Statistics and Probability

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INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS
STATISTICS can be defined in two ways:

1. It is commonly regarded as collection of numerical facts that are expressed in

terms of summarizing statements and that have been collected from several
observations or from other numerical data.

2. It may be regarded as a method of dealing with data. This definition stresses the
view that statistics is a tool concerned with the collection, organization,
presentation and analysis of numerical facts or observations.

 Collection of data – the process of gathering information through direct or

interview, indirect or questionnaire, observation, registration, and experiment
method.

 Presentation and organization of data – process of organizing data into texts,

tables, charts or graphs.

 Analysis of data – involves the process of extracting relevant information from the
organized collected data. Statistical techniques are needed in this process.

 Interpretation of data – the process of drawing conclusions from the analyzed

data. It involves the formulation of conclusion about a large group based on the
gathered data from a small group.

TWO BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

1. Descriptive Statistics

- branch of statistics concerned with numerical and graphical techniques for

describing one or more characteristics of a group and comparing characteristics
between groups.

2. Inferential Statistics

-branch of statistics concerned with generalizing information or, more specifically,

with making inferences about the population based upon the samples.

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POPULATION or UNIVERSE

- The complete set of individuals, objects, or scores having some common

observable characteristics that the investigator is interested in studying

Types of Population

1. Finite Population
- a population whose elements can be listed

2. Infinite Population
- a population whose elements or members can not be listed

SAMPLE

- A subset or part of a population

CONSTANT
- a characteristic of persons, objects or events that does not vary in value across
persons, objects or events. (e.g. Pi= 3.1415…)

VARIABLE

- a characteristic of persons, objects or events that differs in value across persons,

objects or events

Examples: Height Weight

Income Tuition fee charged in different universities

TYPES OF A VARIABLE

1. Qualitative Variable (Categorical)

- a variable whose observations vary in kind but not in degree

e.g. sex, religious affiliation, marital status,

political party affiliation, employment status

2. Quantitative Variable (Numerical valued)

- a variable whose observations vary in magnitude from trial to trial

e.g. family income, age, height, weight,

number of students enrolled in a certain university

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Types of Quantitative Variables

1. Discrete Variable

- a quantitative variable whose observations can assume only a countable

number of values

e.g. no. of children in each household

no. of hospitals/clinics per province in the country
no. of deaths for each year due to dengue

2. Continuous Variable

- a quantitative variable whose observations can assume any one of the `

countless number of values in a line interval

e.g Height, Weight, Time

True Limits of a Continuous Variable

- the value of a continuous variable plus and minus one-half of the unit of
measurement

e.g. If your weight is 107 lbs., it would be understood that the true limit of your
weight, assuming an accurate scale, falls between 106.5 lbs. (the lower true limit)
and 107.5 lbs. (the upper true limit).

Dichotomous Variable

- A variable that can take only one of two possible values

e.g. Sex (Male, Female)

Place of residence (Urban, Rural)
Ever had a boyfriend or girlfriend (Yes, No)

Independent Variable
- a variable that has an antecedent or causal role in relation to another variable

Dependent Variable
- a variable that has a consequent or affected role in relation to another variable

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Parameter
- a number calculated on population data that quantifies a characteristic of the
population

Examples:

1. The population mean of the electricity bills of the residents of a certain city is
P1,500.00.

2. The population mean IQ of the students in a certain university is 105.

Statistic
- a number calculated on sample data that qualifies a characteristic of the sample

Examples:
1. The sample mean of the electricity bills of 20 residents of a certain city is
P1,450.00.

2. The sample mean IQ of 35 students in a certain university is 105.

Raw data
- Data in its original form.

Array
- Data arranged either from highest to lowest or from lowest to highest or vice-
versa.

Example:

After checking the papers of 15 BSBA students in Statistics in their Quiz 1, the
instructor recorded their scores:

Raw data:

22 35 23 47 23 40 43 48 34 49
32 36 36 47 50

Array:

22 23 23 32 34 35 36 36 40 43
47 47 48 49 50

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MEASUREMENT SCALES

 Qualitative data may be converted to quantitative data by a process called

measurements. By measurements, numbers are used to code objects or items so
that they can be treated statistically.

 Measurement refers to the process of determining the value or label, either

qualitative or quantitative, of a particular variable for a particular unit of analysis.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

1. NOMINAL SCALE

- classifies qualitative objects into categories by name

- if you can say that :

One object is different from another

- Examples: Civil status (Single, Married, Widowed, etc)

Gender (Male, Female)
Nationality (Filipino, American, Spanish, etc)
Religion (Catholics, Non-Catholics)

2. ORDINAL SCALE

- incorporates the features of a nominal scale and the additional feature that
observations can be ordered or ranked according to their relative magnitudes.

- If you can say that :

One object is bigger or better or more of anything than another

- Examples: Educational attainment, types of questions given in a quiz contest

Socioeconomic classification, beauty contest awards

3. INTERVAL SCALE

- incorporates all the features of an ordinal (and hence nominal) scale and the
additional feature that we can specify distances between levels on the scale but
whose zero point, or point of beginning , is arbitrarily established.

- If you can say that:

The object is so many units (degrees, inches) more than another

- Examples: Temperature in degrees, intelligence quotient

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4. RATIO SCALE

- incorporates all the features of interval (and hence nominal and ordinal) scale
and the additional feature that ratios can be formed with levels of the scale since
it possesses an absolute zero point.

- If you can say that :

The object is so many times as big, or bright, or tall, or heavy as another

- Examples: Height, weight, area, volume, speed, rate of doing work

Amount of money deposited in a bank