Power System Analysis and

Operation

Dr S.R.Samantaray
School of Electrical Science
IIT Bhubaneswar
Course Content:

• Load Flow in Power System

•Economics of Electric Generation

•Unit commitment

•State Estimation in Power System

Assessment:

• Mid-Sem: 30 Marks

• End-Sem: 50 Marks

• TA: 20 Marks
Sample Power System
Indian Power-Grid Scenario
Evolution of National Grid
•Grid management on regional basis started in 1960s.

•Initially, State grids were inter-connected to form regional grid and India was demarcated
into 5 regions namely Northern, Eastern, Western, North Eastern and Southern region.

•In October 1991 North Eastern and Eastern grids were connected.

•In March 2003 WR and ER-NER were interconnected .

•August 2006, North and East grids were interconnected and thereby 4 regional grids
Northern, Eastern, Western and North Eastern grids are synchronously connected
forming central grid operating at one frequency.

•On 31st December 2013, Southern Region was connected to Central Grid in Synchronous
mode with the commissioning of 765kV Raichur-Solapur Transmission line thereby
achieving 'ONE NATION'-'ONE GRID'-'ONE FREQUENCY'.
Indian Power-Grid Scenario
Indian Power-Grid Scenario
•The utility electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 358.97 GW as
of June 2019.

•Renewable Power plants constituted 22.41% of total installed capacity (80.45

GW) and Non-Renewable Power Plants constituted the remaining 77.59% (June
2019). Target by 2022: 175 GW including Solar 100 GW.

•The gross electricity generated by utilities and Non-utilities is 1,486.5 TWH

during the 2016–17 fiscal and Consumption per capita 1149 kWh.

•India became the world's third largest producer and third largest consumer of
electricity in the world.

• The National Electricity Plan of 2018 prepared by the Government of India

states that India does not need additional non-renewable power plants till
2027 with the commissioning of 50,025 MW coal based power plants under
construction and achieving 275,000 MW total installed renewable power
capacity.
Region-wise Allocated installed Power capacity

Region %
Western Region 32.6%
Northern Region 27.49%
Southern Region 28.14%
Eastern Region 9.8%
North-Eastern 1.1%
Region
Indian Power-Grid Scenario
Indian Power Grid SCADA structure:

NLDC

RLDC RLDC

SLDC SLDC SLDC

 Load-Flow
in
Power System
The load flow problem
1. Introduction

2. Problem formulation
Two-bus case
Matrix- Y-BUS
General equations
Bus classification
Variable types and limits

3. The Gauss-Seidel solution technique

Introduction
Algorithm initialization
PQ Buses
PV Buses
Stopping criterion
The load flow problem

4. The Newton-Raphson solution technique

Introduction
General fomulation
Load flow case
Jacobian matrix
Solution outline

5. Fast decoupled AC load flow

6. Adjustment of bounds

7. DC load flow

8. Comparison of load flow solution methods

Load Flow: Introduction

• A snapshot of the system (operational conditions).

• Mostly used tool in steady state power system analysis.

• Knowing the demand and/or generation of power in each bus, find

out:
–buses voltages
–load flow in lines and transformers

• The problem is described through a non-lineal system of equations

• Need of iterative solution techniques

• Solution technique: accuracy vs. computing time

Why Load Flow is Required ?

• Load Flow is all about finding the steady-state operating point

of an electric power system.

• Given the load demand and supply, to find out all bus voltages
and complex power flowing in the network.

• Load Flow constitutes basic tool for security analysis by

identifying unacceptable voltage deviations and potential
component overloading and allows the planning engineer to
simulate future scenarios based on forecasted demand.
Load Flow

Stage-1 Stage-2
Finding complex voltages at Computing remaining
the busses (where conventional parameters of interest
linear circuit analysis fails) including active and reactive
powers, line losses etc)
Applications:

1. On-line analyses
State estimation
Security
Economic analyses

2. Off-line analyses
Operation analyses
Planning analyses
Network expansion planning
Power exchange planning
Security analyses
-Faults
-Stability
Problem Formulation:

Transmission line π model

Problem Formulation:
Using Kirchhoff laws:

Matrix Representation

Complex power injected in each bus

Notation:

Now by replacing:

The non-linear equations for the Two-buses network are

Now for two-bus cases:
Example:
General equations:
• ‘2n’ Equations (static load flow equations)

• Polar representation for voltages and rectangular for admittances

• ‘4n’ variables

• If ‘2n’ variables are specified, the other ‘2n’ are determined by

above equations
BUS Classification
1. PQ buses

2. PV buses

3. Slack bus, generator with large capacity

Variable types and limits

• Power balance

• Variable types
Variable types and limits
• Variable limits
Gauss-Seidel Method:
• Non-linear system:

✔ Iteration

✔ Stopping rule

• Example
Gauss-Seidel for Power Flow Solution

1. Known Quantities:

3. Initialize voltages
Gauss-Seidel solution technique
4. PQ buses
Gauss-Seidel solution technique
5. PV buses

At iteration (r+1):

Limits:
Gauss-Seidel solution technique
6. Stop criterion

• Slack bus power (after convergence)

• Compute line currents (after convergence)

Gauss-Seidel solution technique
• Compute line complex power (after convergence)

• Compute losses (after convergence)

Variable types and limits

7. If no convergence, go to step 4

Acceleration factor (in order to decrease the number of iterations):

Example: Gauss Seidel Method
Data and unknown:

Can be found out as:

Voltage magnitude initialization (iteration 0):

Vector form:

Per iteration:
PV buses: iteration (r+1) : Bus-2

where

PQ buses iteration (r+1): Bus-3

where
Stopping criterion:

If convergence:
Line losses:

If no convergence, the procedure continues..

Final results
(11 iterations needed to attain the solution)
Errors for |V| & |Q|:
Final solution
The Newton-Raphson solution technique
• One variable:

• Example:

Faster !!
General Formulation:

Matrix form:
The Newton-Raphson solution technique
Load flow case:
Using Taylor Expansion:

The increments below should be 0:

Matrix notation:
Jacobian matrix:

• PQ buses generate 2 Jacobian rows corresponding to ΔP and ΔQ

• PV buses generate 1 Jacobian row corresponding to ΔP

Jacobian dimension:

for improving computational efficiency

For

For
Steps involved in N-R Technique
1. Build

2. Specify

3. Initialize

4. Compute
5.

6. Compute
sub-matrices

7. Solve

8. Update

9. Go to step 4..
Example:
Assumptions:
1. Three (3) buses:

Bus1: Slack
Bus 2: PV
Bus 3: PQ

2. Voltage magnitude at bus 3 initialized at 1.02.

3. Angles initialized to zero.

Now

Initialization:
Residuals:

Checking:

No tolerance satisfied: the process continues.

Jacobian:
First iteration:

Residuals:

No convergence.

Jacobian for iteration

2:
State variables at iteration
2

Residuals:

Tolerance OK

Jacobian iteration 3:
Final power values:
Decoupled Newton-Raphson Technique

• Half of the Jacobean represent weak coupling

between P- V and Q-

• This reduces computational burden

• The elements to be neglected are J and N

• The H and L can be constructed simultaneously and
updated at each iteration

• Further, and V are computed at each iteration.

• The main advantage of decoupled NR over NR is the

reduced memory location in storing the Jacobean

• There is not much improvement in speed as time per

iteration is same in DLF as compared to NR as it takes
more
iteration due to approximation.
Fast decoupled AC load flow
Fast decoupled AC load flow
Two simplifications:
• Do not build Jacobian at each iteration (small error
introduced, then, the procedure needs more iterations to
reach the solution)

• Decoupling between P-δ and Q-V (not recommended in

system highly loaded and/or with low voltage levels)
Fast decoupled AC load flow

Assume:
We have

Now

(Using Newton-Raphson Iteration)

Flow diagram
Example:

Tolerance 0.1
MVA
• Admittance matrix

• Data and unknown:

• Initialization:
Flow Diagram:
• Compute

• Calculate P and Q:

No convergence

• First iteration:
• Residuals:

Error = 0.5976 : no convergence

• System state (2nd iteration)

• Residuals:

Error = 0.2885 : no convergence

• System state (third iteration):

The process continues…...

• After 9 iterations:

Error = 0.0012: convergence

attained
• System state at iteration 10:
• Residuals:

Error = 5.6285·10-4: convergence attained

• State at iteration
11:
Variable limits (Physical considerations):

• Voltage magnitudes out of limits : ( a PQ-BUS does not meet)

Action: Warning! voltage problem

• Flow magnitudes out of limits (A line does not meet)

Action: Warning! overloading of lines problem

• Reactive Power out of limits: (A PV BUS does not meet)

Action: Wrong Formulation!

Specified voltage cannot be attained
Formulate the problem properly
Variable limits:
Computational Considerations Changing PV to PQ
DC load flow:

• Approximate analytical solution

Assuming
Approximate analytical solution..

where
Solution:
Example:
Now:

Further looking at matrix B

Solving the equation:

The solution becomes:

Example:
Data:
Solution:
Solution:

Final result:
Comparison of load flow methods:
1. Gauss-Seidel (G-S)
• Simple technique
• Iteration time increases linearly with the number of buses.
Lower iteration time than NR. Seven times faster in large
systems
• Linear rate of convergence. Many iterations required for
getting close to the solution
• Number of iteration increases with the number of buses

2. Newton-Raphson (N-R)
• Widely used
• Iteration-time increases linearly with the number of buses
• Quadratic rate of convergence. A few iterations for getting close to the
solution
• Number of iterations independent of the number of buses of the system
• The Jacobian is a very sparse matrix
• Method non-sensitive to slack bus choice and the presence of series
capacitors
• Sensitive to initial solution
Comparison of load flow methods:
3. AC decoupled
• has to be computed and factorized only once
• It requires more iterations than Newton Raphson method
• Iteration time is 5 times lower than Newton Raphson´s iteration
time
• Useful for analyzing topology changes because can be easily
modified
• Used in planning and contingency analyses
Regulating Transformer:
• Transformers which provide small adjustment in voltage magnitude and phase are
important components on power systems.
• Most of the transformers provide windings to adjust the ratio of the transformer at
deenergized condition. However, when the taps are changed when the transformer
is energized is known as a load-tap-changing transformer.
• The tap changing is automatic and achieved by motors triggered by the relays set on
the voltage at the prescribed level.
• Regulating Transformers are used to control both active and reactive power flows
in the transmission systems.

Regulating Transformers for control of voltage magnitude

Regulating Transformers for control of phase
angle

Phasor Diagram of Regulating Transformer

Admittance Matrix:
Regulating Transformer connected to the power
system:
Y- BUS Elements:

Y-BUS matrix:
Load-Flow study:
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Load-Flow study:
Thank You