24
=8+4+0+1
1×5 1 × 52 1 × 53 1 × 54
+ 1 × 2× 5 +0× 2 ×5
2 2 + 1 ×
23 × 53 +1× 24 × 54
5 125 625
= 8 + 4 + 1 + 10 + 1000 + 10 000
= 13 + 0.5 + 0.125 + 0.0625

= 13.6875.
Using a similar approach, convert each of the numbers below into a
decimal number in base 10.
a 23.5768 b 12.1425
7 Recall that terminating decimals are produced from fractions with

a denominator that is a product of powers of 2 and 5. List all the
fractions with numerator 1 and denominator less than 100 that
produce terminating decimals.

Chapter 9
Measurement
When we are building a table, putting a picture on the wall, taking

some cough mixture, timing a race and so on, we need to be able to
make measurements. Measuring allows us to determine how big, how
long, how deep or how heavy things are. Sometimes all we need is
a rough idea of a measurement. For example, we might walk along
the edge of, say, a garden to measure its length in paces, or use a
handspan to decide if a table will fit in a certain place in our home.
Usually, though, we need a more accurate idea of a measurement.
We need to be able to select the right tool and the correct unit to
make a measurement, read the scale accurately, and make calculations
involving measurements.
9A Units of measurement
In order to make a meaningful measurement of some quantity, we need an

appropriate unit of measurement. For example, when measuring a person’s
mass, we normally use the kilogram as the unit. On the other hand, if we
needed to weigh a mosquito, we would generally use a smaller unit, such as
the gram or milligram.
In Australia, we use the metric system of measurement. In this system, the

basic units of length, mass and time are the metre (m), the kilogram (kg)
and the second (s), respectively.

Apart from some aspects of time measurement, the metric system is a
decimal system. (We will discuss time measurement later in this chapter.)
Other metric units of length, mass and time are derived from the basic
ones by multiplying or dividing by powers of 10. We indicate the particular
power of 10 that we are using by putting a prefix in front of the basic
unit. The prefixes most commonly used are: kilo-, denoting 1000 times;
1 1
centi-, denoting 100 ; and milli-, denoting 1000 . So, for example, as well as
measuring lengths in metres, we also commonly use kilometres, centimetres
and millimetres.
When making a measurement, it is important to choose a suitable unit so

that we can clearly picture what we are measuring. For example, it is not
very helpful to be told that a person weighs 0.076 tonnes, but we can easily
picture what is meant when we are told that he or she weighs 76 kg.
Here is a table of the commonly used units for measuring length, mass,
time and liquid volume in the metric system.
Units of length Units

10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (cm)
100 centimetres (cm) = 1 metre (m)
1000 millimetres (mm) = 1 metre (m)
1000 metres (m) = 1 kilometre (km)
Units of mass Units

1000 milligrams (mg) = 1 gram (g)
1000 grams (g) = 1 kilogram (kg)
1000 kilograms (kg) = 1 tonne (t)
Units of time
60 seconds (s) = 1 minute (min)
60 minutes (min) = 1 hour (h)
24 hours (h) = 1 day (d)
Units of liquid volume

1000 millilitres (mL) = 1 litre (L)
1000 litres (L) = 1 kilolitre (kL)

To convert between units, it is helpful to think about how many of one unit
are equal to one of another.
When converting from one length measurement to a different unit, you

need to know the following conversions.
÷ 10 ÷ 100 ÷ 1000
millimetres centimetres metres kilometres
× 10 × 100 × 1000
When dealing with mass and volume measurements, the following

conversions are useful.
÷ 1000 ÷ 1000
milligrams grams kilograms
millilitres litres kilolitres
× 1000 × 1000
Units of measurement
• We use the metric system of measurement.
• The basic units of length, mass and time are the metre (m), the
kilogram (kg) and the second (s), respectively.
• Other useful units of length, mass and time are derived from these by
multiplying or dividing by powers of 10. We indicate which particular
power of 10 we are using by adding a prefix to the basic unit.

Example 1
a Express 1993 mm in:

i centimetres ii metres
b Express 18 mm in:
i centimetres ii metres
c Express 1.2 km in:
i metres ii centimetres
Solution
a i 10 mm = 1 cm
Measurements in millimetres are converted to centimetres
by dividing by 10.
1993
Hence 1993 mm = 10 cm
= 199.3 cm.
ii 1000 mm = 1 m
Measurements in millimetres are converted to metres
by dividing by 1000.
1993
Hence 1993 mm =
1000 m
= 1.993 m.
b i 10 mm = 1 cm
Measurements in millimetres are converted to centimetres
by dividing by 10.
18
Hence 18 mm = 10 cm
= 1.8 cm.
ii 1000 mm = 1 m
Measurements in millimetres are converted to metres
by dividing by 1000.
18
Hence 18 mm =
1000 m
= 0.018 m.

c i 1 km = 1000 m
Measurements in kilometres are converted to metres by
multiplying by 1000.
Hence 1.2 km = 1.2 × 1000 m
= 1200 m.
ii 1 km = 1000 m, and 1 m = 100 cm.
Hence 1.2 km = 1.2 × 1000 m
= 1200 m
and 1200 m = 1200 × 100 cm
= 120 000 cm,
so 1.2 km = 120 000 cm.
Example 2
Copy and complete these statements.

a 7 cm 6 mm = mm b 4 m 65 cm = cm
c 10 km 380 m = m
Solution
a 7 cm 6 mm = 76 mm b 4 m 65 cm = 465 cm
c 10 km 380 m = 10 380 m
Example 3
a Express 2689 g in kilograms.

b Express 100 g in kilograms.
c Express 36.5 kg in grams.

Solution
a Measurements in grams are converted to kilograms by dividing
by 1000.
2689
Hence 2689 g = 1000 kg
= 2.689 kg.
b Measurements in grams are converted to kilograms by dividing

by 1000.
100
Hence 100 g = 1000 kg

= 0.1 kg.
c Measurements in kilograms are converted to grams by

multiplying by 1000.
36.5 × 1000 = 36 500
Hence 36.5 kg = 36 500 g.
Example 4
a Express 4 km 83 m in metres.
b Express 2 t 15 kg in kilograms.
Solution
a 4 km = 4000 m
Hence 4 km 83 m = 4000 + 83
= 4083 m.
b 2 t = 2000 kg
Hence 2 t 15 kg = 2000 + 15
= 2015 kg.

Exercise 9A
1 What unit would be most appropriate to use in measuring

(for discussion only.):
a the width of your fingernail?
b the length of a table?
c the distance from Broome to Hobart?
d the height of your house?
e the amount of medicine in a measuring cup?
f the mass of an ant?
g the amount of petrol in the petrol tank of a car?
h the height of the tallest building in your capital city?
i the mass of a bag of potatoes?
j the volume of water in a swimming pool?
k the time it takes to eat an ice-cream?
l the time it takes to eat a sticky bun in a bun-eating competition?
2 First estimate each measurement below, then measure and compare
your results with others.
a The length of your hand
b The height of your table
c The width of the seat of a chair
d The length of your pencil
e The mass of your pencil case

3 The diagrams below show the readings for measurements taken using
a range of different measuring tools. In each diagram, the arrow
indicates what the measurement was. Read the scale and write down
the reading. Include the unit of measurement in each case.
a b
40 mL
30
20
c m 1 2 3 4 5
9m 10
c 5
2.5
70 80
60
90

40 50
100 10 12
kg
1
d
30
0 10 20

11 12 13 14 15
cm

e f
mL 1000

800
200 300 600

grams 400
200
Example 1 4 Copy and complete these statements.

a 6 cm = ____ mm b 180 mm = ____ cm
c 18 cm = ____ mm d 4.3 cm = ____ mm
e 27 mm = ____ cm f 583 mm = ____ cm
g 3 m = ____ cm h 1.9 m = ____ cm

i 2 km = ____ m j 1 km = ____ cm
k 6.34 km = ____ m l 200 000 mm = ____ km
m 9000 cm = ____ km n 2901 m = ___ km
1 1
o 2 km = ____ m p 4 m = ____ cm
1 7
q 5 m = ____ mm r 10 cm = ____ mm
5 7
s 8 cm = ____ mm t 8 cm = ____ mm
a 8 cm 7 mm = ____ cm b 5 cm 9 mm = ____ mm
c 6 cm 7 mm =____ cm d 3 m 65 cm = ____ cm
e 45 km 800 m = ____ m f 14 km 38 m = ____ km
a 493 g = ____ kg b 2.3 kg = ____ g
1
c 3.4 t = ____ kg d 4 kg = ____ g
e 45.3 kg = ____ g f 480 mg = ____ g
1
g 290 mg = ____ g h 10 t = ____ kg
Example 4 7 a Express 5 km 23 m in metres.
b Express 15 km 20 m in metres.
c Express 3 t 20 kg in kilograms.
d Express 24 t 15 kg in kilograms.
8 Copy and complete these statements.
a 800 millilitres = ____ litres b 1.5 litres = ___ millilitres
c 4002 millilitres = ____ litres d 3968 litres = ____ kilolitres
9 Each lap of a swimming pool is 50 m. How many laps must I swim to
cover 1 km?
10 A small bag of potatoes weighs 500 g and a large bag weighs 1.5 kg.
What is the total weight if I buy 2 small and 3 large bags of potatoes?
(Give your answer first in grams, and then in kilograms.)

11 Markers on the road are placed 20 m apart. If the distance from the
first marker to the last one is 1 kilometre, how many markers are there
in total?
12 A picture, which is 60 cm wide, is to be placed in the centre of a wall. The
length of the wall from left to right is 5 m. What is the distance between
the left-hand edge of the picture and the left-hand edge of the wall?
13 Calculate:
a 3.05 kg × 5 b 4.405 m × 3 c 11.6 cm × 16
d 124 kg × 16 e 3.106 t × 34 f 68 m ÷ 4
g 33.12 t ÷ 24 h 72.352 kg ÷ 8 i 5.6256 km ÷ 4
14 Find the cost of:
a 6 m of string at 99c a metre
b 500 mm of ribbon at 84c a metre
c 4 L of oil at $1.50 per litre
d 100 g of fudge at $2.80 a kilogram
e 8 kg of rice at $0.85 a kilogram
f 250 m of rope at $120 a kilometre
g carting 5 t of rubbish at $24 a tonne
h 200 mL of shampoo at $6.30 a litre
i travelling in a taxi for 300 km at $1.12 per kilometre
j 600 kg of sand at $20 a tonne
9B Other units
In addition to the prefixes mentioned above, other measurement prefixes

are also in common use. For example, a micrometre (written as µm) is one
millionth of a metre. (The Greek letter µ, pronounced mu, corresponds to
our letter m.)

Here is a table of some prefixes and the corresponding factors.
Multiplying Factor Prefix Symbol
one million = 106 mega- M
one thousand = 103 kilo- k
one tenth = 1 deci- d

10
one hundredth = 12 centi- c

10
one thousandth = 13 milli- m

10
one millionth = 16 micro- µ

10
Example 5
How many millilitres are there in an Olympic-size pool, which

holds 2.5 megalitres (ML) of water?
Solution
First convert to litres.
Volume = 2.5 ML
= 2.5 × 1 000 000 L (1 ML = 1 000 000 L)
= 2 500 000 L
Now convert to millilitres.
Volume = 2 500 000 × 1000 mL (1 L = 1000 mL)
= 2 500 000 000 mL
There are 2 500 000 000 mL in a 2.5 ML Olympic-size pool.

Exercise 9B
Example 5 1 How many litres are there in a megalitre?

2 How many micrometres are there in a centimetre?
3 Dartmouth Dam has a capacity of 4 million megalitres. If the dam is
currently holding half of its capacity, how many litres is this?
4 Peter walks 5.1 km each day. How many micrometres is this?
5 Convert 9.85 megatonnes into milligrams.
6 If you are 158 cm tall, how many decimetres is that?
7 If 1 litre is equivalent to 1 cubic decimetre (1 dm3), what is 890 mL in
cubic decimetres?
8 How many minutes are there in a micro-century? (Assume there are
36 525 days in a century.)
9C The unitary method
If 5 apples cost $2.50, how much do 3 apples cost?
The easiest way to solve this is to work out the cost of 1 apple and multiply
by 3.
5 apples cost $2.50.
1 apple costs $0.50. ÷5
3 apples cost $1.50. ×3
This method of solving problems is known as the unitary method, because

we work out the cost of one item (or unit) first.

Example 6
If 12 cans of soft drink cost $9.36, how much do 7 cans cost?
Solution
12 cans of drink cost $9.36.
1 can of drink costs $0.78. ÷ 12
7 cans of drink cost $5.46. ×7
Exercise 9C
Example 6 1 If 5 blocks of chocolate weigh 1875 g, how much do 3 blocks of
chocolate weigh?
2 If 3 kg of tea cost $27.33, what is the cost of 4 kg?
3 If 7 tins can hold 1421 g of coffee, how much, in kilograms,
can 3 tins hold?
4 A car travels 77 km on 11 litres of fuel. How far can it travel on 130 litres?
5 If a train travels 210 km in 3 hours, how far will it go in 8 hours?
6 Which is cheaper, 12 oranges for $4.08 or 30 oranges for $12.96?
7 Tim can ride 100 m in 15 seconds on his bike. Assuming he continues
at the same speed, how many km can he travel in 30 minutes?
8 A man walking covers 200 m in 2 minutes. How far will he go in an hour?
9 A particular type of braid costs $2.50 for 25 cm. How much does 2 m
of braid cost?
10 A car travels 200 metres in 10 seconds. How far will it go in:
a a minute? b an hour?
11 It is found that 3 apricots weight 300 g. How many kilograms would
20 apricots weight?
12 If 9 men can write a book in 63 days, how long would it take 40 men
to write the same book if they worked at the same pace?

9D Perimeter
The word perimeter comes from two Greek words, peri, meaning ‘around’,
and metron, meaning ‘measure’. Thus the word perimeter means ‘measure
around’. We use the word perimeter to describe the length of the boundary
of a two-dimensional figure.
Imagine walking around the edge of the rectangle shown below and
counting the number of intervals, each of length 1 cm. This measurement
is the perimeter of the rectangle. The perimeter of the rectangle is the sum
of the lengths of its sides.
6 cm Perimeter = 6 + 4 + 6 + 4
= 20 cm
4 cm 4 cm
6 cm
The perimeter of the polygon shown below is the sum of the lengths of its sides.
3 km Perimeter = 3 + 5 + 8 + 10
= 26 km
10 km

5 km
8 km
The perimeter of the triangle shown below is the sum of the lengths of
its sides.
Perimeter = 3a + 3a + 2b
= 6a + 2b

3a 3a
2b

The perimeter of the eight-sided figure shown below is the sum of the
lengths of its sides.
8m
Perimeter = 4 + 5 + 12 + 3
4m
+ 4 + 2 + 8 + 8
5m
= 46 m
12 m
8m
2m
4m
3m
Perimeter
The perimeter of a polygon is the length of its boundary, and is calculated
by finding the sum of the lengths of its sides.
Example 7
Find the perimeter of this figure.

20 cm
6 cm
15 cm 8 cm
9 cm
12 cm
Solution
To find the perimeter, add the lengths of the sides.
Perimeter = 15 + 20 + 6 + 8 + 9 + 12
= 70 cm

Exercise 9D
Example 7 1 Find the perimeter of each of these figures. Sides that are equal are
marked with the same symbol.
a b c
5 4 4
3
4 4 15
d 7 e f
17 17
18 12 17
15 16 23
2 In each figure below, use your ruler to measure the length of each side in
millimetres (as accurately as you can) and then calculate the perimeter.
a D b C

C
A B
A B
c J
I
H
G
F
E
D C
A B

3 The figures shown below are drawn on a 1 cm grid. Find the perimeter
of each figure, in centimetres.
a b

c d
4 Calculate the perimeter of a rectangular room whose dimensions are:

a length 2.3 m and width 3.6 m
b length 9.8 m and width 6.4 m
c length 2.2 m and width 14 m
5 Write an algebraic expression for the perimeter of each figure.

a b c
c x x
b
a x d
d e f
a
4a 4a
4b 2b 6y
3a 3b 7x

6 For each part below, draw two different rectangles with the given
perimeter.
a 20 cm b 14 cm c 9 cm
7 For each part below, draw three different rectangles with the given
perimeter.
a 18 cm b 8 cm c 14 cm
9E Area
The area of a rectangle is the size of the region inside it. We measure the
area of a rectangle by counting the number of unit squares inside it.
3m
4m
The area of the above rectangle is 12 square metres, which we write as

12 m2. We can find the area of this rectangle by multiplying the lengths
of the sides.
Area = 3 × 4
= 12 m2
We calculate the area of a rectangle by taking the product of the lengths of
two adjacent sides. These two sides are called the length and width of the
rectangle. It does not really matter which is which, because if we turn the
rectangle around and so interchange the length and width, we still have the
same area.
Width
Length

If we use the letter L to represent the length, and W to represent the width,
then we write the area as
Area = L × W
= LW.
This is called the formula for the area of a rectangle because it applies to all
rectangles.
When using this formula to calculate the area of a rectangle, we have to

make sure that we use the same units for length and width. For example,
if we measure the length and width of a rectangle in centimetres (cm), the
unit of area is the square centimetre, which is written as cm2 because we are
effectively multiplying cm by cm.
Example 8
Find the area of a rectangle with length 12 cm and width 14 cm.
Solution
Area = L × W
= 12 × 14
= 168 cm2
Note that we can use the formula for the area of a rectangle to calculate the
area of a square, because a square is just a special kind of rectangle.
The length of this square is 3 cm and its width

is 3 cm. The area of the square is given by the
formula as
3 cm
Area = L × W
=3×3
= 9 cm2.
3 cm
For a square, the length and width are equal,
so we can write the formula for the area of a
square as
Area =
L×L
= L2.

Example 9
Find the area of a square with side length 3.2 cm.
Solution
Area = L2
= 3.2 × 3.2
= 10.24 cm2
Commonly used units of area are:

• the square centimetre (cm2), which is the area of a 1 cm by 1 cm square
• the square millimetre (mm2), which is the area of a 1 mm by 1 mm square
• the square metre (m2), which is the area of a 1 m by 1 m square
• the square kilometre (km2), which is the area of a l km by 1 km square,
and
• the hectare (ha), which is the area of a 100 metre by 100 metre square.
This is equivalent to 10 000 m2.
Example 10
A farmer has a rectangular paddock as shown. Find its area,

in hectares.
300 m
800 m
Solution
Area = L × W
= 800 × 300
= 240 000 m2
240 000
= 10 000
= 24 ha

Area
• The area of a rectangle is the size of the region inside it.
• The area of a rectangle is found by multiplying the length by the width:
Area = L × W
• The area of a square is the square of its side length:
Area = L2
• When using either of these formulae, all measurements must be in the
same units.
• One hectare = 10 000 square metres.
Example 11
Find the area of a rectangle with length 3 m and width 86 cm.
Solution
Area = L × W
= 3 × 0.86 (Convert centimetres to metres.)
= 2.58 m2
Example 12
A rectangle has length 2x cm and width 3y cm. Find its area.
3y cm
2x cm
Solution
Area = L × W
= 2x × 3y
= 6xy cm2

Exercise 9E
1 Find the area of each of the rectangles on the grid below by counting
the number of squares. The figures below have been drawn on 1 cm2
grid paper.

a b c
2 Find the areas of these figures.

Example 9 a A square with side length 3 m
Example 10 b A rectangle with length 9 cm and width 7 cm
c A square with side length 13 mm
d A rectangle with length 1.1 cm and width 3.2 cm
3 Calculate:
a the number of square centimetres in a square metre
b the number of hectares in a square kilometre
c the number of square metres in a square kilometre
4 a Find the area in square metres of a rectangle with length 5 m and
width 85 cm.
b Find the area in square kilometres of a rectangular region of land
with length 800 m and width 2 km.

5 Calculate the area of a rectangular field with length 4 km and width
0.5 km. Give your answer in hectares.
6 Calculate the area of a rectangular field with length 150 m and width
0.6 km. Give your answer in square metres.
7 The table below gives incomplete information for rectangles
a to d. Fill in the gaps.
Length Width Area
a 7 cm 6 cm
b 9 cm 27 cm2
c 17 m 85 m2
d 12 km 144 km2
Example 12 8 Write down algebraic expressions for the areas of the square and
rectangle shown.
a b
6d
3a 7c
9 A rectangular deck has length 6 m and width 4 m. It costs $9 per square

metre to tile the deck. How much will the tiling cost?
10 A wall that is to be painted on one side has length 5 m and height 3.5 m.
It requires two coats of paint. What is the total area to be painted?
11 Glass costs $25 per square metre. Find the cost of glazing a window with
length 225 cm and width 150 cm. (Be careful with units here!)
12 Jack and Mary pay $225 to put grass on a rectangular piece of ground
measuring 3 m by 5 m. How much will it cost Paul and Gary to put
the same kind of grass on a piece of ground that is 7 m by 4 m?
13 Calculate the area of a road that is 10 m in width and 3.8 km in
length. Give your answer in hectares.

14 Calculate the area in square metres of a square table top with side
length 130 cm.
15 The floors of three rooms of a palace are to be covered in gold
tiles. Each tile is one centimetre square and costs $4.50. The rooms
measure 8 m by 5.4 m, 2.7 m by 8.9 m and 300 cm by 13.3 m,
respectively. Calculate the total cost.
16 For each part below, draw two different rectangles with the given area.
a 9 cm2 b 25 cm2 c 36 cm2
17 For each part below, draw three different rectangles with the given area.
a 12 cm2 b 15 cm2 c 24 cm2
9F Areas by addition and subtraction
Sometimes a figure can be broken up into a number of separate rectangles.

We can calculate its area by adding up the areas of these rectangles.
Example 13
Calculate the area of this figure.
8 cm 5 cm
2 cm
3 cm
Solution
Area = 8 × 2 + 3 × 5
= 16 + 15
= 31 cm2

We can also find areas by subtracting a smaller area from a larger one.
Example 14
Find the area of the shaded region.
8 cm 10 cm
6 cm
12 cm
Solution
Area = 12 × 10 – 8 × 6
= 120 – 48
= 72 cm2
Example 15
Find the area of the figure below.
2 cm
1 cm
13 cm
15 cm

Solution
In this figure, we have two rectangles intersecting in a small
rectangle. Hence, we add the areas of the two rectangles and
subtract the area of the intersection so that it is not counted
twice.
Area = 15 × 1 + 2 × 13 – 2 × 1
= 15 + 26 – 2
= 39 cm2
Exercise 9F
Example 13 1 Find the area of each figure by adding areas of squares and rectangles.
a 3 cm b 4 cm c 1m
1m
2 cm
2 cm
3 cm
4m
2 cm
5 cm
2 cm 4m
Example 14 2 Calculate the area of each figure. (In part c find the shaded area.)
a 5 cm b 10 m
10 cm 6 cm
7m
5m
4 cm
2m

c d
3m
1m
7 cm
9m
4 cm
3 cm
7 cm 7m
e f
6 cm
1 cm 1 cm
1 cm 1 cm
3 cm
6 cm 1 cm
6 cm
2 cm
1 cm 1 cm 1 cm
1 cm 1 cm
Example 15 g h
2 cm 8m
5 cm 6m
6m 2m
4m
3 cm 4m
6 cm
8 cm

3 Calculate the area of the shaded region. Each small square has side
length 3 m.
9m
1m
2m
1m
4 The area of each shaded region is 1 m2. What is the total area of
the figure?

3m 4m 5m
6m 7m
2m
2m
5 Four rectangles, each with length 5 m and width 1 m, overlap to form

the figure shown. Calculate its area.


9G Area of a triangle
Take a rectangle with length 7 cm and width 6 cm. Cut the rectangle into
halves by drawing the diagonal AC as shown.
A B The rectangle has area 7 × 6 = 42 cm2.

Each triangle can be rotated and placed
exactly on top of the other, so we say that
6 cm
the two triangles have the same area.
Then each triangle has an area that
is one half of the area of the rectangle,
D C
so each triangle has area 21 cm2.
7 cm
Now, take triangle XYZ shown below, with base XZ = 10 cm and height
WY = 6 cm. We can complete a rectangle around the triangle as shown.
Y X´ Y Z´
6 cm 6 cm
X W Z X W Z
10 cm 10 cm
The rectangle XX´Z´Z has length 10 cm and width 6 cm, so its area is 60 cm2.
The diagram shows that the area of each smaller triangle is equal to half
the area of the corresponding enclosing rectangle. Hence the area of the
large triangle is equal to half the area of the large rectangle.
In both examples above, the area of the triangle is half the base of the
triangle multiplied by its height. The area of triangle XYZ is:
1
Area of triangle XYZ = 2 × 10 × 6
= 30 cm2

Is it always the case that the area of a triangle is equal to half its base
multiplied by its height? We have shown above that this is true for right-
angled and acute-angled triangles, so finally we consider the case of an
obtuse-angled triangle.
Obtuse-angled triangles
Let ABC be an obtuse-angled triangle with base length 6 cm and height 3 cm.
C
3 cm
A 6 cm B
Make a right-angled triangle as shown below. Let the length of XA be ℓ cm.
3 cm
X ℓ A 6 cm B
The area of the blue shaded triangle is found by subtracting the grey
shaded area from the area of the right-angled triangle CXB:
1 1
Area = 2 × 3 × (ℓ + 6) – 2 ×3×ℓ
1
= 2 × 3 × (ℓ + 6 – ℓ )
1
= 2 ×3×6
1
= 2 × height × base
= 9 cm2

So we see that in all cases, the formula for the area of a triangle with height
h and base b is
1
Area = 2 × base × height
1
= 2 × b×h
1
= 2 bh.
Although we use the words ‘height’ and ‘base’, we sometimes have to turn
the figure around to work with a different base and its corresponding
height. The height is always taken to be the length of the perpendicular line
from the vertex opposite to the chosen base.
Example 16
Calculate the area of the triangle below.
14 m
5m
Solution
1
Area = 2 bh
1
= 2 × 5 × 14
=7×5
= 35 m2

Area of a triangle
• The area of a triangle is found by multiplying half the length of the
base by the height of the triangle:
1
Area = 2 bh
• It does not matter which side is chosen as the base, as long as the
height is taken as the length of the perpendicular line from the vertex
opposite to the chosen base.
Example 17
Calculate the area of the triangle below.

9 mm
5 mm
Solution
1
Area = 2 ×9×5
1
= 2 × 45
1
= 22 2 mm2
Example 18
Find the area of the figure below.
2 cm
4 cm
8 cm

Solution
Area of rectangle = 8 × 4
= 32 cm2
1
Area of triangle = 2 ×8×2
= 8 cm2
Area of figure = 32 + 8
= 40 cm2
Example 19
Find the area of the shaded region in the figure below.
1 cm
2 cm
1 cm 6 cm 1 cm
1 cm
Solution
Length of outer rectangle = 6 + 1 + 1
= 8 cm
Width of outer rectangle = 2 + 1 + 1
= 4 cm
Area of outer rectangle =8×4
= 32 cm2
Area of inner rectangle =6×2
= 12 cm2
Area of shaded region = 32 – 12
= 20 cm2

Exercise 9G
Example 16 1 Find the area of each triangle.

a b
11 m
7m
6 cm
8 cm
Example 17 c d
15 mm
4 cm 13 mm
12 mm
13 cm 14 mm
2 Find the area of each of these triangles, which are drawn on

1 cm2 grid paper.

a b c d
e f g h

3 Complete the following table of areas of triangles a to d.
Base Height Area
a 7 cm 6 cm
b 9 cm 27 cm2
c 17 m 85 m2
d 12 km 144 km2
4 The figures below have been drawn on 1 cm2 grid paper. Find the area
of each.

a b c
5 Draw three different triangles with the same base and the same area.
6 How many triangles such as the ones in question 5 are there? Explain
how you could draw 15 such triangles.
Example 18 7 Find the area of each figure below by adding the areas of squares,
rectangles and triangles as necessary.
a b
4 cm 3 km
3 km
8 km
5 cm
c 6 cm d 6 mm
8 mm
15 mm
12 cm
11 cm

e f
4m
5 cm
17 m
3 cm
4 cm
Example 19 8 Find the area of the shaded region in each figure below by adding and
subtracting the areas of squares, rectangles and triangles as necessary.
a 12 m 5m b
1m
1m
2m
5m

c d
3m
2m
5m 4m
5m
2m 3m
3m 7m 3m
10 m 3m
9H Time
Time is different from other measurements because it is not based on

powers of 10.
• There are 60 seconds in 1 minute.

• There are 60 minutes in 1 hour.
• There are 24 hours in 1 day.
• There are 7 days in a week.
÷ 60 ÷ 60 ÷ 24 ÷7
seconds minutes hours days weeks
× 60 × 60 × 24 ×7
There are two ways of recording the time of day:
• Using am and pm. For example, 5:30 pm means 5 hours 30 minutes after
midday, 0:30 am means 30 minutes after midnight. Remember that am
stands for ante meridiem, which is Latin for ‘being before noon’, and
pm stands for post meridiem, which is Latin for ‘being after noon’. By
convention, midnight is 0:00 am and midday is 0:00 pm.
• Using the 24-hour system. For example, 2235 means 22 hours and
35 minutes after midnight. This is the same as 10:35 pm. 0530 means
5 hours 30 minutes after midnight or 5:30 am. 1730 is the same as
5:30 pm. Note that there is no need to indicate morning by using am,
or afternoon by using pm, when using 24-hour time.

Example 20
Calculate the number of:

a seconds in 19 minutes b minutes in 16 hours
c hours in 6 days d days and hours in 560 hours
Solution
a 19 × 60 = 1140 seconds (60 seconds in a minute)
b 16 × 60 = 960 minutes (60 minutes in an hour)
c 6 × 24 = 144 hours (24 hours in a day)
d 2 3 remainder 8
24 ) 5 6 0
So 560 hours is 23 days and 8 hours.
Adding time
As time measurement is based on the numbers 7, 24 and 60, calculations
involving time need to be handled carefully.
Example 21
I walked for 1 hour and 25 minutes on Monday and 2 hours and

15 minutes on Tuesday. For how long did I walk over the two
nights?
Solution
1 h 25 m
+ 2 h 15 m
3 h 40 m
I walked for 3 hours and 40 minutes.

Example 22
A truck driver drove for 5 hours 45 minutes on Monday,

4 hours 50 minutes on Tuesday and 6 hours 30 minutes on
Wednesday. What was the total time she spent driving?
Solution
5 h 45 m (Add the minutes, add the hours.)
+ 4 h 50 m
+ 6 h + 30 m
15 h 125 m
Total time spent driving = 15 hours + 2 hours + 5 minutes
(Convert minutes total to hours
and minutes.)
= 17 hours 5 minutes
Subtracting time and elapsed time

Calculating elapsed time is a skill that is also made interesting by the fact
that time is based on the numbers 24 and 60.
Example 23
a Jane left home at 3:54 pm to travel to her aunt’s house. She

arrived at 5:40 pm. How long did her journey take?
b Jane’s father drove from their home to the aunt’s house and it
took him 48 minutes. How much longer did Jane take to arrive?
Solution
a There are 6 minutes to 4 pm, and 1 hour and 40 minutes to 5:40 pm.
So Jane’s total travel time =
6 minutes + 1 hour 40 minutes
= 1 hour 46 minutes.

b We need to work out the difference between Jane’s travel time of
1 hour 46 minutes and her father’s, 48 minutes.
12 minutes are needed to build up from 48 minutes to 1 hour,
and then there are 46 minutes after that.
Total = 12 + 46
= 58 minutes
Jane took 58 minutes longer to arrive than her father.
Example 24
Marathon runners take around 3 hours to run 42 km. If a runner

started at 11:23:00 am (23 minutes past 11, no seconds) and
finishes at 2:40:49 pm, what was the time taken to complete the
marathon?
Solution
The time taken to complete the marathon is calculated by building
up to the next whole minute or hour.
Time Hours Minutes Seconds
Start time 11:23:00 am
Build up to 12:00:00 pm 37 minutes
Build up to 2:00:00 pm 2 hours

Build up to
2:40:49 pm 40 minutes 49 seconds
finish time
Total 2 hours 77 minutes 49 seconds
Total time taken to

complete the marathon
3 hours 17 minutes 49 seconds
(Convert minutes to
hours and minutes.)

Example 25
A boat takes 8 days and 5 hours to complete its journey. So far,

3 days and 11 hours have elapsed. How much longer will the trip last?
Solution
Time Days Hours

Start time 3 days 11 hours
Build up to 4 days 13 hours
Build up to
8 days 5 hours 4 days 5 hours
finish time
Total 4 days 18 hours
There are still 4 days 18 hours to go until the trip is complete.
Time
• Measurement of time is based on the numbers 7, 24 and 60.
• Building up to whole minutes, hours or days is helpful when calculating
time differences and when adding times.
Example 26
How much time does a student spend in class if a school day

starts at 9:05 am and finishes at 3:15 pm, and there is a total of
1 hour and 20 minutes for breaks?

Solution
Time Hours Minutes
Start time 9:05 am
Build up to 3:05 pm 6 hours
Build up to
3:15 pm 10 minutes
finish time
Time at 6 hours 10 minutes
school (5 hours 70 minutes)
Subtract
time for 1 hour 20 minutes
breaks
Time in
4 hours 50 minutes
class
The student spends 4 hours 50 minutes in class.
Exercise 9H
Example 20 1 Calculate the number of:

a seconds in 23 minutes
b minutes in 24 hours
c hours in 17 days
d days and hours in 429 hours
e minutes in 3 days
f hours and minutes in 392 minutes
g hours, minutes and seconds in 5201 seconds
2 Convert each of these times to 24-hour time.
a 2:30 pm
b 6 am
c 11:49 pm

d Eight thirty-five in the evening
e Twenty-five to six in the morning
f Midday
g Midnight
h Five past three in the afternoon
i Two minutes to midnight
3 Write each of these 24-hour times in 12-hour time using am and pm.
a 1300 b 0600 c 0820 d 2330
4 Convert:
1
a 4 2 hours to minutes b 289 minutes to hours and minutes
3
c 4 year to months d 1 week to hours
Example 5 On one day, four students worked for 3 hours 42 minutes, 4 hours 19
21,22
minutes, 1 hour 26 minutes, and 3 hours 6 minutes, respectively. How
many hours and minutes were spent working by all four students
together?
6 Mario worked for 17 days 18 hours in January, 28 days 21 hours in
February and 25 days 3 hours in March. What was the total time
he worked?
7 Graham travelled for 3 days 23 hours by boat, then 26 hours by
plane and finally 4 days 18 hours by train to be home for his mother’s
birthday. How long did his journey take?
Example 23 8 What is the elapsed time, in days, hours and minutes, between:
a 12 noon and 3:45 pm?
b 6 pm and 8:30 pm
c 1200 and 1830?
d ten past eleven in the morning and three-thirty in the afternoon of
the same day?


e 5:35 am on Tuesday and 6:20 am on the next Wednesday?
f 2:32 am on Friday and 4:55 pm on the following Sunday?
g 1:00 pm on Thursday and 5:25 am on the following Tuesday?
9 When it is 3:03:52 pm (the last two digits indicate seconds) in Brisbane,
the time is 7:03:52 am on the same day in Madrid. We say that
Brisbane is ahead of Madrid. What is the time difference between
the two cities?
10 If I started a train trip at 1430 and finished it at 0625 the next day,
how long did the journey take?
11 Three people ran the Canberra marathon; their times were 2:43:52
(2 hours 43 minutes 52 seconds), 2:46:57 and 2:47:15. What were the
time differences between the first and second competitors, and between
the second and third?
12 Suppose a child is born at 2349 on one day and his twin brother is
born at 0008 the next day. How much older is the first child?
13 The time zone difference from Melbourne to Los Angeles is 19 hours,
Melbourne being ahead in time. What time would it be in Melbourne
if it were 6:27 am on Tuesday in Los Angeles?
14 At the end of 2005, the men’s world record time for the 100 m sprint
was 9.77 s, while the women’s record was 10.49 s. How much faster was
the men’s record?
15 Sarah takes 4 hours and 45 minutes to complete a 200-page novel,
while Derek takes 5 hours and 2 minutes. Reading at the same speeds,
how much faster is Sarah than Derek, in seconds, if they both read a
300-page novel?

9I Speed
Speed is a measure of how fast something is moving.
Constant speed
If the speed of an object does not change, we say that the object is moving
with constant speed. A car travelling at a constant speed of 60 kilometres
per hour would travel 60 kilometres in one hour. It would travel 120 km in
1
2 hours and 150 km in 2 2 hours.
For example, if I travel at a constant speed for 100 kilometres and it takes
me one hour to complete the journey, then my speed is 100 kilometres per
hour. This can also be written as 100 km/h. If I travel 100 kilometres in
2 hours (at a constant speed), then my speed is 50 km/h.
The speed of a moving object is defined to be the distance travelled divided

by the time the object takes to travel that distance. If we use the letter D for
the distance travelled and t for the time it takes to travel that distance, then
we write the formula for speed as
distance
speed = time
D
= t
Example 27
Mary travels at a constant speed for 60 kilometres and it takes

4 hours to complete the journey. What is her speed?
Solution
distance
speed = time
60
= 4
= 15 km/h

Example 28
A man runs at 10 m/s for 11 seconds. How far does he run?
Solution
Distance = 10 × 11
= 110 m
The man runs 110 m.
Average speed
When driving a car, or riding a bike, it is very rare for our speed to remain
the same for a long period of time. Most of the time, especially in the city,
we are slowing down or speeding up, so our speed is not constant. If we
travel 20 kilometres in one hour, then we say that our average speed over
that hour is 20 km/h, even though we must have travelled faster than this at
some times and slower (perhaps even coming to a complete stop) at others.
When we calculate speed, we often mean average speed.
Example 29
Paul rides 6 km on his bike in three quarters of an hour. What was

his average speed?
Solution
distance
speed = time
3
= 6÷ 4
4
= 6× 3
= 8 km/h

Example 30
Kaelah travelled at an (average) speed of 50 km/h for 3 hours.

How far did she travel?
Solution
An average speed of 50 km/h means that in 1 hour, Kaelah
travelled 50 km.
Hence in 3 hours, she travelled 3 × 50 = 150 km.
Example 31
The speed of light is approximately 300 000 000 metres per second.

How far, in km, would a light ray travel in one minute?
Solution
In 1 second, light travels 300 000 000 metres.
Hence in 60 seconds, light travels
300 000 000 × 60 metres = 18 000 000 000 metres
= 18 000 000 kilometres.
Exercise 9I
1 Complete this table.
Example 27 Speed Distance Time

100 km 2h
30 m 6 min
1
15 km
2 h
Example 28 30 m/s 4s
55 km/h 11 h
1
60 km/h
3 h

2 A boy cycles for 90 minutes at 8 km/h. How far does he go?
Example 29 3 A taxi drives 5.2 km to the airport in 13 minutes. What is its
average speed in km per hour?
Example 30 4 Maxine paddled her surf ski for 30 minutes at 2 km/h. How far did she go?
5 A balloon travels at 24 km/h for 4 hours 40 minutes. How far does
it travel?
6 An aircraft travels 3650 km in 5 hours. What is its average speed?
7 A train travels for 36 minutes at 80 km/h. How far does it go?
8 A boat travels 120 nautical miles in 5 hours. What is its average speed?
9 A plane is flying at a speed of 840 km/h. How far will it travel between
10.30 am and 11.15 am?
10 A top athlete’s average speed is recorded at 39.6 km/h.
a What is this speed in m/s?
b At this speed, how far could he travel in 18 seconds?
11 Lucas took 25 minutes to walk 2.5 km and then 15 minutes to travel
17.5 km by train.
a What was the total distance Lucas travelled?
b What was his average speed when he was walking?
c What was his average speed on the train trip?
d What was his average speed for the entire trip?
3
12 Henry travels 50 km by train in 4 of an hour, and then cycles for
4
10 km in 5 of an hour.
a How long, in hours and minutes, did his whole trip take?
b What is his average speed, in km/h, during the train trip?
c What is his average speed, in km/h, during the bike trip?
d What is his average speed over the whole trip?

13 Linda rode 20 km uphill, which took her an hour. She then spent
40 minutes riding downhill the same distance. What was her average
speed?
14 Convert 60 km/h to metres per second. Convert x km/h to metres per
second.
15 A standard triathlon race involves 1500 m of swimming, a 40 km bike
ride, and finally a 10 km run. If a competitor took 20 minutes for the
swim, 55 minutes for the ride and 35 minutes for the run, what was his
average speed, in km/h, for the event?

Review exercise
1 Complete these conversions.

a 1607 mm = ____ m b 1607 mm = ____ cm
c 197 mm = ____ cm d 197 mm = ____ m
e 230 cm = ____ mm f 230 cm = ____ m
g 55 cm = ____ mm h 55 cm = ____ m
i 1.5 km = ____ cm j 1.5 km = ____ m
k 8.3 m = ____ cm l 8.3 m = ____ km
a 3 kg = ____ mg b 3 kg = ____ g
c 4.8 g = ____ kg d 4.8 g = ____ mg
e 1029 mg = ____ g f 1029 mg = ____ kg
g 329 kg = ____ g h 329 kg = ____ mg
i 4 litres = ____ mL j 2.3 kL = ____ litres
k 2950 mL = ____ L l 250 km = ____ µm
3 A 2.3 m length of timber is cut into 5 equal pieces. How long is each
piece, in centimetres?
4 42.8 kilograms of fruit is shared between 8 families. How much fruit
does each family receive?
5 The fence required for a rectangular block of land measures 51.6 m
down each of the two sides and 16.85 m across the back, with no fence
at the front. How long is the fence in total?
6 If 35 lollies cost $5.25, how much do 18 lollies cost?
7 I use 980 g of flour to make 14 dim sims. How much flour is needed for
17 dim sims? How much is needed for 3 dim sims?

8 Calculate the perimeter and area of each of these figures, assuming
that the non-slanting lines are either horizontal or vertical.
a 3m b
1m
3m 6 km 10 km
6m
1m
6m 2 km
10 km
4m
6 km
3m 4 km
6 km
2m
6 km 2 km
5m
6 km
10 km
3m
9 Calculate the time that is 3 hours, 23 minutes and 59 seconds after

each of these times. Express all answers as am or pm.
a 2:30 pm b 11:43 pm
c 1:26:03 am d 1800
e Three forty-five in the afternoon
10 At a supermarket, 250 g of chocolate costs $4.50, while the price is
$12 for 1 kg 50 g of the same chocolate. Which is the more economical
option?
11 Find all 6 triangles in this figure and rank them by area.
A

B 3.5 cm C 3.5 cm D E
10.5 cm
12 A right-angled triangle has sides of 5, 12 and 13 cm. Find its area.

13 The hertz is a unit denoting 1 cycle per second. How many cycles per
second is:
a 400 kilohertz?
b 1.5 gigahertz (which is how fast many computers run nowadays)?
(Note: 1 gigahertz = 109 hertz)
14 If 200 m2 of grass is required for the healthy grazing of 3 sheep, how
much grass is needed to raise 15 sheep? How many healthy sheep can
2.5 hectares of land support?
15 What is the perimeter, in metres, of a regular pentagon (all sides are
equal), with side length 1.3 mm?
16 Samantha runs at a speed of 8 m/s for 30 seconds. How far does she run?
17 Yolanda runs 400 m in 52 seconds. What is her average speed in m/s?
1 3
18 Louise rides 5 2 km in 4 of an hour. What is her speed in km/h?
19 Find the area of each shaded region.
a 1m
b 8m
1m 1m 2m
5m
4m
1m
6m
20 What is the perimeter of a regular hexagon with side length 8.2 cm?
21 Sole drives for 2 hours at 65 km/h and then at 80 km/h for 3 hours.
What is Sole’s average speed for the 5 hours?
22 Jane’s average walking speed is 8 km/h. If she walks for 3 hours and
20 minutes, how far has she walked? If she then hikes 10 km in
4 hours, what is her average speed for the entire journey?
23 In bygone days, the imperial system of measurement was used. In this
system, distance is measured in inches, feet, yards and miles. There are
12 inches in a foot, 3 feet in a yard, and 1760 yards in a mile. Given
that 2.54 cm equals 1 inch, how many kilometres is a mile?

24 A square of side length 8 cm has a triangle removed from it, as shown
below. What is the remaining area?
8 cm

25 A yacht race started on Monday at 13:49:30, and finished when the

last yacht arrived at its destination on Friday of the same week, at
07:15:29. How long was the race, in hours, minutes and seconds?
26 Elephants often weigh as much as 3 tonnes, while the heaviest mass
a person can lift (usually in the Olympic games) is about 250 000 g.
What is the minimum number of people needed to lift an elephant?

Challenge
exercise
1 My dad told me that there are more microseconds in a minute than

minutes in a century. Was he telling the truth?
2 Draw three figures, based on rectangles and triangles, that have the
same area but different perimeters.
3 Draw three figures, based on rectangles and triangles, that have the
same perimeter but different areas.
4 A path 1 metre wide is being placed around the grassed area of a
garden, as shown below. What is the area of the grassed part of the
garden? What is its perimeter? What will the area of the path be?

4m
3m
9m
4m
3m
8m
1m
5 If four days before tomorrow is Friday, what day is three days after
yesterday?
6 If birthday cards cost $2.50 for a box of 12, $1.25 for a packet of 3, or
50c each, what is the greatest number of cards that you can buy if you
have $14.90?

7 If it takes 4 employees 5 days to clean up the rubbish alongside a
180 km stretch of freeway, how many people will be needed to clean
250 km of freeway in 6 days? (Assume they all work at the same pace.)
8 At how many different times are all the digits on a digital clock, which
runs form 0:00 to 23:59, identical in a 24-hour period?
9 I took my baby to the clinic to be weighed, but he would not keep still,
so I held him and stood on the scales and the nurse read off 75 kg.
Then the nurse held the baby and stood on the scales, and I read off
69 kg. Finally, I held the nurse and stood on the scales, and the baby
read off 137 kg. What did the baby weigh?
10 A man plants 12 rows of beans in rows that are 10 m long. The plants
in each row are spaced 50 cm apart. If the first and last plants in a row
are 25 cm from the ends of the row, what is the total number of plants?
11 Nine bus stops are equally spaced along a road. The distance from the
first to the third stop is 600 m. How far is it from the first stop to the last?
12 If 14 January 2006 is a Saturday, what day of the week will 14 January
2025 be?
13 If my average speed up a mountain was 3 km/h, and my speed down
the same mountain was 12 km/h, what was my average speed for the
entire climb?
14 Find the perimeter of the shape below. Once you figure out the trick,
look at some of the previous perimeter exercises and see how quickly
you can do them!
10 m
16 m

15 Find the area of the following figure, using two different methods.

4 cm
4 cm
4 cm
4 cm
16 Imagine you have 16 tiles, each 1 cm square. Draw on grid paper

some different rectangles that use all 16 tiles. You know that the area
of each rectangle you have drawn is 16 cm2. What is the perimeter of
each rectangle, in centimetres?
17 Imagine that you have a piece of string exactly 24 cm long. On grid
paper, draw some different rectangular shapes that can be made
using the entire 24 cm piece of string. You know that each of these
rectangles has a perimeter of 24 cm. What is the area of each, in
square centimetres? How small can you make the area? How large?
18 Investigate the possible perimeters for a rectangle of area 64 m2. Which
of the alternatives has the smallest perimeter?
19 Chase and Lana have 108 m of fencing with which to enclose an area
of the schoolyard for a rectangular garden. Explore the possible areas
of their garden, and state which alternative has the largest area.

Chapter 10
Review and problem solving
10A Review
Chapter 1: Whole numbers

1 Evaluate the following, using the mental strategies described in
Chapter 1.
a 23 + 45 + 27 b 21 + 18 + 11 c 22 + 23 + 75
d 56 + 11 + 19 + 14 e 36 +19 + 78 + 21 f 99 + 27 + 11 + 43
2 Evaluate the following, using the addition algorithm, or try to do
them in your head if you can.
a 692 + 149 b 3964 + 3829 c 1099 + 2058 + 4589
d 36 + 820 + 87 e 109 + 36 + 29 985 f 438 + 999 + 1053
3 Evaluate the following, using the subtraction algorithm, or try to do
them in your head if you can.
a 856 – 302 b 11 884 – 10 333 c 496 – 394
d 236 –198 e 1403 – 1378 f 18 443 – 9876
g 1000 – 297 h 10 012 – 9999 i 10 101 – 8207
4 Deon earned $126, $235, $154 and $165 over four Saturdays mowing
lawns. How much did he earn in total?
5 The lengths of material required for new curtains were 18 metres,
27 metres, 83 metres, 12 metres and 89 metres. What total length of
material was required for all the curtains?

6 The distance from Adelaide to Uluru is 1550 km, and the distance
from Adelaide to Darwin via Uluru is 3050 km. How far is Uluru
from Darwin?
7 Jacqui is 183 cm tall, David is 152 cm and Adrian is 147 cm tall.
How much taller than the others is Jacqui?
8 Insert <, > or = to make these statements true.
a 43 + 7 25 + 25 b 63 – 17 26 + 19
c 18 + 18 + 18 17 + 18 + 19 d 298 + 546 1000 – 154
9 Calculate:
a 27 × 5 + 27 × 95 b 2 × 43 × 5 c 25 × 82 × 4
d 125 × 6 e 138 × 7 f 143 × 12
10 Use either the short or the long multiplication algorithm to work out:
a 24 × 9 b 87 × 8 c 43 × 7
d 198 × 6 e 1035 × 8 f 22 486 × 3
g 333 × 21 h 6434 × 12 i 423 × 23
j 744 × 34 k 85 739 × 37 l 50 746 × 26
m 930 × 385 n 294 × 382 o 7584 × 4723
11 All of the 32 rows of seats are filled for the school assembly. If there are
17 seats in each row, how many children and teachers attend assembly?
12 Each of 38 rabbit burrows has 19 rabbits in it. What is the total
number of rabbits?
13 Fizzoes come in packets of 11. There are 43 packets in a box, and 29
boxes in a carton. How many Fizzoes are there in each carton?
14 A hotel has 17 rooms on each floor. If the hotel consists of three
buildings, each with 27 floors, how many rooms are there in the hotel?
15 Complete each of the following, using the short division algorithm.
a 444 ÷ 2 b 844 ÷ 4 c 969 ÷ 3
d 497 ÷ 7 e 248 ÷ 8 f 729 ÷ 9

g 198 ÷ 3 h 176 ÷ 8 i 567 ÷ 9
j 2416 ÷ 8 k 1805 ÷ 5 l 4554 ÷ 6
m 432 ÷ 4 n 840 ÷ 8 o 924 ÷ 3
p 8948 ÷ 5 q 48 567 ÷ 7 r 39 573 ÷ 5
16 Evaluate:
a 5 × 4 + 6 ÷ 2 – 1 b 5 × (4 + 6) ÷ 2 – 1 c 5 × 4 + (8 ÷ 2 – 1)
Chapter 2: Factors, multiples, primes and divisibility

1 Find all the factors of:
a 39 b 48 c 144 d 420 e 1272 f 1250
14, 24, 37, 38, 144, 196, 232, 333
3 Which of the following numbers are multiples of 19?
47, 48, 76, 95, 109, 119, 127, 142, 152, 199
4 Which of the following numbers have 186 as a multiple?
2, 3, 5, 6, 18, 62, 74, 86, 93
5 List the prime numbers between 44 and 144.
6 Find two prime numbers that sum to:
a 48 b 88 c 108 d 114 e 204 f 240
7 Write in expanded form and evaluate:
a the powers of 4 up to 45 b the powers of 10 up to 109
8 Express each number as a product of its prime factors.
a 24 b 96 c 150 d 162 e 324 f 392
9 Evaluate:
a 52 b 92 c 112 d 282 e 502 f 1002
10 Write the square root of:
a 36 b 400 c 196 d 441 e 729 f 1 000 000

11 Write each of these numbers as the sum of 3 or 4 squares.
a 29 b 105 c 70 d 299
12 Find three numbers for which the square of the number has none of the
same digits as the cube of that number. 9 is one such number as 92 = 81
and 9 3 = 729, and the number 81 has none of the same digits as 729.
13 Find the highest common factor of:
a 12 and 8 b 9 and 24 c 10 and 8
d 45 and 35 e 124 and 72 f 100 and 48
14 Find the lowest common multiple of:
d 4 and 8 e 15 and 6 f 24 and 18
15 Fill in the gaps in the 6-digit number 4___0___3___ to make a number
a 2 b 10 c 3
d 2 and 5 e 3 and 8 f 3, 4 and 6
g 3 and 10 h 5 but not 10 i 2 but not 4
16 Two factors of 403, namely 13 and 31, can each be written by reversing
the digits of the other. Find three other numbers with this property.
Chapter 3: An introduction to algebra

1 Use algebra to write:
a the product of 6 and z
b the product of x and y
c the difference of x and 8 (x is greater than 8)
d m is multiplied by 5, and 3 is added to the result.
2 A packet of chocolates contains n chocolates. How many chocolates
are left in the packet if 5 are removed?
3 There are six boxes, each containing x mice. How many mice are
there in all?

4 Write each product without multiplication signs.
a 4 × x × 6 × x b 5 × x × 7 × x c 3 × m × m × n × n × n
5 Rewrite each quotient, using the algebraic way of expressing division.
a 2x ÷ y b 3q ÷ 2p c 5w ÷ x d x ÷ 3y
6 Write each of the following in standard algebraic notation.
a The product of z with itself
b The product of 5a and b
c The product of 4b and 3b
d The quotient of x divided by 7
e The quotient of 2p divided by q
a 2x + 4 b 5 – x c 2x2 + 3 d 20 – 2x e 7(x – 3)
8 The profit in selling n crates of apples is 5n dollars. What is the profit
if 100 crates of apples are sold?
9 Simplify:
a 3x + 7x –x b 2a + 3a – a
c 7xy – 3xy + 2xy d 11xy + 3xy – 2yx
10 Rewrite each statement, using algebra.
a A number, x, is multiplied by 6, and 2 is subtracted from the result.
b 3 is subtracted from a number x, and the result is multiplied by 5.
11 Write each statement, using algebra.
a A number a is squared, and the result is multiplied by 3.
b A number a is multiplied by 3, and the result is squared.
12 Rewrite each expression without brackets.
a (3x)2 b (2z)2 c (15x)2 d (7c)2
13 Assuming that a is a multiple of 5, what are the next two multiples of 5?

Chapter 4: Fractions – part 1
1 Draw a number line marked with the whole numbers from 0 to 3, and
1 4 3 3 19
indicate on it where the markers for 2 , 2 , 4 , 1 8 and 8 are located.
2 Draw a number line marked with the whole numbers from 0 to 3, and
2 1 8 5 1 11
indicate on it where the markers for 3 , 6 , 9 , 2 6 , 1 9 and 6 are located.
3 Write the fraction that represents each of these situations.
a 8 of 11 grandchildren visit their grandmother.
b Twenty minutes out of one hour are spent reading.
c One leg of a spider is broken.
d The four girls are part of a set of septuplets.
e Only seven sailing boats of a fleet of 23 make it to the finish line
before the storm.
4 Write two equivalent fractions for:
4 3 15 2 11
a 8 b 12 c 20 d 3 e 12
5 1 1 5 7
f 8 g 1 2 h 4 3 i 3 6 j 24

5 In each part, find the value of n that makes the statement true.
n 15 48 6 10 n
a 40 = 20 b 40 = n c 15 = 75
3 36 18 90 4 28
d 8 = n e n = 100 f n = 49
6 Reduce each fraction to its simplest form.

4 9 8 12 165 18
a 12 b 27 c 92 d 34 e 200 f 48
25 26 49 500 448 196
g 125 h 104 i 105 j 125 k 64 l 184
7 Convert the following improper fractions to mixed numbers, and

reduce them to simplest form.
8 13 17 45 120 97
a 3 b 6 c 5 d 40 e 100 f 32

8 Find the next four numbers in each of the following sequences. (In
each case, to go from one term to the next, you add the same fraction.)
4 3 2 1
a 5 , 1 5 , 2 5 , 3 5 , ___, ___, ___, ___
5 3 1 6
b 7 , 1 7 , 2 7 , 2 7 , ___, ___, ___, ___
1 1 1 2
c 6 , 3 , 2 , 3 , ___, ___, ___, ___
9 Convert these mixed numbers to improper fractions.

1 4 2 21 7 2
a 3 6 b 4 5 c 5 3 d 1 22 e 6 9 f 2 19
10 Write a fraction that:

7
a is closer to 1 than 8
1 2
b is between 3 and 3
1
c is equivalent to 2 , but has a denominator greater than 50
d is between 4 and 5
4 8
e is larger than 7 but smaller than 9
11
f is larger than 2 but closer to 2 than 1 12
11 Order these fractions from smallest to largest.
1 1 1 1 1 3 3 1 1 9 1 4 5 3 2
a 2 , 6 , 3 , 10 , 4 b 4 , 8 , 8 , 4 , 8 c 3 , 9 , 6 , 6 , 3
1 16 9 17 5 7 4 5 3 3 1 3 3 2 1
d 18 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 16 e 8 , 5 , 6 , 4 , 8 f 2 4 , 5 , 1 10 , 2 6 , 1 5
12 Evaluate these sums, writing each answer as a fraction in

simplest form.
1 4 6 1 4 4 2 4 5 3 11 3
a 7 + 7 b 8 + 8 c 10 + 10 d 3 + 3 e 6 + 6 f 12 + 12
1 1 3 4 8 1 4 1 3 2 3 9
g 8 + 4 h 12 + 6 i 9 + 3 j 5 + 4 k 7 + 3 l 10 + 11
13 Evaluate:
2 1 4 3 27 19 3 1 1 1 7 2
a 3 – 3 b 7 – 7 c 48 – 48 d 4 – 8 e 2 – 6 f 8 – 4
3 1 2 3 2 1 6 1 9 3 5 1
g 4 – 2 h 3 – 5 i 5 – 7 j 7 – 3 k 10 – 4 l 6 – 9

5
a Three different fractions that sum to exactly 8
1
b Two fractions whose difference is a little more than 2
1
c Three different fractions that sum to exactly 4
3
d Two fractions with a difference of exactly 4
1
15 Ella picks half a basket of grapes, Jonah picks 2 3 baskets and Barry
1
picks 4 of a basket. How many baskets were picked in total?

3
1 When Evelyn took 4 of the chocolates, there were four chocolates left
in the box. How many chocolates did Evelyn take?
2 Evaluate:
3 5 2 3 7 4 3 5
a 5 × 6 b 5 × 4 c 8 × 7 d 10 × 6
1 1 1 3 5 1 4 1 2 3 5 3
e 2 × 3 × 6 f 4 × 6 × 2 g 5 × 2 × 3 h 4 × 6 × 8
14 16 5 1 2 1 1 1 5
i 15 × 21 × 8 j 3 3 × 5 k 5 4 × 1 14 l 7 3 × 2 11
3 Evaluate:
3 3 1 5 1 1 1 1
a 4 ÷ 8 b 2 3 ÷ 8 c 1 5 ÷ 2 3 d 1 2 ÷ 3 3
4 Evaluate:
1 1 2 2 1 1
a 4 × 4 b 4 ÷ 4 c 3 × 3 d 3 ÷ 3 e 3 ÷ 5 f 3 × 5
1 1 1 1 2 3 2 3
g 2 ÷ 2 h 2 × 2 i 2 ÷ 17 j 2 × 17 k 3 × 4 l 3 ÷ 4
2 1 2 1 4 7 4 7
m 3 × 3 n 3 ÷ 3 o 7 × 5 p 7 ÷ 5
5 Evaluate:
3 8 2 2 3 3 5 3 1
a 4 × 9 + 3 b 3 × 4 + 4 c 6 × 10 + 2

3 9 1 3 9 1 2 3 8
d 5 ÷ 10 + 3 e 4 ÷ 16 – 6 f 3 of 4 × 9
3 5 2 1 7 3 14
g 5 of 9 – 3 of 6 h 9 ÷ 4 × 27

6 Evaluate:
2 3 5 1 3 8
a 3 + 4 b 12 – 4 c 4 × 9
5 2 2 1 2 1
6
–3 3
+6 3
–6
3
7 A tank that is 4 full contains 1341 L of water. How many litres does it
hold when it is full?
5
8 After cycling 9 of a journey, a cyclist has 32 km further to go. What is
the length of the journey?
9 If I spend one-third of my money, then one-quarter of what is left, and

finally one-fifth of the remainder, what fraction of my original money
have I left?
1 1 1
10 Four bells start tolling together and ring every 1, 1 4 , 1 5 and 1 6
seconds respectively. After what period of time will they first ring
all together again?
Chapter 6: An introduction to geometry

1 a Write down the complement of:
i 20˚ ii 45˚ iii 82˚ iv 18˚ v 76˚
b Write down the supplement of:
i 140˚ ii 132˚ iii 85˚ iv 68˚ v 166˚
2 Find the angle between the hour hand and the minute hand at:
a 3:00 pm b 9:00 am c 4:00 pm
d 3:00 am e 8:00 pm f 9:00 pm
g 11:00 am h 5:00 am

3 a Use your protractor to find the size of each angle.
i ii

iii iv
b Write down the reflex size of each angle in part a.
4 Copy the diagram below, leaving about 6 cm of space above the

diagram for angles to be drawn.

A P
Use your protractor to construct rays, pointing upwards from A, that

make angles with the ray AP of:
a 35˚ b 150˚ c 80˚

5 Find the values of the angles a, b, c and i in each diagram below.
Give careful reasons for all your statements, and name the relevant
parallel lines.
a b D E
U B
T i 120˚ i
A
D
60˚
S
C
G F
R
c d C e O
S
a
R
B b
72˚ O A B c Y
50˚
A X
38˚ U
D
T
6 In each diagram below, give a reason why AB || CD. Hence find the
values of a, b, c and i.
a b
O A B
45˚ 30˚
b B
55˚ D
A 38˚ V
55˚
c 45˚
C C D
c d
A B A B
50˚ 30˚ a
i 50˚ 75˚
C D C D

Chapter 7: Algebra with fractions
1 Write each of these expressions using algebraic notation. In each part,
use x as the pronumeral.
a A number is divided by 5, and 6 is added to the result.
b Five is added to a number, and the result is divided by 3.
c A number is divided by 8, and 5 is subtracted from the result.
d 7 is added to a number, and the result is divided by 20.
e 11 is subtracted from a number, and the result is divided by 5.
f 4 is added to a number, and the result is divided by 11.
g 12 is subtracted from a number, and the result is divided by 12.
h A number is divided by 10, 4 is subtracted from the result,
and the result of this is multiplied by 7.
i 7 is added to 5 of a number.
8
j 12 is added to a number multiplied by 7 .
8
k A number is divided by 4, then 11 is added to the result,
then the result of this is multiplied by 10.
l A number is divided by 8, then 5 is subtracted from the result,
then the result of this is multiplied by 9.
2 For x = 20, find the value of:
a x b x + 3 c x + 2
2 5 3
x–2 3(x + 50) 3x
d e f + 10
4 7 10
g 3 x – 20 h 60 – 3x i 21 – 360
x
5 5
3 A tank contains n litres of water. 70 litres of water is added

to the tank.
a How many litres of water are there now in the tank?
b The water is divided into 150 containers. How much water is
there in each container?

4 Write each of the following expressions using algebraic notation.
a A number a is divided by 12, and 5 is subtracted from the result.
b 7 is added to a number a, and the result is divided by 1 .
2
c 11 is subtracted from a number b, and the result is divided by 5.
d A number b is subtracted from 10, and the result is divided by 15.
5 Substitute m = 16 and n = 20 to evaluate:
m n m+n n–m
a n b m c d
4 5
m m+n 144
e + 10 f 20
m
+ 3 g h
4 3 m+n
6 Write each of these expressions using algebraic notation.

a A number x is multiplied by 7 and divided by 2.
b A number x is multiplied by 11 and divided by 3.
c 1 of x.
5
d A number y is multiplied by 3 .
4
e A number y is divided by 7, 11 is added to the result, and the result
of this is multiplied by 13.
7 Evaluate each of these expressions for x = 35.
a 2x b 3x c 2(x + 7)
5 7 5
8 A piece of string is x m in length. It is divided into 7 equal parts.
a Find the length of each part in terms of x.
b Find the length of each part for the following values of x.
i x = 21 ii x = 42 iii x = 100

Chapter 8: Decimals
1 Write the place value of the 6 in each of the following numbers.
a 26.308 b 610.495 c 1.6 d 2.9996
e 2.64 f 5.126 g 4.06 h 3.5396
2 Write the larger number in each pair.
a 0.8 or 0.43 b 0.7 or 0.96 c 3.5 or 3.45
d 2.1 or 2.0987 e 9.8 or 9.21523 f 10.3 or 10.45
g 1.00003 or 1.03 h 4.56 or 4.92 i 0.39 or 0.21
3 Write each set of numbers in order from smallest to largest.
a 3.45 3.061 3.059 3.1 3.009
b 4.32 4.203 4.22222 4.0002 4.3
4 Express these decimals as fractions, simplifying where possible.
a 0.3 b 0.25 c 0.6 d 1.87
e 4.3456 f 2.05 g 7.5 h 10.306
i 0.0004 j 4.007 k 9.9029 l 10.375
a 3 b 1 c 1 d 45
4 2 10 100
e 6 f 234
g 2
h 3 4
100 1000 5 20
21 2 5 5
i j k l
15 3 3 7
6 Complete these calculations.
a 4.938 + 3.85 b 34.692 – 28.85 c 2.9032 + 83.184
d 28.5 × 12 e 234.008 – 198.34 f 78.45 ÷ 0.5
g 5.205 × 100 h 67.0296 + 344.3222 i 27.55 ÷ 0.3
j 12.0034 + 1.295773 k 26.093 × 18.4 l 289.5914 ÷ 0.04

7 Fill in the table with the equivalent fraction or decimal.
Fraction Decimal
0.375
1
3
0.75
3
2
4
3.125
Chapter 9: Measurement
1 The diagrams below show the readings for measurements taken using
different measuring tools. The arrow indicates what the measurement
was in each case. Read each scale and write down the reading. Include
the unit of measurement.
a

70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

mm

b

mL 1000
800
600
400
200


c d
°C

5
4
1 3
2
2
1
3
0
4 –1
5 –2
6 –3
mL –4
–5
–6

a 12 mm = ____ cm b 143 mm = ____ cm or ____ m
c 2.3 m = ____ cm or ____ mm
d 0.8 km = ____ m e 2 cm = ____ mm
5
f 3 kg = ____ g g 324 g = ____ mg or ____ kg
h 25 L = ____ mL i 2305 mL = ____ L
j 3.2 L = ____ mL k 0.4 m = ____ cm
3 Three different packets of muesli were purchased. Packet A held 785 g,
packet B contained 1.2 kg and packet C had 1050 g of muesli. If these
were mixed together in one large container, what would be the total
mass of the muesli, in both kilograms and grams?
4 Aled knows that 1 mL of water has a mass of 1 g. If he has the
following items in his school bag, which itself weighs 1.2 kg, what is
the mass of Aled’s bag and its contents? Laptop computer (3.4 kg),
sandwich (230 g) water bottle (bottle 15 g, 375 mL of water), apple
55 g, school books (945 g), pencil case (387 g).

5 If 4 chocolate blocks cost $9.48, how much do 3 chocolate blocks cost?
6 If a generator needs 32 L of fuel to run for 5 days, for how long can it
run on 112 L?
7 Which is the best value, 8 apples for $2.72 or 53 apples for $19.61?
8 Find the perimeter and area of this figure.
5 cm
2 cm
3 cm
2 cm
2 cm 3 cm
2 cm
9 What are the perimeter and area of a rectangle with length and width:
a 112 and 18 centimetres? b 5 and 8 metres?
c 82 and 34 mm? d 5x and 3y?
10 Calculate the time elapsed, in hours, minutes and seconds, between:
a 6 pm on Sunday and 6:25 am on Tuesday
b 8:25 am and 3:08 pm on the same day
c two finish times for a race: 03:34:21 and 04:25:56
11 What is the time:
a 3 hours, 24 minutes and 30 seconds after 2.30 pm?
b two days, 17 hours and 3 minutes before midnight on Tuesday?
c 3 hours, 18 minutes after 11:28 am?

Miscellaneous
1 Find the value of the digit represented by each .
a 2 6 b 3 7
+ 7 8 9 – 9 5
1 0 1 0
c 4 5 d 2 6
+ 8 7 × 9
1 0 2 2 0
2 List the factors of 54.

3 Write down the first eight multiples of 7.
4 Write 10, 14, 15 and 21 as products of two primes.
5 Write down the first three powers of 7.
6 Express the following using algebra.
a Add 7 to the number n
b The sum of 7 and r
c Multiply x by 3
d Take t away from 7
e The product of 11 and w
f The quotient when x is divided by p
7 a How many minutes are there in h hours?
b How many days are there in w weeks?
c How many cents are there in d dollars?
d Write an expression for the area of a square with side length l.
8 Find the value of each expression if w is replaced by 6.
a 3w b w + 9 c 4w – 2 d 15 – 2w e 6 – w

9 If m = 5 and n = 6, evaluate:
4n
a 3m b 4m – n c 2n + m d 6m + 7n e m – 2
10 Find the product of each pair of terms.
a 3x and 6x b 5x and 4x c 5xy and 10
d 6ab and 10 e 8a and 2a f 7ab and 3ab
11 a Give the area of the rectangle shown, in terms of x.

x cm
3x cm
b If x = 6, what is the area?

c If x = 5, what is the area?
12 Simplify:
12 36 15 96 98
a 24 b 12 c 45 d 144 e 56
13 Find:
1 1 1 2 5 1 2 3
a 3 + 2 b 6 × 3 c 8 – 2 d 3 ÷ 2
5 3 12 8 12 8 16 3
e 4 of 5 f 11 ÷ 17 g 22 + 11 h 17 × 4
2 17 8 8
i 3 of 19 j 15 – 20
14 Find the value of i, given that DC is parallel to BA.

C
G
2i
A
D i
F

15 Write down the value of b, giving reasons for your answer.
b B
60˚ D
A 40˚
60˚
C
10B Problem solving
Evens and odds

Two whole numbers are added together. If their sum is odd, which
statements below are always true? Which are always false? Which are
sometimes true and sometimes false?
1 Their quotient is not a whole number.
2 Their product is even.
3 Their difference is even.
4 Their product is more than their sum.
5 If 1 is added to one of the numbers and the product is found, it will be even.
The Collatz conjecture

Choose any whole number to start with.
If it is odd, multiply it by 3 and then add 1.
If it is even, divide it by 2.
Then repeat this process on the number just obtained. Keep repeating the
procedure.
For example, if you start with 58, the resulting chain of numbers is
58, 29, 88, 44, 22, 11, 34, 17, 52, 26, 13, 40, 20, 10, 5, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1, 4, 2, 1, ….

The Collatz conjecture, made by Collatz in 1937, claims that, if you repeat
this process over and over, starting with any whole number greater than
zero, eventually you will finish up with the sequence …, 4, 2, 1, 4, 2, 1.
A conjecture is a statement that has not been proved mathematically to
be true for all cases. Although the Collatz conjecture has been shown to
work – often very quickly – for many whole numbers, there are some quite
small numbers that take a very long time to come down to …, 4, 2, 1, 4, 2, 1.
Apply this process to all the whole numbers greater than zero and less than
or equal to 30. For each one, find:
• how many steps it takes to reach 1 the first time
• the largest number in the sequence. (For the sequence above, 58 takes
20 steps and reaches a maximum of 88.)
Look for shortcuts and work with a partner if you like.
Long division
Here is a way to check how good your long division skills are. If you are
able to follow it through and get to the end without making a mistake, you
can consider yourself a qualified long division champion.
• Start with any two-digit number (for example, 58). Write it three times so
that a six-digit number is formed (585 858).
• Divide this number by 21. There should not be any remainder. If there is,
try and find out where you made your mistake and fix it.
• Now divide this new four- or possibly five-digit number by 37. Once
again, there should be no remainder.
• Finally divide this number – which should by now have only three or four
digits – by 13. You will know if you got it right by looking at the number
you are left with.
Explain why this exercise works.

(Doing any of this exercise on a calculator is still quite interesting but is
definitely wimping out!)

Totient numbers
1 A totient number is the number of fractions between 0 and 1 (not
including 0 or 1) for a given denominator that cannot be reduced to a
simpler equivalent fraction. The totient number of 2 is 1, since we have
1 1 2
2
; of 3 it is 2, since we have 3 and 3 ; and of 4 it is also 2, since we have
1 3 2 1
4
and 4 4 can be reduced to 2 . The totient number of 5 is 4, since we
1 5
have 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 ; and of 6 it is 2, since we have 6 and 6 . Find the
5 5 5 5
totient numbers for all denominators up to 12.
2 For any denominator n, there are n fractions between 0 and 1 (including
0 but not 1). Of these fractions, some will be counted towards the totient
number of n, but others will cancel down and count towards the totient
number of one of the factors of n. Using this information and the totient
numbers from the previous question, calculate the totient numbers for
15, 18, 20 and 24.
3 The totient number is related to the prime factors of the original number,
since these will determine which fractions can be cancelled. Using this
information, calculate the totient numbers of 72, 81, 98 and 100.
Last digits of powers

Square numbers
Without using a calculator, can you say which of this set of numbers could
not be square numbers?
{8 116 801, 251 301 659, 3 186 842, 20 720 704}
Yes you can, just by checking the last digit of each number.
Square numbers can only end in six different digits.
Do a bit of experimentation with a calculator and find the four different
digits that square numbers never end in. (This eliminates the third number
in this set.)
Now check out the pairs of digits that your odd square numbers end with.
What digits are possible in the tens column of an odd square number?
(This should eliminate the second number in this set.)

Complete these sentences, using what you have discovered.
• In a square number, the last digit can only be one of ___, ___, ___, ___,
___, or ___.
• The second-last digit of an odd square number is always ___.
Cube numbers
Cube numbers behave rather differently.
A bit more experimentation will show that a cube number can end in any
digit. This digit depends on the last digit of the number being cubed.
Complete this table:
If a number ends in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Its cube will end in
Fourth powers
These are in fact just square numbers that have been squared.
For example, 74 = 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 = 72 × 72
Since 42 = 16 and 92 = 81, the last digit of a fourth power can only be 0, 1,
5 or 6.
Fifth powers
But fifth powers have a magic of their own. Do a bit of experimentation to
find out what it is.
Obstinate numbers
An odd number can usually be written as the sum of a prime number and a
power of two. This is true for all odd numbers greater than 1 and less than 100.
For example, if we choose 23, we can say that it is equal to 19 + 22 (19 is
prime and 22 = 4, and 19 + 4 = 23).
We could just as easily have said that it is 7 + 24, as 7 is prime and 7 + 16 = 23.
But 21 + 21 and 15 + 23 do not work, as 21 and 15 are not prime numbers.
Some odd numbers can be expressed like this in many ways.
For example, 61 = 59 + 21 = 53 + 23 = 45 + 24 = 29 + 25.
But others are more difficult to express in this way.

Try to find as many pairs as you can for these numbers:
a 45 b 29 c 59 d 95
There are some odd numbers that cannot be expressed as the sum of a
prime and a power of two. These have been called obstinate numbers.
An example of an obstinate number is 251, as the working out below shows.
251 – 21 = 249 251 – 22 = 247 251 – 23 = 243

= 3 × 83 = 13 × 19 = 3 × 81
251 – 24 = 235 251 – 25 = 219 251 – 26 = 187

= 5 × 47 = 3 × 73 = 11 × 17
251 – 27 = 123
= 3 × 41
The next power of 2 is 28 = 256, which is too large to subtract from 251,
so 251 is obstinate.
In fact 251 is the third obstinate number. The first two are between 100
and 150.
Find these two numbers, keeping track of how you eliminated the other
23 odd numbers between 100 and 150.
Remember to be systematic. Making a list of the powers of two up to
27 = 128 might be a good place to start. Look for shortcuts and patterns
as you go.

Areas
1 ABCD is a square with side length 3 cm. X is the midpoint of side CD
and Y is a point on BC such that BY = 2 cm.
B Y C

W X
A D
a Find the area of triangles BWA and CWX.

b Find the area of triangle BAC and hence the area of triangle BWC.
c Find the area of the shaded region
2 Each square in the diagrams below has side length 4 cm.

A
P
X
a Find the total area of the nine squares
b Find the area of triangle PAX and the area of triangle PBX.
c In the figure below, find the position of point Q on line interval AB
such that the shaded region is half the area of the nine squares.

A
Q
B
P
X

3 Draw a line through P that splits the 5 squares into equal areas.

Prove that your answer is correct.
The grid method of multiplying with decimals

Many different ways of multiplying have been used over the centuries.
The grid (or lattice) method was used extensively. Here we adapt it to
multiply decimals.
Consider the product 24.3 × 8.96. Follow the procedure outlined below to
fill in the grid. The first few numbers have been entered.
3 × 8 = 24. The 2 is placed in the top position. 2 4 3

1 3 2
4 × 8 = 32. The 3 is placed in the top position. 6 2 4 8
2
9
7
Notice the arrows in the grid extending inwards 2 4 3

from the decimal points. The diagonal on 1 3 2
6 2 4 8
which these arrows meet (shown as a bold line)
separates numbers greater than or equal to 1 1 3 2
8 6 7 9
from numbers less than 1. Now fill in the grid
and extend the diagonals as shown below. 1 2 1 6
2 4 8

Next, add along the diagonals, starting at the 2 4 3
bottom right. The sum for the first diagonal 1 3 2
8
is 8. This 8 represents 8 . 6 2 4
1000
1 3 2
8 6 7 9
Check your answers using another method
1 2 1 6
for long multiplication. 2 4 8
8
The sum for the second diagonal is 7 + 1 + 4 = 2 4 3

12. This 12 represents 12 = 1 + 2 . The 1 is 1 3 2
100 10 100 8
carried to the next diagonal. 6 2 4
1 3 2
8 6 7 9
1 2 1 6
2 4 8
2 8
2 4 3
The grid is now complete. The answer is
217.728. Note that the decimal point in 11 3 2
2 8
6 2 4
the answer appears at the end of the
bold diagonal. 11 3 2
9
1 8 6 7
11 2 1 6
7 21 4 8
7 2 8
Try these problems using this method.

1 0.243 × 0.896 2 4.567 × 8.32 3 6.892 × 5.789

10C Number bases
The number system we use is the decimal system. The word decimal comes
from the Latin word decem, which means ‘ten’. As we saw in Chapter 1, we
can write any number in expanded form using powers of 10. For example:
45 = 4 × 10 + 5 × 1
3412 = 3 × 103 + 4 × 102 + 1 × 10 + 2
Another way to describe this is to say that it is a place value system with
base 10.
If we have a number of buttons, then they can be arranged in groups to
show the place values base 10.
1 × 102 5 × 10 3×1
The number is 1 × 102 + 5 × 10 + 3 × 1 = 153.
Suppose we now use powers of 8 instead of powers of 10. Since 82 = 64
and 83 = 512, we cannot form any groups of 83 out of 153 buttons. Two
groups of 82 gives 128. This leaves 25 buttons, which is 3 groups of 8 and 1
single button.
1 × 82 1 × 82 3 × 8 1×1

This can be written as 2 × 82 + 3 × 8 + 1.
The number is 231 in base 8. We write this as 2318. We read this number as
‘two three one, base eight’.
The largest digit to be used in base n is n – 1. For example, in base 10 we
use the digits 0 to 9, in base 8 we use the digits 0 to 7, and so on.
Example 1
Consider 17 base 10. Rearrange the dots to show the base 8

groupings of dots.
Solution
There are 2 lots of 8 and one lot of 1. We can write the number as 218.
218 = 2 × 81 + 1 × 1
Example 2
Write 39 base 10 in base 4.
Solution
First note that 42 = 16 and 43 = 64.
There are two lots of 16 in 39, as 2 × 16 = 32. This leaves 7, which

is one lot of 4 and three lots of 1.
39 = 2 × 42 + 1 × 4 + 3
We can write 39 (base 10) = 213 (base 4) or 3910 = 2134.
This is read as ‘three nine base 10 is equal to two one three, base 4’.

An algorithm for changing base is shown below.
4 39 9 remainder 3
4 9 2 remainder 1
4 2 0 remainder 2
0
The remainders, in reverse order, give the base 4 number

(3910 = 2134). Can you explain why this works?
Example 3
Write the base 7 number for:

a 27 b 52
Solution
a 27 = 3 × 7 + 6 × 1
Therefore the number is 36 base 7. That is, 2710 = 367.
b 52 = 1 × 72 + 0 × 7 + 3 × 1
Therefore the number is 103 base 7. That is, 5210 = 1037.
Exercise 10C
1 Write the base 4 number for each of the following (which are in base 10).
a 34 b 56 c 78 d 100 e 130
2 Write the base 8 number for each of the following (which are in base 10).
a 20 b 34 c 70 d 100 e 512 f 600
3 Write each of the following as a base 10 number.
a 5467 b 3234 c 2013 d 12116

10D Binary numbers
Base 2 is a very useful base. Computers use base 2 for their calculations
because a logic, digital or computer switch (like a light switch) usually has
only two positions, ‘on’ and ‘off’. ‘On’ can be represented by 1, and ‘off’ by 0.
Base 2 has a special name, the binary system. It has only 2 digits, 0 and 1.
For example:
101 (base 2) = 1 × 22 + 0 × 2 + 1 = 5 (base 10)
100 1112 = 1 × 25 + 0 × 24 + 0 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 1 × 2 + 1 = 39 (base 10)
Example 4
Write 24 in binary form.
Solution
24 = 1 × 24 + 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 0 = 11 000 (base 2)
The answer can be found as follows.
2 24 12 remainder 0
2 12 6 remainder 0
2 6 3 remainder 0
2 3 1 remainder 1
2 1 0 remainder 1
0
Converting from binary to decimal

Consider the binary number 10 1012.
24 23 22 2 units
1 0 1 0 1
10 1012 = 1 × 24 + 0 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 2 + 1 = 2110

Addition and subtraction
The setting out for binary addition and subtraction is the same as for base
10 addition and subtraction.
The following are a few simple additions:
12 + 12 = 102
12 + 12 + 12 = 112
102 + 102 = 1002
102 + 102 + 12 = 1012
102 + 102 + 102 = 1102
Example 5
Find:
a 112 + 1012 b 10112 + 11 1112
Solution
a 1 1 b 1 1 1 1 1
+ 11 0 1 1 + 1 11 01 11 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
The ‘carry’ process follows the same principle as is used in base 10.
So 112 + 1012 = 10002 and 11 1112 + 10112 = 101 0102.

Example 6
Find 11012 – 112.
Solution
1 1 1 0 1 1 01 10 1
– 1 1 1
or – 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
That is, 11012 – 112 = 10102.
Example 7
Calculate 11012 + 11 1012 + 10 0112.
Solution
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 1

+ 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1
That is 11012 + 11 1012 + 10 0112 = 111 1012.
Exercise 10D
1 Write the binary number for each of the following numbers, which are
in base 10.
a 5 b 10 c 12 d 16 e 45

2 Write the base 10 number for each of the following numbers, which
are in base 2.
a 1001 b 111 c 1011 d 1100 e 1 001 001
3 Find the result of each of the following additions in the binary system.
a 11 + 101 b 1111 + 101 c 1010 + 11 d 1010 + 1010
4 Find the result of each of the following subtractions in the binary system.
a 11 101 – 101 b 11 011 – 1100 c 111 – 11
d 1001 – 111 e 110 011 – 1111
5 Find the result of each of the following additions in the binary system.
a 1 1 1 b 1 0 1 0 c 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
+ 1 1 1 + 1 1 1 1 + 1 0 0 0

6 A binary number is added to 10 100 to give 111 111. Find this
binary number.
7 A binary number is added to 111 to give 1000. Find this binary number.
10E Terminating decimals
When fractions are written in decimal form, most do not terminate. The
only fractions that terminate are the ones that, when written in simplest
form, have a denominator whose only prime factors are 2 and 5. Some
examples are 17 , 3 and 11 .
32 40 250
There are not many denominators like this. In fact, there are just 27 whole
numbers less than 1000 and greater than 1 whose only prime factors are
2 and 5. Every such number will yield a terminating decimal if used as
the denominator of a fraction. However, they comprise only 27 of the
998
numbers in the range 1 to 1000, and the proportion gets smaller as the
range is increased. For example, the proportion in the range 1 to 100 000
is much smaller than 27 .
998

Activity 1
Make a list of the 27 whole numbers less than 1000 that produce
terminating decimals when they are used as the denominator in a
fraction written in simplest form.
These denominators are not as intriguing as the others. However,

there are a couple of interesting things to say about them.
Activity 2
1 We know that 1 = 0.125. Can you use this fact to explain why
8
3 × 1 , 5 × 1 and 7 × 1 cannot have a zero in the third decimal place?
8 8 8
2 Now consider 1 = 0.008. Can you explain why 2 , 3 , 4 ,

125 125 125 125
and 76 cannot have a zero in the third decimal place?
125
3 Now take any fraction 1 , where the only prime factors of d are
d
2 and 5. Let k be any whole number between 1 and d – 1
inclusive that does not have 2 or 5 as a factor. Using the same
kinds of ideas you used in questions 1 and 2, explain why the
decimal representation of k has the same number of decimal
d
places as that of 1 . (For example, 1 = 0.0125 has four decimal
d 80
places, 3 = 0.0375 has four decimal places, 49 = 0.6125 has four
80 80
decimal places, and so on.)
Activity 3
A terminating decimal may have a large number of decimal places. We

can describe this by saying that it takes quite a while for the decimal to
terminate. For example, 1 = 0.0015625 has 7 decimal places.
640

We can predict how many decimal places a terminating decimal
will have in the following way. First, we factorise the denominator
and write it as the product of a power of 2 and a power of 5.
For example, 640 = 27 × 5. Then the highest power to which either
2 or 5 is raised is the number of decimal places that will occur
in the decimal form of any fraction that is in simplest form with
that denominator. In our example, 2 is raised to the power of 7,
so any fraction that is in simplest form with denominator 640 will
terminate after 7 decimal places.
For another example, consider 3 . Since 12 500 = 22 × 55, the

12 500
highest power is the fifth power, so the decimal expansion of 3
12 500
must terminate after precisely 5 decimal places. (You can check
this directly: 3 = 0.00024.)
12 500

Answers to exercises
Chapter 1 answers
Exercise 1A
1 a 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 b 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60
c 0, 1, 2, 3 d 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138
2 a
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
b
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
c
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
d
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Exercise 1B
1 a 20 b 30 c 20 d 80
e 65 f 44 g 97 h 41
2 a 50 b 57 c 80 d 50
e 62 f 61 g 65 h 143
3 a 43 b 45 c 36 d 45
e 94 f 84 g 98 h 117
4 a 80 b 200 c 110 d 90 e 110 f 50
5 a 300 b 610 c 350 d 810
e 460 f 1020 g 1010 h 615
6 99 L 7 400 8 883 km 9 $37 10 84 11 52
12 66 13 633 14 111 15 97 16 276

Exercise 1C
1 a 1351 b 1240 c 784 d 981 e 1070 f 1419
g 1269 h 2270 i 3096 j 5223 k 13 689 l 1540
m 16 085 n 5437 o 10 031
2 a 1813 b 9332 c 10 130 d 1579 e 2349
f 771 g 765 h 2462 i 983 j 1015
3 a 6 5 8 b 8 0 4 c 9 1 9
+ 3 3 9 + 01 91 9 + 81 91 9
9 9 7 9 0 3 1 8 1 8
d 6 7 3 e 7 0 1 f 3 3 3
+ 1 51 81 9 + 1 3 9 7 + 1 71 71 7
1 2 6 2 1 0 9 8 1 1 1 0
5 478 + 487 + 748 + 784 + 847 + 874 = 4218
6 a 994 b 5 750 c 8317

7 55 752 km 8 15 352 m 9 $2073 10 6670 km
11 a E, D, A, C, B b 214 c A, B, D d 1535
12 663 + 792 + 587 = 2042
Exercise 1D
1 a 6 b 22 c 205 d 303 e 260 f 28
g 84 h 24 i 108 j 380 k 96 l 991
2 a 8 b 0 c 1 d 56 e 38 f 101
3 a 175 b 493 c 119 d 194
e 75 f 509 g 98 h 5
4 a 3222 b 7298 c 4522 d 10 640 e 18 596 f 2789
5
a 7 6 b 93 c 2336
– 29 – 47 – 2 2 97
47 46 39
d 1 1 5 3 e 2761 f 5376
– 4 1 9 – 843 – 2148
7 3 4 1918 3 2 28
6 a 10 b 14 c 12 d 14 e 0
f 17 g 16 h 37 i 60
7 a 10 b 9, 27 c 68, 68 d 63, 81, 63
8 $3333 9 350 km 10 1330 11 18 12 50 13 441
14 16 388 15 131 651 16 16 818 17 9624

Exercise 1E
1 a 170 b 0 c 100 d 18 000 e 1210 f 12 000
g 10 000 h 73 000 i 6200 j 234 810 k 1 000 000 l 67 430 000
2 a 600 b 260 c 4300 d 4900 e 3200
f 0 g 680 h 1200 i 420
3 a 2 b 5
4 13 5 60 6 1200 7 18
Exercise 1F
1 a 15 b 27 c 15 d 28 e 19 f 37
g 72 h 55 i 24 j 84 k 1 l 20
2 a 870 b 7700 c 7800 d 108 e 918 f 8787
3 a 5 b 15 c 15 d 23 e 21
4 a 174 b 7700 c 780 d 600
5 a 5 b 15 c 19 d 99
6 36 7 174 8a 16 b 48
9 a 168 km b 48 km
10 58 11 90 12 15 13 $48
14 a 41 b 29 c 65 d 18 e 70 f 72
Exercise 1G
1 a 1 b 2 c 2 d 2 e 3 f 3
g 4 h 3 i 3 j 6 k 6
2 a 4 × 101 + 6, 6 b 6 × 102 + 2 × 101 + 3, 600
c 5 × 102 + 6 × 101 + 9, 60 d 6 × 101 + 3, 60
e 2 × 102 + 8 × 101 + 6, 6 f 7 × 102 + 6 × 101, 60
3 a 2 × 103 + 8 × 101 + 3, 3
b 4 × 103 + 3 × 102 + 1 × 101 + 9, 300
c 3 × 103 + 7 × 102 + 5 × 101 + 8, 3000
d 5 × 103 + 3 × 101 + 6, 30
e 1 × 104 + 2 × 103 + 3 × 102 + 4 × 101 + 5, 300
f 6 × 104 + 1 × 103 + 9 × 102 + 3, 3
g 4 × 104 + 3 × 103 + 1 × 102 + 7 × 101, 3000
h 5 × 104 + 7 × 102 + 3 × 101 + 2, 30
i 3 × 104 + 1 × 103 + 6 × 102 + 9 × 101 + 9, 30 000
j 1 × 104 + 7 × 103 + 3 × 102 + 2 × 101 + 1, 300

4 a 5 × 101 + 2, 2
b 2 × 105 + 3 × 104 + 5 × 103 + 6 × 102 + 7 × 101 + 8, 200 000
c 5 × 105 + 2 × 104 + 8 × 103 + 9 × 102 + 8 × 101 + 7, 20 000
d 5 × 106 + 2 × 105 + 7 × 104 + 8 × 103 + 4 × 102 + 3 × 101 + 6, 200 000
e 4 × 105 + 5 × 104 + 2 × 103 + 6 × 102 + 7 × 101 + 8, 2000
f 2 × 107 + 3 × 106 + 6 × 105 + 7 × 104 + 8 × 103 + 9 × 102 + 7 × 101 + 8, 20 000 000
5 952, 925, 592, 529, 295, 259
6 999, 995, 992, 959, 955, 952, 929, 925, 922, 599, 595, 592, 559, 555, 552, 529, 525, 522,
299, 295, 292, 259, 255, 252, 229, 225, 222
Exercise 1H
1 a 212 b 648 c 152 d 448 e 252 f 340
2 a 2052 b 6534 c 6552 d 1645 e 3744 f 14 042
g 45 801 h 26 568 i 32 636 j 822 330 k 869 616 l 263 922
3 a 10 872 b 34 008 c 15 394 d 28 858 e 28 512
f 40 275 g 3645 h 13 104 i 34 408
4 a 7990 b 114 922 c 412 158 d 3 559 530 e 94 276
f 418 338 g 527 904 h 214 642 i 9 959 330
5 a 234 b 221 c 10 716 d 31 089 e 37 250 f 3 320 832
6 2924 7 3341
8 a 8 6 b 1 6 9 c 2 1 6
× 7 × 3 × 23
6 0 2 5 0 7 6 48
4 3 2 0
4 9 68
9 a 884 b 26 520
10 $62 11 415 kg 12 862
Exercise 1I
1 a 9 b 200 c 6, 6 d 11, 121, 11
2 a 24 b 10 c 36 d 56 e 18 f 24
3 7 4 12 5 9
6 a 5, 2 b 7, 2 c 6, 1 d 10, 7 e 8, 1 f 12, 4

9 a 7 = 3 × 2 + 1
7

0 2 4 6 8 10
b 13 = 4 × 3 + 1
13

0 3 6 9 12 15
10 a 2 b 4 c 5 d 6 e 9
f 12 g 9 h 20 i 40
11 a 14 b 8 c 23
12 a 127 b 55 c 78 d 209 e 92 f 130
Exercise 1J
1 a 278 b 135 c 124 remainder 1 d 567
e 1078 f 675 g 121 h 912 i 136
j 8677 k 2796 l 4360
2 a 131 b 507 c 365 d 83 e 506

f 53 remainder 7 g 67 remainder 3 h 335
i 813 j 11 257 remainder 1 k 6782 l 2715
3 $850 4 45 boxes, 2 balls are left over

5 1 row of 96 biscuits, 2 rows of 48 biscuits, 3 rows with 16 biscuits, 4 rows with
24 biscuits, 6 rows with 16 biscuits, 8 rows with 12 biscuits, 12 rows with 8 biscuits,
and so on
6 33 children 7 5761 packages 8 37 people 9 494 books
10 28 full cartons, 9 eggs are left over 11 76 full punnets, 1 tomato plant is left over
12 761, 1 left over 13a 319 b 0 14a 472 b 2
Exercise 1K
1 a 56 b 75 c 84 d 107
e 562 f 122 g 213 h 214
2 a 42 b 34 c 92 d 76 e 81 f 17 remainder 9
3 $284 4 $526 5 45 cm 6 270
7 216 boxes, 20 golf balls are left over 8 47 children
9 41 people 10 2 hours 6 minutes and 8 seconds

Exercise 1L
1 a 4000 b 21 c 17 d 28 e 11
f 14 g 139 h 5 i 130 000 j 8
2 a 5 b 19 c 0 d 23
e 1 f 440 g 190 h 6 i 246 j 113
3 a 3 × (6 + 4) = 30 b 3 × (7 – 6) ÷ 3 = 1 c 8 × (7 + 30 ÷ 5) = 104
d 7 × 3 × (2 + 8) = 210 e (5 – 2) × (1 + 23) ÷ 6 = 12
4 a 100 b 100 c 8 d 40 e 4000
5 a 18 b 14 c 13 d 45
6 743 7 213 8 720 9 $882
Exercise 1M
1 a 26 b 205 c 51 d 304 e 2006 f 1962
2 a XXVII b CCCXLVII c MMMDCLXXVIII
d CDLVII e MMIII f MCMXLVIII
g MCMLXXVI h XCIX i CDXCIX
j MMDCCCLVI
3 1893 4 1908
5 a 6 b 27 c 36 d 10 e 90 f 13
g 11 h 130 i 48
Review exercise
1 a 1305 b 24 c 27 d 10 e 2574 f 50
g 118 h 2680 i 118
2 26 packets 3 54 boxes 4 170 5 15 buses 6 2592
7 714 8 360 minutes 9 72 10 377
Challenge exercise
1
3
1 5
4 2
2 39 893, 39 993, 40 004, 40 104, 40 204

3 4 4 1
19 18 8
4 15 26
2 5
22 12 11

5 ((6 + 6) – (6 ÷ 6)) × 6 = 66 6 3
6 12 7 1
11 1 6 2
10 2
7 5 3
9 3
8 4
8 4
7 5
9
6
This solution is unique. This has many solutions.

8 36. This solution is unique. 9 (6 × 7 × 2) + (3 × 4) + 5 – 1 = 100
10 11
9 – 5 = 4 1
× 7 5
6 ÷ 3 = 2 6 9
= 3 4 8 2

7 + 1 = 8 This has many solutions.
13 987
This solution is unique.
× 121
12 1, 2, 4, 8, 8 or 1, 1, 3, 6, 12 987
or 1, 2, 2, 6, 12 or 1, 2, 3, 7, 10 19740
or 1, 2, 3, 6, 11 or 1, 2, 4, 7, 9 98700
or 1, 2, 4, 6, 10 or 1, 2, 4, 5, 11 119427

14 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
6 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
15
8 10 3
12 5
1 7 13
9 2
11 4 6
16 1, 3, 9, 27
17 a 97 531 + 86 420 = 183 951 b 13 468 + 20 579 = 34 047
These solutions are not unique.
Chapter 2 answers
Exercise 2A
1 a 1, 2, 3 and 6 b 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12 c 1, 2, 7 and 14
d 1, 3, 5 and 15 e 1 and 11
2 a 1, 2, 4, 8 b 1, 2, 7, 14 c 1, 11
d 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 e 1, 5, 25 f 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
g 1, 2, 13, 26 h 1, 13 i 1, 3, 11, 33
j 1, 3, 9, 27, 81 k 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30 l 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42
3 6, 9, 27, 51 4 144, 192, 228
5 a 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60
b 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80
c 11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77, 88, 99, 110
d 13, 26, 39, 52, 65, 78, 91, 104, 117, 130
e 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, 135, 150
f 19, 38, 57, 76, 95, 114, 133, 152, 171, 190
6 68, 85, 170 7 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 24, 36 8 4, 7, 14, 49, 98
9 a 12 × 26, 13 × 24 b 14 × 28 c 11 × 13
d 12 × 45, 15 × 36, 18 × 30, 20 × 27 e 13 × 17 f 12 × 34, 17 × 24

10 12: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12; 18: 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18; common factors of 12 and 18: 1, 2, 3, 6
11 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60; 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80;
common to both: 24, 48
12 a 49 b 98 c 203 d 301
13 a 99 b 198 c 121 d 55 e 495 f 1001
14 a 30; 15; 10; 7 remainder 2; 6 b 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30
15 a 35; 17 remainder 1; 11 remainder 2; 8 remainder 3; 7; 5 remainder 5
b 1, 5, 7, 35
16 a 1 is a factor of every number because every number is divisible by 1.
b Every number is a factor of 0 because any number multiplied by 0 = 0. c 1
17 factors of 6: 1, 2, 3; 1 + 2 + 3 = 6
factors of 28: 1, 2, 4, 7, 14; 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 = 28
factors of 496: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 31, 62, 124, 248;
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 31 + 62 + 124 + 248 = 496
Exercise 2B
1 a 1, 3, 5, 15 b 2, 6, 10, 30
2 a 21, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33 b 376, 378, 380, 382, 384, 386, 388, 390, 392
c 50 d 11
3 a 215, 217 b 491, 493 c 513, 515
4 Various answers are possible.
5 a even b even c odd
6 a i 48 ii 30 iii 35
b i even ii odd iii even
7 a unreadable b readable c unreadable d readable
8 even
Exercise 2C
1 a 2, 3 b 3, 5 c 3, 7 d 2 e 5, 7
2 2 and 3 3 3 and 5 4 3 and 7 5 5 and 11
6 a 47 b 67 c 97 7 2 and any other prime number
8 32 = 3 + 29, 34 = 3 + 31, 36 = 5 + 31, 38 = 7 + 31, 40 = 11 + 29,
42 = 11 + 31, 44 = 13 + 31, 46 = 17 + 29, 48 = 11 + 37, 50 = 7 + 43,
52 = 11 + 41, 54 = 13 + 41, 56 = 13 + 43, 58 = 5 + 53, 60 = 7 + 53,
62 = 43 + 19

Exercise 2D
1 21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 8, 24 = 16, 25 = 32, 26 = 64, 27 = 128, 28 = 256, 29 = 512, 210 = 1024
2 3, 9, 27, 81, 243 3 5, 25, 125, 625, 3125

4 a 4
5
b 12 9
c 52 × 63 d 73 × 114
5 a 7776 b 64 c 16 d 3125 e 125 f 16 807
6 a 5 b 8 c 10 d 16 e 7
f 5 g 12 h 6 i 24
7 a 5 b 9 c 4 d 1 e 2 f 3
8 a 32 × 52 b 63 × 74 c 25 × 35 d 23 × 33 e 2 × 52 × 73 f 33 × 75
9 a 18 b 36 c 100 d 400
e 16 f 64 g 600 000 h 280 000 000
10 a 60 b 18 c 1 048 576
Exercise 2E
1 a 210 b 80 c 90 d 120 e 360 f 540
2 a 96 b 448 c 2128 d 336 e 1048 f 4032
3 a 750 b 114 c 888 d 600
e 672 f 1024 g 108 h 296
4 a 682 b 528 c 1089 d 783 e 3789
5 a 30 b 174 c 127 d 34 e 27 f 51
g 33 h 21 i 31 j 200 k 42 l 56
6 a 4000 b 2970 c 55 d 84 e 3303 f 240
Exercise 2F
1 a 2 × 3 b 23 c 32 d 22 × 3 e 2 × 32 f 23 × 3
2 a 3 × 5 b 3 × 52 c 22 × 32 d 25 × 3 e 28 f 292
3 a 900 b 10 800 c 57 600
Exercise 2G
1 a 16 b 144 c 256 d 289 e 484 f 1089
2 a 7 b 12 c 20 d 13 e 15
f 19 g 25 h 31 i 38 j 75
3 a even b odd 4 even 5 odd
6 (Note: There may be other possibilities.)
a 14 = 12 + 22 + 3 2 b 38 = 12 + 12 + 62 c 45 = 22 + 42 + 52
d 59 = 12 + 32 + 72 e 70 = 32 + 52 + 62 f 230 = 72 + 92 + 102
7 102 – 72 8 72 + 62 or 22 + 92 and 112 – 62

Exercise 2H
1 a 24 b 72 c 17 d 60 e 49 f 180
g 12 h 72 i 120
2 a 6 b 3 c 12 d 1 e 4 f 13
g 6 h 1 i 10
3 a HCF is 112, LCM is 672 b HCF is 6, LCM is 126
c HCF is 15, LCM is 450
4 29 June 5 5236 seconds 6 9:30 am 7 975 seconds
Exercise 2I
1 a yes b no c yes d yes
2 a yes b yes c no d no e yes f no
3 a yes b yes c yes d no
4 a yes b no c yes d yes e yes f no
g no h yes i no j yes k yes l yes
5 a yes b yes c no d yes e no f yes
g yes h no i no j yes k yes l no
6 a 792, 5838, 45 891 and 19 283 746 556 000 000 001 b 792, 45 891
7 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 8 2, 3, 6
9 a 1002 b 1008 c 1004 d 1002 e 1008 f 1020
10 (Note: There are many other possibilities.)
a 74 424 b 78 428 c 79 425 d 72 426 e 73 422 f 74 420
g 77 424 h 76 428 i 75 420 j 73 425 k 72 420 l 76 425
11 a 1, 3, 7, 21, 49, 147 b 1, 3, 5, 15, 23, 69, 115, 345
c 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 16, 21, 24, 28, 32, 42, 48, 56, 64, 84,
96, 112, 128, 168, 192, 224, 336, 384, 448, 672, 896, 1344, 2688
12 a 108, 999 b 115, 989 c 207, 828
13 a 67 b 33 c 167
14 a 204, 234, 264, 294 b 234
Review exercise
1 a 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18 b 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24 c 1, 5, 25
d 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 48 e 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50
f 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 32, 48, 96
2 a 9, 18, 27, 36, 45, 54, 63, 72, 81, 90, 99 b 17, 34, 51, 68, 85
c 33, 66, 99 d 18, 36, 54, 72, 90 e 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90
f 21, 42, 63, 84

3 a,b Various answers are possible. c 3
5 61 = 6, 62 = 36, 63 = 216, 64 = 1296, 65 = 7776, 66 = 46 656
6 91 = 9, 92 = 81, 93 = 729, 94 = 6561, 95 = 59 049
7 a 33 × 44 b 87 c 1003 d 33 × 73
8 a 36 b 324 c 108 d 162 e 4096 f 1000
9 a 68 b 136 c 85 d 204 e 340 f 425
g 109 h 124 i 52
10 a 25 b 100 c 169 d 225 e 441 f 1849
11 a 20 b 40 c 30 d 15 e 22 f 19
12 a 54 b 99 c 153 d 198 e 252 f 297
g 396 h 504 i 999
13 a 1008, 9999 b 1015, 9976 c 1044, 9918
14 a 2 b 3 c 3 d 3
e 20 f 20 g 20
15 a 2 9 b 210 c 53 d 2 2 × 53 e 7 × 11 × 13
f 7 × 11 × 13 × 17 g 7 × 11 × 13 × 19 h 2 5 × 53

i 210 × 5 j 35 k 52 × 72 l 2 × 31 × 43
16 a 1000 b 1001 c 29 029 d 27 000 e 14 000
f 9800 g 343 000 h 1225 i 2450
Challenge exercise
1 13 and 31, 17 and 71, 79 and 97
2 a 7 × 20 = 4 × 20 + 3 × 20 = 80 + 60 = 140
b 7 × 25 = 4 × 25 + 3 × 25 = 100 + 75 = 175
c 72 × 7 = (8 × 9) × 4 + (8 × 9) × 3 = 504
d 78 × 11 = (6 × 13) × 11 = 858
3 114 is one such number. 4 18, 20, 24, 30, 36

5 65 = 12 + 82 = 42 + 72 , 85 = 22 + 92 = 62 + 72
6 a 73 = 13 + 23 + 43 b 92 = 13 + 33 + 43 c 99 = 23 + 33 + 43
7 a 2 b 2 c 1, 2, 3, 4 d 1, 3, 2, 4
8 a 13 + 13 + 23 b 13 + 123 c 13 + 23 + 33
d 13 + 13 + 23 + 33 e 23 + 23 + 23 + 33 f 23 + 33 + 43
g 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 h 33 + 53 i 33 + 33 + 63
9 There are many possibilities.
a 120 940 b 120 945 c 120 940 d 120 945 e 120 945

10 = 7, =6
11 a 21 b 7 c 147
12 a 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97
b 101, 103, 107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139, 149, 151, 157, 163, 167, 173, 179, 181, 191,
193, 197, 199
c 14 (between 113 and 127)
d (3, 5), (5, 7), (11, 13), (17, 19), (29, 31), (41, 43), (59, 61), (71, 73), (101, 103), (107, 109),
(137, 139), (149, 151), (179, 181), (191, 193), (197, 199)
e The exception is (3, 5). Otherwise, all prime pairs are of the form (6k – 1, 6k + 1),
so their sum is 12k and product is 36k2 – 1.
f For any odd number n, one of the numbers n, n + 2 and n + 4 must be divisible
by 3, so they can’t all be primes, except when n = 3.
13 a 2 b 24
14 a 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 b 12 + 32 + 52 + 62 c 12 + 42 + 72 + 82
d 22 + 22 + 82 + 122 e 32 + 132 + 142 + 162 f 42 + 52 + 172 + 182
15 72 + 112
Chapter 3 answers
Exercise 3A
1 x+3
2 a a + 6 b p + 4 c p – 2 d y – 3 e x – 4 f x – 8
g p + q h x + y + 2 i a + b + c
3 a 5 × x b x × y c 3 × x d a ÷ 3 e x ÷ 4 f p ÷ q
4 a 7 × x b 3 × x c a × b d y – 6
e 4 × x + 3 f 5 × m – 3 g 6 × z – 7 h 4 × x – 3
i 3 × a + 2
5 a x ÷ 3 + 2 b x ÷ 3 – 2 c p + q + r d x × y × z
6 n – 20 7 5 × x 8 n ÷ 3 9 $(w + 1000)
10 (x + 5) years old 11 x ÷ 4 cm 12 8 × m

13 10 – n 14 n + 20 15 s ÷ 3 cm
Exercise 3B
1 a 5x b 2a c mn d 6xy e 3x2
f 35x g 18ac h 6x2y2 i 105x j 21x2
k 2x2y3 l 3x + 9y m 3y2 n 4x5 o 3x4
2 a xy b ab c 6p2 d 12x
e 15a f 6p2 x2 g 7y3 h 7px
x x x z
3 a 4 b 5 c 7 d 10
w q w x
e z f p g x h y
4 a 5 × a b a × a c a × b × c d 7 × a × a e 7 × x × x × y
5 a x ÷ 3 b z ÷ 3 c f ÷ 3 d w ÷ z
e x ÷ y f a ÷ b g r ÷ s h mn ÷ p
x
6 a 7x b 9x c x2 d 6ab e 21a 2 f 3
p x
g q h y i 7x + 5 j 7m – 2 k 3z – 4
x
7 7 apples 8 5x nuts 9 11x + 18y passengers 10 $(5x + 6z)
11 a x2 b x2 + 3 c a3 d a3 + 3
Exercise 3C
1 a 7 b 9 c 10 d 23 e 103
f 1003 g 203 h 10 003
2 a 6 b 3 c 7 d 0
3 a 20 b 8 c 40 d 348
4 a 12 b 6 c 4 d 2
5 a 4 b 9 c 81 d 100
6 a 31 b 5 c 72 d 40 e 23 f 27
g 47 h 1 i 10 j 6 k 1 l 6
7 a 9 b 18 c 8 d 4 e 12 f 16
g 4 h 16 i 14 j 12 k 40
8 a 6 b 7 c 14 d 10
9 a 14 b 3 c 49 d 4 e 2
10 a 2 b 4 c 1 d 0 e 10
11 $40 12 $300 13 $35 14 128
Exercise 3D
1 a like b like c like d unlike e like
f like g unlike h unlike i like
2 a 9x b 9x c 16x
d 11x e 11x + 11y f 4x + 6y
g 10x + 4y h 9x + 3y i 3x + 3y
3 a 11x b 15b c 15ab d 23ac e 5xy
f 3xy + 5xz g 8abc h 7x2 i 7x2 + 2y2

4 a 5x b 7xy c 4xy d 4a
e 5x + 11y f 10x + 7y g 13xy h 8x2

i 8x2 + 5x j 3x2 + 4x
5 a 10y b 13xy c 7xz + 11xy
d 11xy e 30xy f 17ab
6 a 5x + 11y b 3x + 8y c 2x + 15y
d 95x + 20y e 70a + 30b f 80w
g 6vw h 3xy
Exercise 3E
1 a 3(x + 6) b 5(x – 7) c 4(x + 10) d 7(x – 11)
2 a 3x + 2 b 3(2 + x) c 5x – 3 d 5(x – 3)
3 a 16 b 13 c 45 d 6 e 17
f 18 g 17 h 28 i 29
4 a 8 b 35 c 22 d 10 e 9 f 14
5 a 30 b 12 c 9 d 13 e 10 f 45
6 a 10 b 9 c 32 d 12 e 19 f 36
7 a 5m 2 b (5x)2 c (2z)3 d 3a3
8 a 80 b 400 9a 24 b 216
10 a 108 b 216 c 136 d 81 e 38 f 55
11 a (n + 2) bananas b 5(n + 2) bananas 12 20(x + 4) seats
Exercise 3F
1 a 6a b 12x c 12m d 8x2 e 21x2
f 6xy g 6x2y h 8x2y2 i 6xy2
2 a 25n 2 b 16z2 c 256z2 d 169z2
3 a 12ab b 12x2 c 50xy d 77ab e 10a 2
f 66c2 g 24mn h 77m 2 n 2 i 12n 2 j 42m3
4 a 4x5 b 48x3 c 18x3 d 6x2y2 e 8x3y f 30y2 z3
5 a 18x4 b 2x2y2 c 100a 4 d 100x3y2 e 36x3y f 20w5
Exercise 3G
1 a 13 b 301 2a 6x2 cm2 b 150 cm2 c 600 cm2
3 (2xy + x2) cm2 4a 2n + 1 b 2n + 2
5 a 3m + 2n cm 2
b 4m + 2n cm 2
c 3m + 2n cm2 d 4m + 2n cm2
6 a yes b yes c yes d yes e yes f yes
g yes h yes i no j yes k no l no

7 a b + 2 b a + 3, a + 6 c n – 2
8 a even b odd c even d odd e odd
f even g even h odd i odd
9 a (8b + 4a) cm b 8ab cm2
10 a 4l cm b l 2 cm2
11 a (2x + 16) cm b (6x + 12) cm2
Review exercise
1 a 3 + x b 78y c z – 6 d 4x e 5y f a – 4
x
g 25 + x h 11 – t i 2b + 3 j 4(z + 6) k x2 + 3 l t + 3
2 a 7 b 3 c 11 d 3 e 28 f 10
g 1 h 12 i 26 j 60 k 29 l 37
x x z
3 144 4 41 5a 3 b 4 + 2 c 6 – 3
z

6 4 metres 7 $(m + n + p) 8 24 – n
9 a mn b 6m 3
c 7y 3
d 24p 3
e 30x2y f 40z3
x 20 m
10 a 5 b y c n
x
11 a 11z b 3 c a3 d x4 e 24b2 f 27x3
12 a 53 b 10 c 79 d 125
e 20 f 254 g 625 h 3125
13 a 9x b 5xy c 11x2 d 2xy e 4x2y f 60x + 50y
14 a 6(8 + m) b 3(d – 7) c 2(x – 10) d 6(b – 3)

15 a 9n 2 b 16z2 c 8n3 d 25n 2
e 16n3 f 125m3 g 8x4
16 a 20 b 16 c 39 d 23 e 43 f 14
17 a no b no c yes d yes e no f yes
18 a 14x cm b 3x cm
2 2 2 2
c 4x cm 2 2
19 a 6 b 30 c 196 d 98 e 441 f 147

20 a 103 b 10 000 c 100 d 30 e 2 f 4
21 a 4 b 16 c 320 d 5
e 9 f 416 g 384 h 36
22 a 11a + 2b b 9a + b c 42a 2
d 22a 2 b e 9wv2 + 6wv f 4c2 d + 5cd
a2 a2
23 a 2 cm2 b 4 cm2

Challenge exercise
xy
1 a 2 cm
2
b xy cm2 c 2xy cm2
2 a 2x – 5 b 3(2x – 5) = 6x – 15 c 6x – 15 + 15 = 6x d 6x – 5x = x
3 a 1 x2 cm2 2 6x cm2 3 4x cm2 4 24 cm2
b (x + 6)(x + 4) cm2
d 1 4x cm2 2 (12 + 2x) cm2 3 (8 + 2x) cm 4 20 cm
e (4x + 20) cm
4 a (6x + 12) cm b 12x cm2
5 a rectangle ABCD, 18x cm2 ; shaded rectangle, 6x cm2 b 12x cm2
6 a 1, 4, 9, 6, 5, 0 b 1, 5, 7 c 2, 4, 6, 8, 0 d yes
7 a
n n+2 n–2 (n + 2)(n – 2) n2
2 4 0 0 4
3 5 1 5 9
4 6 2 12 16
5 7 3 21 25
6 8 4 32 36
7 9 5 45 49
c (n + 2)(n – 2) = n(n – 2) + 2(n – 2)

= n 2 – 2n + 2n – 4
= n2 – 4
Chapter 4 answers
Exercise 4A
1 1 4 9
3 3 3
0 1 2 3 4
2 1 9 11
7 7 7
0 1 2 3 4
3 2 5 8
6 6 6
0 1 2 3 4
7 16 21 7 14 26 48 1 14 23
4 a , ,
3 3 3
or 1
b 5
, 5, 5 c , , 4
4 4
5, 6 Various answers are possible.

3 4 7 1
7 a 4
b 3
c 8
d 2

11 1 6 3 14
8 a 20
b 4
c 7
d 4
e 31
4
f 12
= 13 g 43
60
h 7
18
i 1
8
j 19
23
9 a B b B
Exercise 4B
1 a b c
d e f
2 a 1
3
2
0 6 1 2
b 1
8
2
0 16 1
c 1 2 3
6 6 6

0 1 2
1
4 4
d 14
8
7
0 1 4
2 3

3 b 3 c 2 d 4
1 5 25 40 3 6 51 75 2 10 64 72
4 a 3
= 15
= 75
= 120
b 4
= 8
= 68
= 100
c 3
= 15
= 96
= 108

1 6 17 51 1 125 8 2 4 24 40 80
d 2
= 12
= 34
= 102
e 8
= 1000
= 64
= 16
f 5
= 30
= 50
= 100

5 a 50 b 9 c 120 d 15 e 11 f 36
1 1 3 1 1 1
6 a 2
b 2
c 4
d 3
e 3
f 4
1 4 3 2 1 1
g 3
h 5
i 4
j 3
k 2
l 8
1 3 7 3
m 5
n 16 o 2
p 2
q 7 r 5
3 6 3
s 14
t 13
u 2

Exercise 4C
1 a 0 1
1 1 1
3 3 3
b 0 1 2 3
3
2
= 121 3
2
= 121

c
0 1 2 3 4 5
5
3
= 1 23 5
3
= 1 23 5
3
= 1 23

4
d 0 1 2 3 5 6 7
7
4
= 1 3 4 7
4
= 1 3 4 7
4
= 1 3 4 7
4
= 1 3 4

2 a
0 1 2 232
b
0 1 158
c
0 1 2 3 4 452
d
0 1 2 3 394
3 22
643 68
4 8
5 6 7 8 9 10
4 16
1
2
3
9 18
6
10
3
4 62 53
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 a 4 47 , 5 67 , 7 37 b 24 12 , 27 56 , 30 13 c 17 49 , 18 19 , 19 89

6 a 3 23 b 5 13 c 4 12 d 3 23 1
e 4 3 3
f 1 4
1
g 4 27 h 4 34 i 5 12 32
j 8 35 22
k 11 25 6
l 8 25

45 19 43 31 28 104
7 a 7
b 4
c 5
d 11
e 5
f 9
103 43 101 23 27 21
g 10
h 2
i 3
j 4
k 7
l 8

88 881 1105 609
8 a 5
b 30
c 21
d 13
1 1 3
9 a , , ,
4 2 4
1, 1 14 , 1 12 , 1 34 , 2, 2 14 , 2 12 , 2 34
1 2
b , ,
3 3
1, 1 13 , 1 23 , 2, 2 13 , 2 23 , 3, 3 13 , 3 23 , 4
3 3
c , ,
8 4
1 18 , 1 12 , 1 78 , 2 14 , 2 58 , 3, 3 38 , 3 34
4 7
d , ,
9 9
1 19 , 1 49 , 1 79 , 2 19 , 2 49 , 2 79 , 3 19 , 3 49
3
10 4

Exercise 4D
1 a–c Various answers are possible.
2 Number lines are not required.
a 5 6
7 8
5
7 <
6
8
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48
56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56
b 5 13
2 5
5
<
13
2 5
18 19 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
10 10 2 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
c 11
13
6
7
11 13
7 < 6

64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 86 88 90 92
42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42
2 42 42 42 42
d 12 5
5 2
12 5
5 < 2
18 19 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 31 32
10 10 2 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 3 10 10
e 5
6
7
8
5 7
6 < 8
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27
24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24
1 24 24 24
f 9
6
11
7

9 11
6 < 7
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42
13 47 3 107 130 143

3 a 6
b 8
c 2
d 25
e 64
f 12

2 9 8 1 17
4 a 3
b 8
c 17
d 8
e 27
1 3 1 3 9 10 3 5 8 4 9 5 1 4 4 21 11 19
5 a , , , , ,
4 8 2 4 8 8
b , , , , ,
6 6 9 3 6 3
c , , , , ,
3 5 3 15 6 10

3 5 3 3 5 7 1 1 4 8 7 3 3 2 11 23 7 3
d , , , , ,
7 9 5 4 6 8
e , , , , ,
4 3 11 16 12 5
f , , , , ,
8 5 20 40 10 4

6 a–d Various answers are possible.

Exercise 4E
1 a
1 2 3 5 6 7
0 4 4 4
2 4 4 4
b
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14
0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
1 10 10 10 10
c
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 13 14
0 1
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
2 1 3 5 8 13 32 41 73
2 a 4
+ 4
= 4
b 16
+ 16
= 16
c 100 + 100
= 100

7 5 7 11 7 1
3 a 10
b 6
c 8
d 12
e 1 25 f 1 30
4 2 1 7 19 23
g 1 21 h 1 15 i 1 12 j 1 20 k 30
l 24
4 a 1 58 b 1 12 c 1 25 5
d 1 12 e 1 25 f 1 14
1
g 1 30 h 1 16
25
i 1 23 j 1 44
75
5
k 1 12 l 1 19
40
m 1 11
30
33
n 1 104 87
o 1136
1 1 4 1 5
5 a 8
b 12
c 25
d 8
e 8
f 1 12 g 3
10
h 1
9
i 1
6
j 4
15
23 7 19 47
k 35
l 12
m 60
n 72
o 1 30
1
6 a–c Various answers are possible.

4 1 13 101
7 a 7
b 4
c 32
d 144
8 a 3 12 b 6 c 7 12 d 6 12 e 11 13
21
2 7 5
f 8 25 g 5 15 h 5 12 i 13 13
20
Exercise 4F
11 7 11 8 7 3
1 15
L 2 12
3 12
4 15
5 10
L 6 5
L
8 3 5 1 9 13
7 9
8 10
9 8
10 6
11 16
12 24
2 1 13
13 a 7
b 3
c 21

3 1 5 7 2 1
14 a 4
b 4
15a 12
b 12
c 3
d 3

7 31 23
16 a 18
b 54
c 54

5 3 5 23
17 a 24
b 8
c 8
18 60


Exercise 4G
1 a 1 15 b 1 13 c 3 12 d 5 38 e 1 34
f 1 18 3
g 5 20 h 11
40
i 7
40
25 7 9 3
2 a 72
b 10
c 20
d 4
e 1 79 f 5
24

8
g 4115 h 2 27
35
i 25
156
j 53
2110 k 55 39
44
l 13
15

3 77 39
44
1
4 3 12 5 26 29
84
6 4 12
7 a 2 18 b 2 15
Review exercise
1 a 4
5
1 2 3 4
0 5 5 5 5
1
b 3
8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
1
21 5 5
2 a 31
b 26
c 10
= 12 d 343
500

3 a 4 b 8 c 2 d 6 e 36 f 2
4 a 6 b 12 c 120
3
5 a 4
b 1 13 1
c 1 20 5
d 127 e 1 34 f 1
3
6 a 1 13
24
b 11
12
c 1 25 d 73
230

31 21
e 33
f 22
g 1 28
33
89
h 1 110
7 a 6 38 b 14 19
20
1
c 8 56 d 7 24
5

1 1
e 4 12 f 7 21 g 3 14
33
1
h 30 10
3 33 1 11
8 a 40
b 40
c 12
d 240

13 97 7 19
e 30
f 230
g 1 12 h 60
9 a 2 13 b 3 12 5
c 3 24 d 4 12
1

7
e 2 12 f 3 34 g 5
6
h 5 53
60
10 a 27 b 5 c 3 d 7
11 a +, – b –, – c –, –, + or +, +, – d +, –, –

12
7 3 1 1
8 4
12 14
3 1 3 1
8 4 4 2
1 3
1 10
3 4 + 3
144
13 6 + 2 3
120
5 2 2 2 11 4 5
1 1 5 5
6 14
3 8
2 3
14 212
5
18
3
3
1 5 13 3
13 16
14 6
15a 25
b 5

Challenge exercise
2005 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2006
is larger. 2 8
+ ,
24 9
+ ,
18 10
+ ,
15 12
+ 12
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 9
+ ,
72 10
+ ,
40 12
+ ,
24 16
+ 16

4 Various answers are possible. 5 x = 12

5
6 13
30
and 37
60

7 a b
2 12 2 13 2
3
3 2 103 2 54
0 156 3 32 2 12 2 107 2 109
3 113 116 2 53 3 101 2 52
1 1 1 1
8 a 4
b 8
c 16
d 128

e The answer is always the smallest fraction in the brackets.

This means that the sum of the fractions is getting closer and closer to 1.
Chapter 5 answers
Exercise 5A
1 a
1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0 5 5 5 5
1 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
b
2 6 10 14 18 22 26
0 4
1 4
2 4
3 4
4 4
5 4
6 4
7
c
1 3 5 7
0 2
1 2
2 2
3 2

2 a b c
3 15 1 2 15 15
3 a 20
b 32
c 16
d 9
e 28
f 88
g 4 10
9
h 9
14
i 5
6
j 1 13
42
k 21
44
l 1 17
48
4 a 2 67 b 1 10
11
c 2 11
12
d 7 13 e 3 34 1
f 111
5 a 1 b 6
= 12 c 2 = 1
4 12 12 6
1 1 15 3 8
6 a 6
b 9
c 32
d 1 e 4
f 27
g 2 23 h 10 25 i 3 34
Exercise 5B
1 a 6 23 b 4 23 c 2 25 d 8 34
e 3 38 f 9 16 g 10 12 h 13 15
1 7 24 9
2 a 1 20 b 115 c 55
d 22

15
e 16
f 1 16 g 55
84
h 65
77

3 6 4 16 5 32
Exercise 5C
5 3 1
1 a 1 b 21
c 8
d 35

1
e 3
f 1 25 g 1
2
h 1
5
1
2 a 2 b 2
c 1 12 d 4
5
e 1 15 f 1 12
20 3 3
g 21
h 34 i 1 12 j 4
k 29 l 1 18

1 15 7 1 5 4
3 a 36
b 64
c 32
d 4
e 18
f 27
1 2 2 4 3
g 9
h 1 i 9
j 15
k 9
l 10

1 9 392 16 25
4 a 2
b 1 c 16
d 729
e 81
f 64

2 1
g 9
h 2
i 1 23 j 3 35 k 25 l 4
7
1
m 4 n 2
o 25 p 2
45


Exercise 5D
1 a 34 38 b 18 c 2 26
27
d 1 29 e 9
14
f 3 20
3
g 3 11
27
h 9
20
i 16 23 j 34 k 14 7 4
l 18
2 a 4 b 3 15 c 1 89 d 4 12 e 6 24
1
f 1 13
20

g 1 13
51
h 5 11
25
i 1 15

3 a 2 b 2 89 c 2 29
35
d 1 37
47
e 64
75
f 3 25
9
85 3 76 3

g 288
h 4
i 81
j 20
k 1 15 l 1 29
57
4 6 14 L 5a 2 16 b 3 13
16
c 5 17
40
5 17
6 18
m 7 24
m 8 $7.50 9a 13 14 b 1 25
28
Exercise 5E
7 1
1 64 2a 560 b 12
3a 4375 b 8
5 2
4 a 910 b 12
5a 5
b 25
1
6 a 4
b Jan’s is $56 000, David’s is $16 000, Greg’s is $24 000
7 a 13 b Back stalls has 450 seats, front stalls has 270 seats,
balcony has 360 seats.
8 90 9 11 14 litres 10 1 7 1 3
6 12 2
2 4 1
2
11 a 5
b 20 3 5 1 1
141 241
4 12 12 4
12 a 400 girls b 1000 students
121 143
1 1 2 1
3 4 3 2
1 1
13 $ 4608 14 5
15 6
16 candidate 1, 5588 votes; candidate 2, 3556 votes
Exercise 5F
1 a 1 15 b 15
17
c 2
3
d 2 14 e 6
7
f 24
25
3 2
g 8
h 9
i 2 j 2 58 k 1
2
l 23
30

37 61
m 60
n 126
o 3 13 p 7
9
q 2 239
264
r 21
88

19 7 13
2 a 24
b 15
c 15
5
3 a 1 16 b 1 18 c 5
8
d 59
72
e 1
4
f 1 16
7 19 3 3 5
g 4 12 h 24
i 10
j 8
k 6
l 1 37
23 17
m 210
n 3 30
8 9 3
4 a 9
b 16
c 8

Review exercise
1
1 a 2
b 10 13 c 1 d 1
4
e 13 34 f 8
25
g 66 h 17 78 i 119
20
j 2 k 28 13 l 1
4

2 a 1 35 3
b 2 11 c 18 12 d 1 25 e 3 23 f 5 56
3 a 8 13 8
b 4 15 c 36 23 2
d 1 17 e 14 25
32
f 3 131
143
4 42 5 36 6 1 12 m 7 3
8
8 1
6
3
9 a 12 m b $15 c 1400 kg 10 10
11 385 pages
12 $39.20 13 390 ha 14 $48 15 450 passengers
Challenge exercise
1 3 1 3 1
1 x= 2
×3= 2
2 x = 3 × 4
= 4
3 5
4 2
1 1 2
5 a 1 + =1+ =1+ 3
= 1 23
1 3
1+ 2 2
1 1 1 1 3
b 1 + =1+ =1+ =1+ =1+ = 1 35
1 1+ 1 2 5 5
1+ 1+ 3
1 3 3
1+ 2 2
6 a 3 12 × 2
3
= 2 13 b 1 23 × 1 25 = 2 13

1
7 6 8 n
and n 1+ 1 for any non-zero n.
9 2 L, 1 L, 12 L, 14 L, 18 L (that is, half of what was there at the start of each night).
No, there would always have been a bit left.
10 a Nathan b 35 47
48
km c 3 24
5
km
11 day 1, 240; day 2, 288; day 3, 576; day 4, 315; day 5, 21
12 1 13 a = 1, b = 5, c = 2
Chapter 6 answers
Exercise 6A
This exercise is intended for discussion.
Exercise 6B
1 AB or BA, BC or CB, CA or AC
2 a AB || DC b BC || AD c B d C
e No, the two lines are parallel.
3 a AX, BX, CX, YX b AC || XY c B d CX e A, B, C
f None, the two lines are parallel.

4 a b The three lines are concurrent.
A
iii
Z Y
ii
i
B X C
T
8 Q Q T T B
Q B Q
T B
A
P S P P
B
S
A S
S A P
9 Q B Q D B Q D B Q
T T T T
P P P P
D D
S S S S
B
C A C A
C C
A
A
Q B T D T D D T
D
Q
B B
T Q Q
B
P P
A
P P
A A
S C C S C S C S
A
Exercise 6C
8 a PQ, RS and CD b DS, CR, PS and QR
c CR, SR and QR d PQRS, BCRQ and CDSR
e P, Q, R and S f PQ, QR, RS and SP
g ABCD h AB, BC, CD, DA, PQ, QR, RS and SP
i AP, BQ, CR and DS j ADSP, DSRC, CRQB and BQPA

9 a AB || DC and AD || BC b AV, BV, CV and DV
c the line AB d the point B e CV and DV f BC and CD
10 a AB, AC, AD, BC, BD and CD b ABC, BCD, CDA and DAB
c the line BC d the point C e AB and CD, BC and DA, AC and BD
f no parallel lines, no parallel planes
11 Various answers are possible. For example, a pentagonal pyramid has 5 lines
passing through its apex.
Exercise 6D
1 a i A, B, C and D ii B, C and D iii B and C
iv A, B, C and D v A, B and C vi A, B, C and D
b opposite c the interval BC
2 a concurrent b yes c no
d ray PA and ray PK e ray AP, ray AB, ray AO and ray AK
3 a b yes c no
L N M P
4 a ∠ABC b ∠KLM c ∠XVZ

5 a ∠FGH, ∠GHF, ∠HFG
b ∠RST, ∠STU, ∠TUR, ∠URS
6 a ∠AOB b ∠LOM, ∠LMN c ∠FVH
d ∠AMD e ∠ALX, ∠LMB f ∠PSQ, ∠SRQ
7 a ∠BAD, ∠BCD, ∠ADC, ∠ADB, ∠CDB, ∠ABC, ∠ABD, ∠CBD
b ∠BAC, ∠CAD, ∠DAB, ∠ABC, ∠CBD, ∠DBA, ∠ACB, ∠BCD, ∠DCA,
∠ADB, ∠BDC, ∠CDA
Exercise 6E
1 a 75° b 55° c 18° d 2° e 34°
2 a 20° b 80° c 105° d 92° e 34°
3 a acute b obtuse c reflex d right
4 a 180° b 90° c 30° d 60°
e 120° f 120° g 60° h 150°
5 a 360° b 180° c 270° d 30°
e 300° f 150° g 720° h 540°
6 a 52° b 122°
7 a i 42° ii 122° iii 68° iv 108°
v 56° vi 134° vii 14° viii 174°
b i 318° ii 238° iii 292° iv 252°
v 304° vi 226° vii 346° viii 186°

9 a ∠AOB = 27°, ∠BOC = 34°, ∠COD = 44° b ∠AOD = 105°
c ∠AOB, ∠BOC and ∠COD d 255° e 333°
10 a ∠ALP = 40°, ∠ALQ = 140° b supplementary
c ∠ALP = 40°, ∠BLQ = 40° d equal e 360°
11 a ∠PQA = 63°, ∠PRL = 63° b equal c ∠AQR = 117°, ∠LRQ = 63°
d supplementary e ∠BQR = 63°, ∠QRL = 63° f equal
12 a ∠URS = 56°, ∠UTS = 56° b equal c ∠RUT = 124°, ∠STU = 56°
d supplementary e 360°
f ∠RUT and ∠RST are obtuse, ∠URS and ∠UTS are acute.
Exercise 6F
5 a 75° (right angles at O) b 115° (adjacent angles at O)
c 155° (straight angle at O) d 123° (adjacent angles at O)
e 50° (straight angle at O) f 180° (straight angle at O)
g 150° (revolution at O) h 170° (revolution at O)
i 130° (adjacent angles at O) j 20° (revolution at O)
k 30° (straight angle at O) l 30° (revolution at O)
6 a ∠SQT b ∠VQU c ∠AQB d ∠NQO
7 a a = 70° (vertically opposite angles at B)
b b = 90° (vertically opposite angles at K), i = 90° (straight angle at K)
c a = 50° (vertically opposite angles at V), b = 130° (straight angle at V)
d a = 50° (straight angle at M), b = 90° (vertically opposite angles at M),
c = 40° (vertically opposite angles at M), i = 50° (straight angle at M)
e a = 60° (vertically opposite angles at O), b = 60° (straight angle at O),
c = 60° (vertically opposite angles at O), i = 60° (straight angle at O)
f i = 75° (vertically opposite angles at V)
g a = 50° (straight angle at W), b = 50° (straight angle at W)
h a = 70° (vertically opposite angles at M), b= 110° (straight angle at M),
c = 30° (straight angle at D), i = 110° (straight angle at D)
8 a a = 60° (straight angle at B) b b = 40° (straight angle at K)
c i = 20° (vertically opposite angles at V) d b = 135° (revolution at O)
e a = 72° (revolution at V) f a = 30° (straight angle at W)
g c = 30° (straight angle at F), i = 120° (straight angle at F)
h a = 65° (straight angle at K )
Exercise 6G
1 a corresponding angles b alternate angles c co-interior angles
d alternate angles e co-interior angles f corresponding angles
g co-interior angles h alternate angles i corresponding angles
j co-interior angles k corresponding angles l alternate angles

3 a i ∠PQB ii ∠MLQ iii ∠TNO iv ∠VCD
b i ∠AQR ii ∠PLK iii ∠SNM iv ∠WCB
c i ∠BQR ii ∠QLK iii ∠TNM iv ∠VCB
4 If a transversal crosses two parallel lines, the alternate angles are equal.
5 If a transversal crosses two parallel lines, the corresponding angles are equal.
6 If a transversal crosses two parallel lines, the co-interior angles are supplementary.
7 a i = 70° (corresponding angles, AB || CD)
b i = 130° (alternate angles, PQ || RS)
c i = 130° (co-interior angles, AB || CD)
d a = 42° (alternate angles, RS || TU)
e b = 84° (co-interior angles, LM || ON)
f c = 75° (corresponding angles, BK || CL)
g i = 64° (co-interior angles, DG || EF)
h a = 52° (corresponding angles, BX || CY)
i a = 24° (alternate angles, FG || LM)
j b = 90° (corresponding angles, RU || ST)
k b = 69° (alternate angles, CA || BD)
l c = 142° (co-interior angles, AX || BY)
8 a a = 70° (corresponding angles, AB || CD), b = 70° (alternate angles, AB || CD),
c = 110° (co-interior angles, AB || CD)
b a = 105° (co-interior angles, PQ || SR), b = 75° (co-interior angles, PS || QR),
c = 105° (co-interior angles, PQ || SR)
c b = 98° (co-interior angles, FI || GH), c = 98° (corresponding angles, FG || IH)
d i = 90° (co-interior angles, MN || PO), c = 138° (co-interior angles, MN || PO)
e a = 110° (corresponding angles, AB || PQ), b = 110° (corresponding angles,
AB || VW), c = 110° (alternate angles, AB || PQ),
i = 110° (alternate angles, AB || VW)
f a = 71° (corresponding angles, AC || BX), b = 50° (alternate angles, AC || BX)
g a = 125° (corresponding angles, AC || DF), b = 125° (corresponding angles,
AG || BH), c = 125° (corresponding angles, AC || DF)
h c = 43° (alternate angles, CB || LM), i = 76° (alternate angles, CB || LM)
9 a ∠WAV = 137° (co-interior angles, WB || AV),
∠AVB = 43° (co-interior angles, AW || BV)
b ∠PBV = 85° (alternate angles, PQ || VB),
∠AVB = 85° (alternate angles, AV || BP)
c ∠QAV = 35° (alternate angles, PQ || AV),
∠AVB = 35° (alternate angles, AQ || BC)
d ∠VAR = 45° (alternate angles, RS || VA),
∠AVB = 135° (co-interior angles, RA || BV)

Exercise 6H
1 a a = 20° (vertically opposite angles at Q), b = 20° (corresponding angles, AB || CD),
c = 160° (straight angle at R)
b a = 60° (corresponding angles, AB || EF), b = 60° (vertically opposite angles at S),
c = 60° (corresponding angles, CD || EF), i = 120° (straight angle at S)
c a = 70° (straight angle at B ), i = 110° (alternate angles, AC || DE)
d i = 110° (corresponding angles, AX || BY ), b = 70° (straight angle at A)
e a = 70° (alternate angles, AB || JK), b = 30° (alternate angles, AB || JK),
c = 80° (straight angle at C )
f a = 65° (corresponding angles, AC || BM), b = 80° (alternate angles, AC || BM),
c = 35° (straight angle at B)
g a = 150° (co-interior angles, AB || CD), i = 120° (revolution at D)
h a = 90° (alternate angles, PQ || AB), b = 60° (alternate angles, RS || AB),
c = 30° ( straight angle at O)
2 a ∠NOQ = 45° (corresponding angles, NR || OQ), ∠POQ = 135° (straight angle at O)
b ∠FQR = 137° (straight angle at Q), ∠POQ = 137° (corresponding angles, PO || FG)
c ∠PON = 135° (co-interior angles, PA || ON),
∠QON = 145° (co-interior angles, QB || ON), ∠POQ = 80° (revolution at O)
d ∠POY = 160° (alternate angles, XP || OY),
∠QOY = 150° (alternate angles, ZQ || OY),
∠POQ = 50° (revolution at O )
3 a After some argument, ∠VOW = 120°.
b Construct XO parallel to VP. Then, after some argument, ∠VOW = 135°.
c Construct XV parallel to AB. Then, after some argument, ∠VOW = 70°.
d Construct XM parallel to VO. Then, after some argument, ∠VOW = 35°.
e Construct OX parallel to AC. Then, after some argument, ∠VOW = 65°.
f Construct XO parallel to VL. Then, after some argument, ∠VOW = 52°.
g Construct XO parallel to GV. Then, after some argument, ∠VOW = 102°.
h Construct XO parallel to AB. Then, after some argument, ∠VOW = 50°.
4 a i = 60° (corresponding angles, BL || CM)
b a = 90° (co-interior angles, PQ || RS)
c b = 72° (corresponding angles, AR || BS)
d c = 40° (co-interior angles, FG || IH)
e i = 45° (corresponding angles, AB || DC)
f a = 60° (co-interior angles, SR || PQ)
g ∠GBD = b (corresponding angles, BG || CH), b = 60° (straight angle at B)
h c = 90° (co-interior angles, LM || NO), i = 70° (co-interior angles, LM || NO)

Exercise 6I
1 a AB || CZ (alternate angles are equal)
b FP || GQ (corresponding angles are equal)
c HJ || KM (co-interior angles are supplementary)
d RS || UT (co-interior angles are supplementary),
RU || ST (co-interior angles are supplementary)
e AD || EH (corresponding angles are equal)
f DE || GF (alternate angles are equal)
g KL || NM (co-interior angles are supplementary)
h DF || AC (corresponding angles are equal), AV || BF (alternate angles are equal)
2 a AB || CD (alternate angles are equal). Hence i = 98° (alternate angles, AB || CD)
b AB || CD (corresponding angles are equal).
Hence b = 35° (corresponding angles, AB || CD)
c AB || CD (co-interior angles are supplementary).
Hence a = 115° (co-interior angles, AB || CD)
d AB || CD (alternate angles are equal). Hence c = 30° (alternate angles, AB || CD)
3 a i = 50° b a = 70° c b = 55° d c = 20° e a = 20° f a = 50°
g b = 50° h a = 30°
4 a True. If you can walk, then you can run; false.
b False. If a number is greater than 1000, then it is greater than 10; true.
c False. If a man lives in Melbourne, then he lives in Australia; true.
d False. If the last digit of a number is 5, then is divisible by 5; true.
e True. If a woman is a mother, then she has a daughter; false.
f True. If a whole number is less than 1000, then it has fewer than four digits; true.
g False. If a dog can stand on its hind legs, then it has black and white hair; false.
h False. If the area of a rectangle is 40 square centimetres, then one of its sides
has length is 8 cm; false.
Review exercise
b b = 90° (co-interior angles, PQ || RS)
c a = 55° (corresponding angles, AB || CD)
d a = 20° (vertically opposite angles)
∠QRD = 160° (co-interior angles, AB || CD)
c = 160° (vertically opposite angles)
b = 20° (supplementary angles)
e b = 90° (co-interior angles, LM || NO)
2 a 60° b 27° c 16° d 6°
3 a 53° b 104° c 46° d 165°
4 58° 5 10°
6 a 305° b 240° c 330° d 230°

7 a 45° b 120° c 66° d 100°
8 a true b false c true d true
9 a a = 30° b a = 35° c a = 65° d a = 93°
10 a True. If a number is divisible by 3, then the sum of its digits is divisible by 3; true.
b True. If a number is divisible by 5, then its last digit is 0 or 5; true.
Challenge exercise
1 95° 2a 40° b x = c + b – a 3 x = 180° – d + b – c
4
The fi fth possibility involves

three planes intersecting at a
point. Draw it!
5 d 900°
Chapter 7 answers
Exercise 7A
x x x m + 7
1 a 5
b 6
c 5
+3 d 3
z k + 5 p – 6 y + 7
e 6
–3 f 10
g 3
h 4
m – 11 m
i 7
j 6 11 –3
b + 2 c – 5 y + 11 23 – x
2 a 2
b 4
c 4
d 7
1 1
3 a 10 b 11 c 73 d 42
1 1
e 5 f 2 g 76 h 37
1
4 a 2
b 2 c 3 d 1
e 11 f 7 g 5 h 1
n n
5 a 5
bananas b 5
+ 3 bananas
n + 1000
6 a (n + 1000) tonnes b 10
tonnes
Answers to exercises

1 60
7 a x – 2 b x–2
hours or x – 2 minutes
y y
8 a $ 4 b $ 50 – 4
Exercise 7B
7x 10x 3x 3x
1 a 3
b 3
c 4
d 2
+ 5
3x + 2 5x – 2 3x 7x
e 4
f 5
g 4
h 8
+ 6
3x x x x
i 8
+ 7 j 7 3
+ 7 k 9 8 – 5 l 6 11
– 3

2x 3 4x 2 2x 2 2 4x
m 4 5
– 3 n 7
23 – 9
o 11 5 – 3 p 13 3
– 9

2x2 3x2
q 3
r 7
Exercise 7C
1 a 9 b 16 c 4 d 18 e 0 f 6
1 4 2
2 a 12 b 5
c 2 d 10 5
2 2
e 15 f 1 g 0 h 23
3 a 24 b 36 c 44 d 18 e 24 f 4
9
g 2 h 2511 i 12 j 36 k 14 l 16
1 1 1 1 1 1
4 a 5 2 b 42 c 10 2 d 8 2 e 21 2 f 1 4
1 1 1 1 1
g 10
h 22 i 10
j 10 k 3 3 l 2

x 1 x 3
5 3 cm; 7 3 cm 6 4
cm; 6 4 cm
x 2 1
7 a 5
m b i 4 m ii 8 5 m iii 19 5 m
x 3 4x 5
8 $4 9 4
, 14 10 7
– 5, 7
5 1
11 a 66 b 46 c 64 d 34
12 1 90
12 $9 13a x
m b 1 5 m 14 $ x
15 a 3x2 cm b 48 cm
6x2 1
16a 5
cm b 19 5 cm
4 1 1 2 1
17 a 115 b 15
c 1 3 d 2 e 3 15 f 1 3
1 2 2 1 9 4
g 215 h 23 i 5 j 1 9 k 10
l 1 5

Exercise 7D
x x
1 a 2
b 4x c 5
d 2e
a 1
e 4x f 3
g 5y h 4
np
2 a 6 b 8x c 24y d 5
e 3x f 18x
9ab 9x 6abx 4e 17ab
g 18x h 2
i a
j cd
k 3yz
l 3d
3 a a b a c a 2 d 4
5b abc
e 3ab f a
g efg
5xy 2 9x2y
4 a 12xy b 4a
c 4

ab 2a 2
a2
5 a a b 4
c 15
d 3

ab 2a 2
a
e 6
f 5
g 25a h 5
1 2
6 a 2 b 6 c 30 d 12 e 1 f 3
x2 x2
7 3
cm2, 27 cm2 8 2
cm2, 72 cm2
2z
9 a $ 0.40 b $5
2x 9x 4x 6x
10 $ 3
11 $ 5
12 $3 13a y
b 50
Review exercise
x a m 6+x
1 a 10
b 11
c 3
+ 4 d 5
z 7m 5a 8b
e 7
– 4 f 3
g 2
h 7
+ 5
c n 2 2p 3 4q
i 10 7
–5 j 9 13 –4 k 5 5
– 6 l 8
23 – 11
3 3r 3 5p 3r2 5q2

m 5 5
– 3 n 13
22 – 9
o 4
p 11
4
2 a 10 b 14 c 47
3 a 24 b 6 c 12
2 9 1
4 a 10 b 65 c 310 d 15 5
1 2 2
e 7 5 f 5 g 6 5 h 6 3
1 3
5 a 11 4 b 8 4 c 3 d 7
1 1
e 45 f 22 g 52 h 20
6 1 3 1
6 a 7
b 16 c 25 d 5
1 3 3
e 9 f 52 g 15 h 7
x 6y
7 18
+ 35
L
yz
8 a 2x b 6n c 24p d 5
e 4n f 11a g 18a h 3ab

11 1 2
9 a 120 b 20
c 2 5 d 4
17 1 1 1
e 320 f 45 g 420 h 2 4
3 1 15 3
i 5
j 115 k 16
l 3 4
17 25 6 3 25 51
10 a 156 b 56
c 7 d 1 4 e 28
f 3 56
73 1 24 2977 4 1
g 112
h 2 24 i 49
j 3136
k 47 l 4 8

2 9a 1 5
11 a x b 3 c 9a d 7
e 44a
f 12

3 4x
12 a b
b z c z d z

e 3x2 f z2 g 5mn3 h 1
2x2 15x2
13 5
cm2, 40 cm2 14 16
m2, 135 m2
Challenge exercise
x x + 4 3
1 a 8 cm b 3
cm c 3
cm d x
cm
x x + 3
2 a 2 2 + 2 = (x + 4) cm b 2 2 + 2 = (x + 7) cm

3 a 180 km b 60n km c 3x km d xn km
4 a i 140 km ii (50 + 30n) km b i 375 km ii (500 – 25n) km
n n n
5 a 60 km/h b 3
km/h c m km/h 6 50
h
16 32
7 a BC = x cm b perimeter = 2x + x
cm
1
c 16 cm d 128 2 cm
d 20 – d
8 a (20 – d) km b i 60
h ii 80
h
d 20 – d d + 60
c total time = 60 + 80
= 240 h
1
d i 16 2 min ii 18 min iii 20 min
Chapter 8 answers
Exercise 8A
3 5 7 4276
1 2 × 102 + 7 × 10 + 6 + 10 + 102 + 104 2 1000
3 0.057
4 a 2 b 0.02 c 0.2 d 20 e 0.002 f 0.00002

5 Any 10 of the following:
1.023, 1.032, 1.203, 1.230, 1.302, 1.320, 2.013, 2.031, 2.103, 2.130, 2.301, 2.310,
3.012, 3.021, 3.102, 3.120, 3.201, 3.210, 10.23, 10.32, 12.03, 12.30, 13.02, 13.20,
20.13, 20.31, 21.03, 21.30, 23.01, 23.10, 30.12, 30.21, 31.02, 31.20, 32.01, 32.10,
102.3, 103.2, 120.3, 123.0, 130.2, 132.0, 2 01.3, 203.1, 210.3, 213.0, 230.1, 231.0,
301.2, 302.1, 310.2, 312.0, 320.1, 321.0

6 (Note: Answers are in bold type.)
a 3.09 b 3.9 c 1.28493

3 4 3 4 1 2
d e f
5.700001 4.499 9.09999
5 6 4 5 9 10
7 a 0.4 b 1.93 c 6.8 d 5.63 e 7.3412 f 5.1
g 8.99978 h 3.67 i 297.2357 j 11.3 k 434.89769 l 3.56
8 a 0.2, 2.3, 4.08, 7.2, 8.153
b 1.09, 1.30, 1.39, 1.9, 1.93
c 7.000023, 7.0748, 7.230000, 7.4109572, 7.99
d 6.4, 6.66, 6.888, 6.9234, 6.98574
9 a 4 b 5 c 5 d 5 e 4 f 4
g 4 h 4 i 4 j 4 k 5 l 4
10 a 600 thousandths b 60 hundredths c 0.6 units
d 0.06 tens e 0.006 hundreds f 0.0006 thousandths
11 a 890 thousandths b 8.9 tenths c 0.89 units
d 0.089 tens e 0.0089 hundreds f 0.00089 thousands
12 a 72.3 hundredths b 7.23 tenths c 0.723 units
d 0.0723 tens e 0.00723 hundreds f 0.000723 thousands
Exercise 8B
3 1 17 1
1 a 4 b 15 4 c 50
d 4 8
1 9 403 3
e 40
f 1000
g 500
h 8 4
1 5
i 80
j 54 8
2 a 0.5 b 0.43 c 0.05 d 0.005
e 0.057 f 0.03 g 0.27 h 0.0009
i 23 j 2.3 k 16.96 l 16.096
m 24.035 n 101.101 o 101.0101
3 a 5.5 b 12.5 c 6.5 d 8.6
e 57.4 f 95.25 g 54.75 h 5.4
4 a 1.1 b 0.92 c 0.6 d 1.05
e 0.132 f 0.815 g 0.016 h 1.04
i 1.068 j 2.7 k 5.4 l 19.12
m 2.62 n 0.12 o 0.016
5 a 2 b 7 c 6 d 4 e 5 f 3

6
Decimal 0.01 0.125 0.25 0.2 0.5
1 1 1 1 1
Fraction
100 8 4 5 2
Exercise 8C
1 a 5.9 b 7.3 c 8.9 d 6.32
e 9.18 f 9.97 g 9.562 h 9.8997
i 8.008 j 11.815 k 10.1993 l 88.0594
m 39.88701 n 126.9739 o 237.1128
2 a 4.4 b 8.1 c 1.1 d 1.77
e 5.25 f 15.5 g 5.9 h 11.9
i 3.478 j 8.255 k 80.375 l 7.397336776
3 25.26 kg 4 0.26 m 5 0.83 s, 1.16 s, 1.69 s
6 2.25 km 7 8800 m or 8.8 km 8 12.72 m
Exercise 8D
1 a 8 b 83 c 0.8 d 5
e 0.5 f 0.05 g 928.9432 h 3920.01
i 56.35 j 1009.302 k 4270.09 l 27 010.902
2 a 34 b 478 c 1.3 d 80
e 0.4 f 2830.4 g 430.9387 h 20 120.1201
i 130 j 1208 k 210 l 13 720
3 a 0.12 b 0.57 c 0.008 d 0.07
e 0.0002 f 1.0023 g 0.4309387 h 20.1201201
4 a 2.406 b 0.023 c 0.1406 d 0.0006
e 0.55703 f 5.762 g 0.00006 h 0.020006
5 a 507 b 789 028 c 2.300001 d 234 560 e 0.010462 f 0.6
g 25 000 h 30 i 1.2 j 3.435 k 402.521 l 10
6 a 0.82 b 0.082 c 8.2 d 85 700 e 8570
f 857 g 0.502 h 0.0502 i 0.00502 j 17.634
k 176.34 l 1.7634 m 0.00000543 n 0.0000543
o 0.000543 p 1.023 q 0.1023 r 10.23
7 $32.58
8 a 680 min b 40.8 s c 1000
Exercise 8E
1 a 1.8 b 0.08 c 0.0008 d 0.98 e 0.1008 f 10.25
g 51.52 h 5.16 i 10.9218 j 2.97783 k 16.856 l 61.854

2 × 0.009 0.09 0.9 9 90 900 9000
0.008 0.000072 0.00072 0.0072 0.072 0.72 7.2 72
0.08 0.00072 0.0072 0.072 0.72 7.2 72 720
0.8 0.0072 0.072 0.72 7.2 72 720 7200
8 0.072 0.72 7.2 72 720 7200 72 000
80 0.72 7.2 72 720 7200 72 000 720 000
800 7.2 72 720 7200 72 000 720 000 7 200 000
8000 72 720 7200 72 000 720 000 7 200 000 72 000 000
3 a 0.3 b 1.8 c 6.3 d 2.06 e 0.0042

f 1.1772 g 2.6076 h 1.261129 i 4.76
4 a 1.2 b 1 c 4.3 d 0.05 e 0.26 f 0.108
5 a 0.15 b 0.1 c 0.63 d 0.005 e 0.043 f 0.0206
6 a 0.023 b 0.1 c 0.01 d 0.00005 e 0.0005 f 0.00407
7 a $12.15 b $0.70 c $14.90 d $1.87 e $10.89
Exercise 8F
1 a 0.4 b 0.2 c 0.9 d 1.2
e 12 f 24 g 6 h 90
i 4 j 3.2 k 0.25 l 3.1
m 152.7 n 0.32425 o 3579.9375
2 a 120, 1200, 12 000 b 100, 1000, 10 000 c 430, 4300, 43 000
d 5, 50, 500 e 26, 260, 2600 f 1000, 10 000, 100 000
3 ÷ 0.006 0.06 0.6 6 60 600 6000
0.024 4 0.4 0.04 0.004 0.0004 0.00004 0.000004
0.24 40 4 0.4 0.04 0.004 0.0004 0.00004
2.4 400 40 4 0.4 0.04 0.004 0.0004
24 4000 400 40 4 0.4 0.04 0.004
240 40 000 4000 400 40 4 0.4 0.04
2400 400 000 40 000 4000 400 40 4 0.4
24000 4 000 000 400 000 40 000 4000 400 40 4
4 $1.13 5 121
Exercise 8G
. . . . .
1 a 0. 3. b 0. 6. c 0. 1. d 0. 2. e 0. 3.
f 0. 4 g 0. 5 h 0. 6 i 0. 7 j 0. 8
.. .. .. .. ..
2 a 0. 0. 9
. b 0. 1. .8 c 0. 2. 7
. d 0. 3. 6
. e 0. 4. 5
.
f 0. 5 4 g 0. 6 3 h 0. 7 2 i 0. 8 1 j 0. 9 0

. . . . .
3 a 0.1 6 b 0. 3 . c 0.5 . d 0. 6 e 0.8 3 . f 0.08 3
g 0.25 h 0.41 6 i 0.58 3 j 0.75 k 0.91 6
. . . . . . . . . . . .
4 0. 14285 7, 0. 28571 4, 0. 42857 1, 0. 57142 8, 0. 71428 5, 0. 85714 2
. . . .. .
5 a 0.6 85714 2 b 0.9 6 c 4. 5 4 d 1.31 6
. . . . . ..
e 0.92 42857 1 f 0.36 85714 2 g 5.1 6 h 5. 3 6
.. . . .
i 4.7 8 1 j 4.6 8 k 157. 3 l 0.39 3
1
6 2
Review exercise
1 a 0.1 b 0.3 c 0.9 d 0.01 e 0.02 f 0.09
g 0.39 h 0.81 i 0.47 j 0.001 k 0.008 l 0.004
m 0.028 n 0.061 o 0.298 p 0.784 q 0.205 r 0.0001
s 0.0009 t 0.0003 u 0.0019 v 0.0241 w 0.0187 x 0.6939
y 0.4862 z 0.2006
2 a 0.8 b 0.08 c 8
d 0.008 e 0.0008 f 80 and 0.0008
3 a 0.4 b 4 c 40
d 0.04 e 0.0004 f 0.00004
4 a 0.8 b 1.9 c 2.9 d 1.91 e 2.64 f 3.11
g 2.8 h 4.999 i 5.501 j 5.12 k 1.231 l 4.51
5 a 1.5, 1.4732, 1.28, 1.09 b 1.928, 1.36, 1.2849, 1.2
c 9.999, 9.909, 9.9, 9.09 d 23.5, 23.451, 23.09, 23.0001
6 a 1 b 3 c 2 d 4 e 27 f 44
g 68 h 300 i 0 j 187 k 214 l 627
3 9 2 8 49 1
7 a 10
b 3 10 c 1 5 d 25
e 50
f 25
111 51 99 3 1 106
g 1000
h 250
i 1000
j 4
k 8
l 2 125
8 a 0.2 b 0.5 c 1.02 d 0.08 e 0.8 f 10.3
g 0.08 h 4.04 i 0.004 j 4.7 k 10.1 l 2.4
m 1.0625 n 0.024 o 0.98 p 0.825 q 0.795 r 0.95
s 0.26 t 0.144
9 . .
Decimal 1. 3 1.25 0.4 4. 2 0.50 0.09 0.625
1 1 2 2 1 9 5
Fraction 1 1 4
3 4 5 9 2 100 8
147
10 100

. . .. . . . . .
11 a 0. 428571 b 0. 1 8 c 0.41 6 d 0. 46153 8 e 0.8 3 f 0.58 3

1 5 3 1 1
12 a 0.1, 5 , 0.5, 8 , 4 , 1 b 24
, 0.24, 4 , 0.4, 2.4, 4.1
1 1 5 23 1 290
c 0, 25 , 0.08, 5 , 8 , 0.9 d 2, 2.07, 11
, 2 5 , 2.7, 100
13 a 3.9 b 9.8 c 8.9 d 6.95 e 9.18 f 8.97

g 0.738 h 9.8997 i 14.4 j 23.1 k 1.1 l 20.1
m 5.3 n 5.2 o 5.9 p 1.5 q 0.662 r 64.189
s 108.5287 t 7.397336776
14 a 45, 450, 4500 b 3, 30, 300 c 0.6, 6, 60
d 13.96, 139.6, 1396 e 1004.85, 10 048.5, 100 485 f 0.002, 0.02, 0.2
15 a 0.45, 0.045, 0.0045 b 0.03, 0.003, 0.0003
c 0.006, 0.0006, 0.00006 d 0.1396, 0.01396, 0.001396
e 4.38, 0.438, 0.0438 f 10.0485, 1.00485, 0.100485
16
× 0.007 0.07 0.7 7 70 700 7000
0.003 0.000021 0.00021 0.0021 0.021 0.21 2.1 21
0.03 0.00021 0.0021 0.021 0.21 2.1 21 210
0.3 0.0021 0.021 0.21 2.1 21 210 2100
3 0.021 0.21 2.1 21 210 2100 21 000
30 0.21 2.1 21 210 2 100 21 000 210 000
300 2.1 21 210 2100 21 000 210 000 2 100 000
3000 21 210 2100 21 000 210 000 2 100 000 21 000 000
17 a 42.21 b 38.4 c 14.76 d 17.7 e 285.6

f 19.888 g 4.08 h 49.814 i 15.4622
18
× 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
0.052 0.000052 0.00052 0.0052 0.052 0.52 5.2 52
0.52 0.00052 0.0052 0.052 0.52 5.2 52 520
5.2 0.0052 0.052 0.52 5.2 52 520 5200
52 0.052 0.52 5.2 52 520 5200 52 000
520 0.52 5.2 52 520 5200 52 000 520 000
5200 5.2 52 520 5200 52 000 520 000 5 200 000
52 000 52 520 5200 52 000 520 000 5 200 000 52 000 000

.
19 a 3 b 5 c 60 d 666. 6 e 0.05
. . .
f 0.7 57142 8 g 10.21 3 h 8.32 i 3525

Challenge exercise
1 a 2.9, 3.0, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 b 4.0, 4.3, 4.6, 4.9, 5.2
c 12.2, 12.1, 12.0, 11.9, 11.8 d 9.1, 8.0, 6.9, 5.8, 4.7
2 a 0.8 × 0.765 = 0.612 b 0.85 × 0.76 = 0.646
1 1
3 $52.50 5 11
– 11 × 10 8 = 0.09090909

191 1
6 a 19 256 b 7.376 7 n , for n = 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 64 and 80
Chapter 9 answers
Exercise 9A
1 a centimetre b metre c kilometre d metre
e millilitre f milligram g litre h metre
i kilogram j kilolitre k minute l second
3 a 904 cm b 5 mL c 72 kg d 13.3 cm e 220 g f 650 mL
4 a 60 mm b 18 cm c 180 mm d 43 mm
e 2.7 cm f 58.3 cm g 300 cm h 190 cm
i 2000 m j 100 000 cm k 6340 m l 0.2 km
m 0.09 km n 2.901 km o 500 m p 25 cm
q 200 mm r 7 mm s 6.25 mm t 8.75 mm
5 a 8.7 cm b 59 mm c 6.7 cm d 365 cm e 45 800 m f 14.038 km
6 a 0.493 kg b 2300 g c 3400 kg d 250 g
e 45 300 g f 0.48 g g 0.29 g h 100 kg
7 a 5023 m b 15 020 m c 3020 kg d 24 015 kg
8 a 0.8 L b 1500 mL c 4.002 L d 3.968 kL
9 20 laps 10 5500 g or 5.5 kg 11 51 markers 12 220 cm
13 a 15.25 kg b 13.215 m c 185.6 cm
d 1984 kg e 105.604 t f 17 m
g 1.38 t h 9.044 kg i 1.4064 km
14 a $5.94 b 42c c $6 d $0.28 e $6.80
f $30 g $120 h $1.26 i $336 j $12
Exercise 9B
1 1 000 000 L 2 10 000 µm
3 2 000 000 000 000 L 4 5 100 000 000 µm
5 9 850 000 000 000 000 mg 6 15.8 dm
7 0.89 dm 3
8 52.596 min

Exercise 9C
1 1125 g 2 $36.44 3 0.609 kg 4 910 km
5 560 km 6 12 oranges for $4.08 is cheaper.
7 12 km 8 6000 m 9 $20
10 a 1200 m b 72 km 11 2 kg 12 14.175 days
Exercise 9D
1 a 12 b 12 c 60 d 52 e 50 f 80
2 a 92 mm b 93 mm c 304 mm
3 a 8 cm b 10 cm c 10 cm d 16 cm
4 a 11.8 m b 32.4 m c 32.4 m
5 a a + b + c b 3x c 4d
d 4a + 6b e 8a + 3b f 14x + 12y
6,7 Various answers are possible.
Exercise 9E
1 a 12 cm2 b 24 cm2 c 8 cm2 d 30 cm2
2 a 9 m2 b 63 cm2 c 169 mm2 d 3.52 cm2
3 a 10 000 cm2 b 100 hectares c 1 000 000 m2
4 a 4.25 m2 b 1.6 km2
5 200 hectares 6 90 000 m2
7
Length Width Area
a 7 cm 6 cm 42 cm2
b 9 cm 3 cm 27 cm2
c 5m 17 m 85 m2
d 12 km 12 km 144 km2
8 a 9a 2 b 42cd 9 $216 10 35 m2 11 $84.38

12 $420 13 3.8 hectares 14 1.69 m2 15 $4 820 850
16,17 Various answers are possible.
Exercise 9F
1 a 10 cm2 b 23 cm2 c 17 m2
2 a 74 cm2 b 60 m2 c 37 cm2 d 60 m2
e 32 cm2 f 40 cm2 g 46 cm2 h 32 m2
3 54 m2 4 32 m2 5 16 m2

Exercise 9G
1 a 24 cm2 b 38.5 m2 c 26 cm2 d 84 mm2
2 a 2 cm2 b 4.5 cm2 c 3 cm2 d 6 cm2
e 2 cm2 f 3 cm2 g 3 cm2 h 6 cm2
3 Length Width Area

a 7 cm 6 cm 21 cm2
b 9 cm 6 cm 27 cm2
c 10 m 17 m 85 m2
d 12 km 24 km 144 km2
4 a 24 cm2 b 6 cm2 c 25.5 cm2 d 6 cm2 e 14.5 cm2

6 An infinite number; fix the base and vary the third vertex so that the height
remains the same.
7 a 35 cm2 b 36 km2 c 102 cm2 d 105 mm2 e 42 m2 f 56 cm2
8 a 120 m2 b 18 m2 c 17 m2 d 125.5 m2
Exercise 9H
1 a 1380 b 1440 c 408 d 17 days, 21 hours
e 4320 f 6 hours, 32 minutes g 1 hour, 26 minutes and 41 seconds
2 a 14:30 b 06:00 c 23:49 d 20:35 e 05:35
f 12:00 g 00:00 h 15:05 i 23:58
3 a 1 pm b 6 am c 8:20 am d 11:30 pm
4 a 270 minutes b 4 hours 49 minutes
c 9 months d 168 hours
5 12 hours 33 minutes 6 71 days 18 hours 7 9 days 19 hours
8 a 3 hours 45 minutes b 2 hours 30 minutes
c 6 hours 30 minutes d 4 hours 20 minutes
e 1 day 45 minutes f 2 days 14 hours and 23 minutes
g 4 days 16 hours and 25 minutes
9 8 hours 10 15 hours 55 minutes
11 3 minutes 5 seconds, 18 seconds 12 19 minutes
13 1:27 am on Wednesday
14 0.72 seconds 15 1530 seconds

Exercise 9I
1
Speed Distance Time
50 km/h 100 km 2h
5 m/min 30 m 6 min
1
30 km/h 15 km
2 h
30 m/s 120 m 4s
55 km/h 605 km 11 h
1
60 km/h 20 km
3 h
2 12 km 3 24 km/h 4 1 km 5 112 km
6 730 km/h 7 48 km 8 24 nautical mile/h
9 630 km 10a 11 m/s b 198 m
11 a 20 km b 6 km/h c 70 km/h d 30 km/h
2 1 22
12 a 1 hr 33 minutes b 66 3 km/h c 12 2 km/h d 38 31 km/h
2 5x 1
13 24 km/h 14 16 3 m/s, 18
m/s 15 28 11 km/h
Review exercise
1 a 1.607 b 160.7 c 19.7 d 0.197 e 2300 f 2.3
g 550 h 0.55 i 150 000 j 1500 k 830 l 0.0083
2 a 3 000 000 b 3000 c 0.0048 d 4800
e 1.029 f 0.001029 g 329 000 h 329 000 000
i 4000 j 2300 k 2.95 l 250 000 000 000
3 46 cm 4 5.35 kg 5 120.05 m 6 $2.70 7 1190 g, 210 g
8 a perimeter: 42 m; area: 68 m 2 b perimeter: 64 km; area: 72 km2
9 a 5:53:59 pm b 3:06:59 am c 4:50:02 am

d 9:23:59 pm e 7:08:59 pm
10 1 kg 50 g
11 from smallest to largest: ABC = ACD = ADE, ABD = ACE, ABE
12 30 cm2 13a 400 000 b 1 500 000 000 14 1000 m2, 375
9 1
15 0.0065 m 16 240 m 17 7 13 m/s 18 7 3 km/h
19 a 18 m2 b 40 m2 20 49.2 cm 21 74 km/h
2
22 26 3 km, 5 km/h 23 1.609344 km 24 32 cm2
25 89 hours, 25 minutes and 59 seconds 26 12

Challenge exercise
1 yes, since 6 × 107 > 5.256 × 107
4 area = 120 m2, perimeter = 62 m, area of path = 66 m2 5 Wednesday
6 65 7 5 people 8 8 times (0:00, 1:11, 2:22, 3:33, 4:44, 5:55, 11:11 22:22)
9 3.5 kg 10 240 11 2400 m 12 Tuesday
13 4.8 km/h 14 52 m 15 48 cm2 16 34 m, 20 m, 16 m
17 Smallest possible area is 11 cm 2, largest is 36 cm2 (a square).
18 A square has the smallest perimeter (32 m).
19 A square has the largest area (729 m2).
Chapter 10 answers
10A Review
Chapter 1: Whole numbers
1 a 95 b 50 c 120 d 100 e 154 f 180
2 a 841 b 7793 c 7746 d 943 e 30 130 f 2490
3 a 554 b 1551 c 102 d 38 e 25 f 8567
g 703 h 13 i 1894
4 $680 5 229 metres 6 1500 km
7 Jacqui is 31 cm taller than David and 36 cm taller than Adrian.
8 a = b > c = d <
9 a 2700 b 430 c 8200 d 750 e 966 f 1716
10 a 216 b 696 c 301 d 1188 e 8280 f 67 458
g 6993 h 77 208 i 9729 j 25 296 k 3 172 343 l 1 319 396
m 358 050 n 112 308 o 35 819 232
11 544 12 722 13 13 717 14 1377
15 a 222 b 211 c 323 d 71 e 31 f 81
g 66 h 22 i 63 j 302 k 361 l 759
m 108 n 105 o 308 p 1789 remainder 3
q 6938 remainder 1 r 7914 remainder 3
16 a 22 b 24 c 23
Chapter 2: Factors, multiples, primes and divisibility

1 a 1, 3, 13, 39 b 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 48
c 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 16, 18, 24, 36, 48,72, 144
d 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 14, 15, 20, 21, 28, 30, 35, 42, 60, 70, 84, 105, 140, 210, 420
e 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 53, 106, 159, 212, 318, 424, 636, 1272
f 1, 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 125, 250, 625, 1250

2 24, 144, 232 3 76, 95, 152 4 2, 3, 6, 62, 93
5 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101, 103, 107, 109, 113, 127, 131, 137, 139
6 a 5 + 43 = 48, 7 + 41 = 48, 11 + 37 = 48, 17 + 31 = 48, 19 + 29 = 48
b 5 + 83 = 88, 17 + 71 = 88, 29 + 59 = 88, 41 + 47 = 88
c 5 + 103 = 108, 7 + 101 = 108
d 5 + 109 = 114, 7 + 107 = 114, 11 + 103 = 114
e 5 + 199 = 204, 7 + 197 = 204, 13 + 191 = 204
f 7 + 233 = 240, 11 + 229 = 240, 13 + 227 = 240
Numerous other solutions exist.
7 a 41 = 4, 42 = 16, 43 = 64, 44 = 256, 45 = 1024
b 101 = 10, 102 = 100, 103 = 1000, 104 = 10 000, 105 = 100 000, 106 = 1 000 000,
107 = 10 000 000, 108 = 100 000 000, 109 = 1 000 000 000
8 a 23 × 3 b 25 × 3 c 2 × 3 × 52 d 2 × 34 e 22 × 34 f 23 × 72
9 a 25 b 81 c 121 d 784 e 2500 f 10 000
10 a 6 b 20 c 14 d 21 e 27 f 1000
11 a 29 = 2 + 3 + 4
2 2 2
b 105 = 1 + 2 + 10
2 2 2
c 70 = 12 + 22 + 42 + 72 d 299 = 12 + 32 + 172
12 Some possible answers are 2, 3, 8, 14.
13 a 4 b 3 c 2 d 5 e 4 f 4
14 a 28 b 40 c 12 d 8 e 30 f 72
15 a 400 030 b 400 030 c 400 032 d 400 030 e 400 032 f 400 032
g 400 230 h 400 035 i 400 030
16 Some possible answers are 574 = 14 × 41, 1300 = 25 × 52, 1729 = 19 × 91.
Chapter 3: An introduction to algebra

1 a 6z b xy c x – 8 d 5m + 3
2 n – 5 3 6x 4a 24x2 b 35x2 c 3m 2 n3
2x 3q 5w x
5 a y b 2p
c x d 3 y
x 2p
6 a z2 b 5ab c 12b2 d 7
e q
7 a 14 b 0 c 53 d 10 e 14
8 $500 9a 9x b 4a c 6xy d 12xy
10 a 6x – 2 b 5(x – 3) 11a 3a 2 b (3a)2
12 a 9x2 b 4z2 c 225x2 d 49c2 13 a + 5 and a + 10

1 1
2
3
4
1 83 4
2
19
8

0 1 2 3

1 2 8
1 91 11
2 25
6 3 9 6 6
0 1 2 3
8 1 1 4 7
3 a 11
b 3
c 8
d 7
e 23
5 a 30 b 5 c 50 d 96 e 20 f 7
1 1 2 6 33 3
6 a 3
b 3
c 23
d 17
e 40
f 8
1 1 7 3
g 5
h 4
i 15
j 4 k 7 l 146
2 1 2
7 a 23 b 26 c 35 d 1 81 e 1 15 1
f 3 32
8 a 4 , 4 45 , 5 35 , 6 25 b 3 47 , 4 27 , 5, 5 57 c 5
6
, 1, 1 16 , 1 13
19 24 17 43 61 40
9 a 6
b 5
c 3
d 22
e 9
f 19
10 a–f Various answers are possible.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 9 1 4 3 2 5
11 a , , , ,
10 6 4 3 2
b , , , ,
8 4 8 4 8
c , , , ,
3 9 6 3 6
1 5 9 17 16 3 3 4 5 7 3
d , , ,
18 16 18 19 17
, e , , , ,
8 4 5 6 8
f 5
, 1 15 , 1 10
3 1
, 2 4 , 2 26
5 7 4
12 a 7
b 8
c 5
d 2 e 1 13 f 1 16
3 11
g 8
h 12
i 1 29 j 1 1
20
k 1 2
21
13
l 1 110
1 1 1 5 1 3
13 a 3
b 7
c 6
d 8
e 3
f 8
1 1 9 11 3 13
g 4
h 15
i 35
j 21
k 20
l 18

1
15 3 12 baskets

1 12 chocolates
1 3 1 1 1 5
2 a 2
b 10
c 2
d 4
e 36
f 16
4 15 4
g 15
h 64
i 9
j 1 13 k 5 58 l 18
3 a 2 b 3 11
15
c 18
35
d 9
20

2 3
4 a 1 b 16 c 2 d 9
e 15 f 5
1 1
g 4
h 1 i 34
j 8 12 k 1
2
l 8
9
2 4 20
m 9
n 2 o 5
p 49

5 a 1 13 b 1 14 c 3
4
d 1
e 1 16 f 4
9
g 2
9
h 392
729

6 a 8 12 b 1
5
c 1 13
7 a 1788 L 8 72 km 9 25 10 210 seconds

Chapter 6: An introduction to geometry
1 a i 70° ii 45° iii 8° iv 72° v 14°
b i 40° ii 48° iii 95° iv 112° v 14°
2 a 90° b 90° c 120° d 90°
e 120° f 90° g 30° h 150°
3 a i 50° ii 75° iii 23° iv 35° v 166°
b i 310° ii 285° iii 337° iv 325° v 194°
4 a b c

b i = 60° (co-interior angles, DG || EF)
c a = 38° (alternate angles, RS || TU)
d b = 72° (alternate angles, BD || CA)
e c = 130° (co-interior angles, BY || AX)
6 a ∠OAB = ∠ACD (corresponding angles are equal), b = 38°
b ∠VAB = ∠VDC (alternate angles are equal), c = 30°
c ∠VAB = ∠VDC (alternate angles are equal), i = 30°
d ∠BAC = ∠DCA (co-interior angles are supplementary), a = 105°
Chapter 7: Algebra with fractions

x x+5 x x+7 x – 11 x+4
1 a 5
+ 6 b 3
c 8
– 5 d 20
e 5
f 11
x – 12 x 5x 7x x x
g 12
h 7 10 – 4 i 8
+ 7 j 8
+ 12 k 10 4 + 11 l 9 8 – 5
1 1
2 a 10 b 7 c 7 3 d 4 2 e 30 f 16
g 0 h 48 i 3
n + 70
3 a (n + 70) L b 150
L

a b – 11 10 – b
4 a 12
– 5 b 2(a + 7) c 5
d 15
4 1 4
5 a 5
b 1 4 c 9 d 5

1
e 14 f 44 g 12 h 4
7x 11x x 3y y
6 a 2
b 3
c 5
d 4
e 13 7 + 11
4
7 a 14 b 15 c 16 5
x 2
8 a 7
m b i 3 m ii 6 m iii 14 7 m
Chapter 8: Decimals
1 a 6 b 600 c 0.6 d 0.0006
e 0.6 f 0.006 g 0.06 h 0.0006
2 a 0.8 b 0.96 c 3.5 d 2.1 e 9.8
f 10.45 g 1.03 h 4.92 i 0.39
3 a 3.009, 3.059, 3.061, 3.1, 3.45 b 4.0002, 4.203, 4.22222, 4.3, 4.32
3 1 3 87 216 1
4 a 10
b 4
c 5
d 1100 e 4 625 f 2 20

1 153 1 7 9029 3
g 72 h 10 500 i 2500
j 4 1000 k 9 10 000 l 10 8

5 a 0.75 b 0.5 c 0.1 d 0.45
. e 0.06
. f 0.234
. .
g 0.4 h 3.2 i 1.4 j 0. 6 k 1. 6 l 0. 71428 5
6 a 8.788 b 5.842 c 86.0872 d 342
e 35.668 f 156.9 g 520.5 h 411.3518
.
i 91.8 3 j 13.299173 k 480.1112 l 7239.785
7
Fraction Decimal
3
8 0.375
1 .
3 0. 3
3
4 0.75
3
24 2.75
1
38 3.125
Chapter 9: Measurement
1 a 120 mm b 250 mL c 4 mL d –3.2ºC
2 a 1.2 b 14.3, 0.143 c 230, 2300 d 800
e 4 f 3000 g 324 000, 0.324 h 25 000
i 2.305 j 3200 k 40

3 3.035 kg or 3035 g 4 6607 g 5 $7.11
6 17.5 days 7 8 apples 8 20 cm, 15 cm2
9 a 260 cm, 2016 cm2 b 26 m, 40 m2
c 232 mm, 2788 mm2 d 10x + 6y, 15xy
10 a 36 hours 25 minutes b 6 hours 43 minutes c 51 minutes 35 seconds

11 a 5:54:30 pm b 6:57 am Saturday c 2:46 pm
Miscellaneous
1 a 2 1 6 b 3 9 7 c 4 5 5 d 256
+789 –295 +847 × 9
1005 102 1302 2304
2 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, 27, 54 3 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56

4 2 × 5 = 10, 2 × 7 = 14, 3 × 5 = 15, 3 × 7 = 21 5 71 = 7, 72 = 49, 73 = 343
x
6 a n + 7 b r + 7 c 3x d 7 – t e 11w f p
7 a 60h b 7w c 100d d l 2
8 a 18 b 15 c 22 d 3 e 0
9 a 15 b 14 c 17 d 72 e 8
10 a 18x 2
b 20x 2
c 50xy d 60ab e 16a 2 f 21a 2 b2
11 a 3x2 cm2 b 108 cm2 c 75 cm2
1 1 2
12 a 2
b 3 c 3
d 3
e 1 34
5 1 1 4 3
13 a 6
b 9
c 8
d 9
e 4

7 3
f 2 22 g 1 11 h 12
17
i 34
57
j 2
15

14 i = 60° (co-interior angles, DC || BA)
15 ∠OAB = ∠ACD (corresponding angles are equal, AB || CD), b = 40°
10B Problem solving

Evens and odds
1 sometimes true and sometimes false
2 always true
3 always false

The Collatz conjecture
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Steps 1 2 8 3 6 9 17 4 20 7
Largest 1 2 16 4 16 16 52 8 52 16
Number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Steps 15 10 10 18 18 5 13 21 21 8
Largest 52 16 40 52 160 16 52 52 88 20
Number 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Steps 8 16 16 11 24 11 112 19 19 19
Largest 64 52 160 24 88 40 9232 52 88 160
Long division
Let a be the digit in the tens place value and b be the unit place. Any two-digit number
can be represented by 10a + b. The six-digit number formed is 100 000a + 10 000b +
1000a + 100b + 10a + b, which equals 101 010a + 10 101b. Since 21 × 37 × 13 = 10 101, the
three divisions amount to dividing the original six-digit number by 10 101, which gives
101 010a + 10 101b
= 10a + b.
10 101
Totient numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 7: , , , , , ;
7 7 7 7 7 7
6 totient numbers
1 3 5 7
8: , , , ;
8 8 8 8
4 totient numbers
1 2 4 5 7 8
9: , , , , , ;
9 9 9 9 9 9
6 totient numbers
1 3 7 9
10: , , , ;
10 10 10 10
4 totient numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11: , , , , , , , , , ;
11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
10 totient numbers
1 5 7 11
12: , , , ;
12 12 12 12
4 totient numbers
1 2 4 7 8 11 13 14
2 15: , , , , , , , ;
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
8 totient numbers
1 5 7 11 13 17
18: , , , , , ;
18 18 18 18 18 18
6 totient numbers
1 3 7 9 11 13 17 19
20: , , , , , , , ;
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
8 totient numbers
1 5 7 11 13 17 19 13
24: , , , , , , , ;
24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24
8 totient numbers
1 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 25 29 31 35 37 41 43 47 49 53 55 59 61
3 72: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72 72
65
72
, 67 71
, ;
72 72
24 totient numbers


1 2 4 5 7 8 10 11 13 14 16 17 19 20 22 23 25 26 28 29
81: 81 , 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
,
31 32 34 35 37 38 40 41 43 44 46 47 49 50 52 53 55 56 58 59
81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
,
61 62 64 65 67 68 70 71 73 74 76 77 79 80
81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
, 81
; 54 totient numbers
98: 98
1
, 3
98
, 5
98
, 9
98
, 11
98
, 13
98
, 15
98
, 17
98
, 19
98
, 23
98
, 25
98
, 27
98
, 29
98
, 31
98
, 33
98
, 37
98
, 39
98
, 41
98
, 43
98
, 45
98
,
47 51 53 55 57 59 61 65 67 69 71 73 75 79 81 83 85 87 89 93
98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
, 98
,
95 97
98
, 98
1 3 7 9 11 13 17 19 21 23 27 29 31 33 37 39 41
100: 100 , 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, , , ,
100 100 100 100
,
43 47 49 51 53 57 59 61 63 67 69 71 73 77 79 81 83
,
100 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, , , ,
100 100 100 100
,
87 89 91 93 97 99
,
100 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
, 100
Last digits of powers
Square numbers
Square numbers never end in 2, 3, 7 or 8.
The possible pairs of digits that odd squares may end with are:
• 01, 21, 41, 61 and 81 if the end digit of the number is 1 or 9
• 09, 29, 49, 69, and 89 if the end digit of the number is 3 or 7
• 25 if the end digit is 5.
In a square number, the last digit can only be 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9.
The second-last digit of an odd square is always even.
Cube numbers
For cube numbers the complete table is:
If a number ends in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Its cube will end in 0 1 8 7 4 5 6 3 2 9
Fifth powers
The fifth power of a number always ends in the same digit as the original number itself does.
Obstinate numbers
a 45 = 43 + 2 = 41 + 4 = 37 + 8 = 29 + 16 = 13 + 32 … five pairs.
b 29 = 13 + 16 … only one pair as 27, 25 and 21 are all composite.
c 59 = 43 + 16 … only one pair as 57, 55, 51 and 27 are all composite.
d 95 = 79 + 16 = 31 + 64 … two pairs as 93, 91, 87 and 63 are all composite.
The two smallest obstinate numbers are 127 (125 = 5 × 25, 123 = 3 × 41, 119 = 7 × 17,
111 = 3 × 37, 95 = 5 × 19, 63 = 7 × 9 … all residuals are composite) and 149 (147 = 3 × 49,
145 = 5 × 29, 141 = 3 × 47, 133 = 7 × 19, 117 = 9 × 13, 85 = 5 × 17, 21 = 3 × 7 … all
residual are composite).

Areas
1 a area of BWA = 3 cm2, area of CWX = 0.75 cm2
b area of BAC = 4.5 cm2, area of BWC = 1.5 cm2 c 3.75 cm2
2 a 144 cm2 b area of PAX = 64 cm2, area of PBX = 32 cm2
c QB = 3 cm
3
A
X
P Q
1
BX = 2
× AB
The grid method of multiplying with decimals

1 0.217728 2 37.99744 3 39.897788
10C Number bases

Exercise 6C
1 a 2024 b 3204 c 10324 d 12104 e 20024
2 a 248 b 428 c 1068 d 1448 e 10008 f 11308
3 a 27910 b 5910 c 1910 d 28910
10D Binary numbers

Exercise 6D
1 a 1012 b 10102 c 11002 d 10 0002 e 101 1012
2 a 910 b 710 c 1110 d 1210 e 7310
3 a 10002 b 10 1002 c 11012 d 10 1002
4 a 11 0002 b 11112 c 1002 d 102 e 100 1002
5 a 10 1012 b 11 1102 c 11 1102
6 101 0112 7 12

10E Terminating decimals
Activity 1
2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 64, 80, 100, 125,
128, 160, 200, 250, 256, 320, 400, 500, 512, 625, 640, 800
Activity 2
1 Note that 3 × 5 = 15, 5 × 5 = 25 and 7 × 5 = 35: in each case the last digit is not 0.
2 Note that 2 × 8 = 16, 3 × 8 = 24, 4 × 8 = 32 and 6 × 8 = 48: in each case the last
digit is not 0.
3 Any terminating decimal has last digit 2, 4, 5, 6, or 8.
Any number, not divisible by 10, divided by 10 n has n decimal places. (A)
1
Any number of the form d that has a terminating decimal expansion can be written
as a power of 2 divided by a power of 10, say 10 n , or as a power of 5 divided by a
power of 10, once again written as 10 n.
In the first case (Case 1), the decimal representation ends in an even number.
In the second case (Case 2), the decimal representation ends in a 5.
1
In both cases, the decimal expansion for d
has n decimal places, by result A above.
k
If we now consider d , we will get the same number of places, by result A, provided that:
• k is not divisible by 5 (Case 1)
• k is not divisible by 2 (Case 2).


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ICE-EM

1. Mathematics - Study and teaching. I. Brown, Peter. II.

Cover designed by Designgrant

This project is funded by the Australian Government through

Books in this series viii

Chapter 1 Whole numbers 1

Chapter 2 Factors, multiples, primes and divisibility 63

Chapter 3 An introduction to algebra 105

Chapter 5 Fractions – part 2 183

Chapter 6 An introduction to geometry 215

Chapter 7 Algebra with fractions 279

Chapter 8 Decimals 297

Chapter 10 Review and problem solving 393

Answers to exercises 429

Upper primary Transition 1A Transition 1B

Secondary Secondary 1A Secondary 1B

ICE-EM Mathematics is a new program for students in Years 5 to 10 throughout Australia.

The program comprises a series of textbooks, teacher professional development, multimedia

The ICE-EM Mathematics website at www.icemaths.org.au provides further information

We also gratefully acknowledge the assistance of:

The numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, ... are called the

Zero (0) is the first of these numbers. Zero is important as it is used to

• The room is empty. (There are 0 people in the room.)

• There are no frogs in my bathroom. (There are 0 frogs in my

There is no last whole number, as every whole number is followed by

The whole numbers are also known as the counting numbers.

• The greatest number of step-ups in 1 hour is 4135.

• The greatest number of dominoes stacked end to end vertically

Chapter 1 Whole numbers 

• The greatest number of pancakes tossed in 2 minutes is 416.

• The highest first-class cricket score ever is 501, scored by

• The highest total number of runs scored by a batsman in his career

The operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division help

• How many drumbeats in a second? This is found by dividing the

• How many pancakes could be tossed in 6 minutes if the record

Many of the calculations in this chapter can be carried out mentally.

 ICE-EM Mathematics Secondary 1A

The whole numbers can be represented by points on a line.

Less than and greater than

On the number line, 2 is to the left of 6. This is written as 2 < 6. It is read as

Less than and greater than

Chapter 1 Whole numbers 

a List all the whole numbers less than 5.

c Draw a number line and on it mark all the whole numbers

 ICE-EM Mathematics Secondary 1A

Example 1 1 a List the whole numbers less than 11.

3 The manager of an underground railway system decides to save time in

Chapter 1 Whole numbers 

This property is called the commutative law for addition.

In mathematics, it is a rule that operations contained in brackets are

Any-order property for addition

 ICE-EM Mathematics Secondary 1A

Calculate each of the following, using the any-order property for

a 27 + 13 b 17 + 25 + 3 c 7 + 18 + 2

1 Carry out these additions mentally.

Chapter 1 Whole numbers 

a 1 + 9 + 33 b 2 + 38 + 5 c 27 + 6 + 3 d 16 + 24 + 5

5 Carry out these additions.

6 Three cows produced 29 litres, 47 litres and 23 litres of milk in 1 day.

8 On the first day of my holidays, I travelled 83 kilometres from my

Chapter 1 Whole numbers

ICE-EM Mathematics Secondary 1A

Chapter 1 Whole numbers

ICE-EM Mathematics Secondary 1A

Chapter 1 Whole numbers

ICE-EM Mathematics Secondary 1A

Chapter 1 Whole numbers

ICE-EM Mathematics Secondary 1A

Chapter 1 Whole numbers

100 – 67 = 100 – 60 – 7 (First subtract the 60.)

100 – 67 = 100 – 70 + 3 (First subtract 70, which is 3 too many,