MA Sociological Theory

Talcott Parson & Functionalism

Dr. M.T.M. Mahees

Senior Lecturer in Sociology
University of Colombo
2019
Theory Development Process

Philosophy / Paradigm

Theory

Hypothesis

Variables

Concepts
 Deduction (Thaarkika Nigamanaya) vs Induction (Thaarkika Udgamanaya)
• Law of Deduction (Understanding social reality through theory)

Social
Theory Reality

• Law of Induction (Making theory through social reality )

Social Theory
Reality
 Theory
Logical
Logical
Induction
Deduction

Research
Generalization Process Hypothesis

Data Research
Collection Design
Observation
 What is Theory

• Scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles

offered to explain phenomena

• A logically interrelated set of propositions about empirical

reality. These propositions are comprised of definitions,
assumptions, hypothesis and possible observations

• A theory is an interrelated set of constructs (or variables) formed

into propositions (plans), or hypotheses, that specify the
relationship among variables (typically in terms of direction). A
theory might appear in a research study as an argument, a
discussion, or a rationale, and it helps to explain (or predict)
phenomena that occur in the world (Labovitz and Hagedorn
1971)
 Theory, Paradigm & Perspective
• A paradigm is a philosophical and theoretical framework of a
scientific school or discipline within which theories, laws, and
generalizations and the experiments performed in support of them
are formulated eg

• Theory and paradigm seem to be same but they are different.

Paradigm is broader and universal but many theories function
within one paradigm and it is more dynamic. Eg theory of social
learning with regard to deviance and Conflict paradigm

• Perspective is some pre-paradigmatic condition which guide some

theoretical activity but perspective does not make paradigm which is
mainly used in natural science.
Theory 1

Perspective
(School of Paradigm
Theory 2
Theoretical (Philosophy)
Orientation)

Theory 3
 Sociological Theoretical Orientations

Non-rational
Actions motivated by ideas, values,
morals, habits & emotions

Individual Collective

Pattern of social Social life as the

life emerging product of
from structural
interactions arrangements

Rational
Actions motivated by strategic rewards
& benefits with minimum cost
 Theoretical Positions of Sociologists

Non-rational

Parsons
Mead Durkheim
Simmel

Individual Collective

Blau Weber

Homans Marx

Rational
 Theoretical Positions of Sociologists

Non-rational

Phenomenology
Structural
Symbolic Functionalism
Interactionism

Individual Collective

Exchange
Theory Critical Theory

World Systems
Theory
Rational
 From Classical to Post-modernism
Modernity
Neo-
Classical
SELF
Postmodern
Macro

Macro
Classical Baudrillard
Foucault
Marx Jamson
Durkheim Hall
Weber Neo-Classical
Simmel Derrida
Blau
Parson
Goffman
Garfinkel
Gramsci
Althuser
 Classical Sociology to Modernity

• One of the major problem of classical sociology is the contraction

between its emphasis on social system governed by specific laws
and role of the actor or agent in the making of social structure and
social change.

• In the classical sociology, the concept of self was inadequately

theorized. All classical sociologists except Weber emphasized the
importance of society as a whole, total systems, on a large scale
structures and laws of regulating them.

• It was the Weber who introduced the concept of social action

which emphasized the significance of actor in the construction of
human society. The concept of action and interaction became
central for the development of Modern Sociological Theory
Swingewood, A Short History of Sociological Thoughts (2000)
 Characteristics of Modernity………. 1
• Industrial society: Societies formed around the industrial production
and distribution of products

• Urbanization: The move of people, cultural centers, and political

influence to large cities

• Mass society: The growth of societies united by mass media and

widespread dissemination of cultural practices as opposed to local and
regional culture particulars

• Individualism: Growing stress on individuals as opposed to meditating

structures such as family, clan, academy, village, church

• Nationalism: The rise of the modern nation-states as rational

centralized governments that often cross local, ethnic groupings

• Subjectivism: The turn inward for definitions and evaluations of truth

and meaning
 Characteristics of Modernity….. 2

• Bureaucracy : Impersonal, social hierarchies that practice a division of

labor and are marked by a regularity of method and procedure

• Disenchantment of the world: The loss of sacred and metaphysical

understandings of al facets of life and culture

• Rationalization: The world can be understood and managed through a

reasonable and logical system of objectively accessible theories and data

• Secularization: The loss of religious influence and/or religious belief at

a societal level

• Alienation: Isolation of the individual from systems of meaning--family,

meaningful work, religion, clan, etc.

• Commoditization: The reduction of all aspects of life to objects of

monetary consumption and exchange
 Characteristics of Modernity… 3
• Homogenization: The social forces that tend toward a uniformity
of cultural ideas and products

• Democratization: Political systems characterized by free

elections, independent judiciaries, rule of law, and respect of
human rights

• Mechanization: The transfer of the means of production from

human labor to mechanized, advanced technology

• Universalism: Application of ideas/claims to all

cultures/circumstances regardless of local distinctions
 Origin of Structural Functionalism

The structural functional model comes from a variety of

authors.

Mainly it is associated with the works of Talcott Parsons,

It was further developed through the social stratification by

Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore.

Robert Merton is another well known sociologist who provided

some important structural functional theoretical statements.

This approach is often associated with sociology in the United

States.
Theorists Contributed to (Structural)Functionalism

August Comte

Emile Durkheim

Radcliff Brown

Bronislow Malinowski

Talcott Parson

Robert Merton
 Origin of Functionalism
• It is the utilitarianism as an invisible hand of social order lead by
market mechanism dominated human behavior and society.

• Sociology emerged against the utilitarian values in the form of

functionalism. The market lead invisible order was challenged by
French Sociologists.

According to Brown (1965), is a concept of structure consisting of a set

of relation among unit entities, the continuity of the structure being
maintained by a life process made of activities of the constituent units.
This definition indicates that
(1) an wholistic perception of society,
(2) all parts of the structure are related to one another and work
together,
(3) the structure is maintained by the actions of people in order to fulfill
individual needs
The French sociological tradition often encouraged the
functionalism. Comte developed positivism into social
science deriving concepts from biology and physics, this
organic analogy helped to promote functionalism. His
concepts of social statics and social dynamics are believed to
be considered as structure and functions. However, it was
criticized that positivism rejected the functionalism.

Spencer in his work of Principals of Biology attempted to

analyse the world (realm or domain) with some functionalist
approach as follows based social evolutionary theory
Organic (physical, chemical)
Inorganic (biological, psychological)
Superorganic (sociological)
 Historical Background of Structural Functionalism
• The functional approach was developed from the 1930s
through the 1960s in the United States.

• Parsons studied Weber and Durkheim, and translated some of

these into English.

• Parsons thus became a major interpreter of these writers in

America, and his interpretation may be considered to have
developed the influence of these writers in a particular way.

• Parsons used concepts and models from Weber and Durkheim

to establish a sociological approach which countered the
Marxian view.
 Historical Background of Structural Functionalism
• It was the only sociological approach used in USA
from 1930 to 1970, and Marxian concepts and
approaches were almost absent in Sociology.

• As a results, society was not encouraged to go for

any radical change.

• Structural Functionalism became politically useful

ideology in the cold war liberal and pluralist political
approach that became dominant in American
universities during this period.

• Structural Functionalism protected US society from

any influence of communism, socialism, or Marxism
 Historical Background of Structural Functionalism

• The structural functional approach came under

increasing attack in late 1960s. Since it was unable to
explain a number of features of American society, such
as poverty, social change, disputes, and the continuing
influence and political and economic power of the
wealthy, thus, structural functionalism lost its popularity.

• More recently, feminist approaches have also attacked

functionalism, arguing that the structural functionalists
provided a justification for male privilege and ignored
the past and potential contributions of women
 Durkheim & Functionalism
The new needs and population density increase the
moral density competition which threaten social
order. However, divisions of labour and
specialization made pressure for ‘conscious wisdom
of functionalism’

1. Analytical priority to whole

2. Whole as system parts fulfills functions or needs
3. Social pathological or abnormal state have to be
controlled by functions
4. System provides equilibrium
 Durkheim & Functionalism
The existence of system parts can be explained only by the
whole or social order that they function to maintain. It is
necessary to study how the system is programmed and how
it operates to cause variations in social facts to meet needs.

Durkheim states that mutual interdependence and

increased willingness to accept the morality of mutual
obligations leads to functionalism. The division of labour
supports for the integration and social order.
 Different Functions

• Manifest functions: The recognized and intended consequences of

any social pattern are its manifest functions. [conscious
motivation/motives] e.g. Manifest function of Education include
preparing for a career by getting good grades, graduation and
finding good job etc.2.

• Latent functions: Latent functions are the unrecognized and

unintended consequences of any social pattern. [objective
consequences/functions] e.g. latent functions of Education include
meeting new people, participating in extra curricular activities
taking school trips or maybe finding a spouse.

• Dysfunction: Social pattern's undesirable consequences for the

operation of the society are considered dysfunction. [failure to
achieve manifest function] e.g. Dysfunction of education include not
getting good grade, not getting a job etc
 Functionalism and Social anthropology
Radcliffe Brown (Structure and Function in Primitive
Society) and Bronislaw Malinowski (A Scientific
Theory of Culture and Other essays)
Brown says that it is the culture that function as
system for that he presented 3 assumptions
1. One necessary condition for survival of society is
minimal integration of its parts
2. The term function refers to those possess that
maintain this necessary integration or solidarity.
3. In each society structural features can be shown
to contribute to maintenace of solidarity.
 Functionalism
According to Brown and Malinowski, Functionalism is a
theory based on concept of society as a self-contained
system that maintain an equilibrium over time. If society is
to survive, various social processes must meet the needs of
the system,

How does society meet its needs?

Each process, institution and practice performs a function
that meets a social needs, helping to maintain the
equilibrium of the whole society.

Social processes and institutions must be understood in

terms of their contribution to the social whole and not in
terms of what individuals within the system think they are
doing social practices must be understood in terms of their
present contribution to a society
 Features of Sociological Functionalism

1 Functionalists see society as the whole, as system of

interrelated parts. Each parts has meaning in terms of its
relation with the whole, performing specific function
within the system. Society is thus a system of
interdependent elements, all of which contribute to the
integration and adaptation of the system as the whole.

2 The concept of system is central to all forms of

functionalism. The parts or elements of a system or
whole produce effects that help in maintaining system
itself.
 Features of Sociological Functionalism

3 All elements that make up the social system are

indispensable to the extent that they perform special
functions related to the ‘needs’ of the system as a
system.
The concept of need does not necessarily suggest a
teleological explanation: to argue that any functioning
society ‘needs’ a minimum of basic institutions that
regulate the provision of food, shelter, work,
socialization etc is not to argue that this is its ‘purpose’.

Needs refer rather to the basic necessary conditions that

must be present if society is to survive and develop
requirements such as adequate food supplies and shelter
 Features of Sociological Functionalism

4. Parsons has father elaborated on the notion of need by

developing the functional prerequisites in any society
if it is to continue as a going concern. The functional
prerequisites include:

• Provision for an adequate relationship of the individual

to the environment
• Role differentiation and role assignment
• Communication
• Normative regulation
• Regulations of socialization process
• Social control of deviance behaviour
 Features of Sociological Functionalism
5. The social change is possible only through structural
differentiation

6. Integration of all parts of the system and sub-system

7. Social change is adaptive and evolutionary

8. Social integration is achieved essentially through

value consensus
Talcott Parsons
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) was
born in Colorado, USA
He came from religious family
that valued education.
His father was a congregational
minister and professor at
Colorado College
Began his career as a biologist
and later became interested in
economics and sociology.
 Background
• Most important figure in the structural functionalist school
of sociological thought.
• He dominated sociology in the United States in the 1960
and 1970s.
• He did his graduate work at the London School of
Economics.
• He studied with Bronislaw Malinowski, L.T. Hobhouse,
and Morris Ginsberg
• Weber's influence was strong to Parsons through
Heidelberg, where he completed his PhD.
• Parsons became a professor at Harvard in 1927
 Background
Parsons establish the Department of Social Relations
with Gordon Allport, Henry Murray, and Clyde
Kluckhohn after leaving the sociology department in
1945

Talcott worked as chair of the department for first ten

years, remained active in the department until 1972.
 Intellectual Influence
• London School of Economics
– Hobhouse
• Evolution of Morality
– Ginsberg
• Economic institutions of preliterate
societies
– Malinowski
• Structural-functional analysis in
anthropology
• Parsons’ integration of all social
sciences into one of human action

• Strong European influence

– Two particular influences
• Max Weber
• Emile Durkheim
 Parson’s Work
1 The Structure of Social Action (1937)

2 The Social System and Toward a General Theory of

Action (1951)

3 Essay in Sociological Theory (1949, 1954)

4 Working Papers in the Theory of Acton (1953)

5 Structure and Process in Modern Society (1960)

• ons Work
• The Structure of Social Action (1937)
• The Social System and Toward a General Theory
of Action (1951)
• Essay in Sociological Theory (1949, 1954)
• Working Papers in the Theory of Acton (1953)
• Structure and Process in Modern Society (1960)
 Functionalism has two basic assumptions:
Interdependent parts: this is society’s institutions (religion,
education, politics, etc.) that are all linked together. A
change in one institution leads to a change in other parts. In
order to function properly the system will seek equilibrium,
or stability.

General Consensus on Values: members of society must

have a general agreement on issues of right and wrong,
basic values, and morality issues in order to function
properly.
 Assumptions to the System
• The key assumption of Parson’s theory is that (1) All social
systems are defined in terms of the relations between their
internal parts, and between the system and its environment,
(2)the notion of functional contribution is essential in
understanding the continuity of various parts of a system
and sociology is directed primarily to the analysis of
functional significance of institutions in the survival of
social system and (3) it is the system not its social parts or
institutions which is the referent of functional significance
• In general, sociologist should discover how various
intuitions (family, religion, education)function and how
they contribute to the continuity and survival of society as a
whole.
 The Way to System Theory
• Parson was significantly influenced by two major issues:
religious values and biological sciences. Parsons argued
that capitalism can not be exclusively understood by
economic or materialistic terms. Like Durkheim and
Weber, he was interested in the impact of religious
values on political and economic issues. Eg values are
the based for social interaction and which provide the
normative structuring of social relationship

• Parsons argues that each individual occupies a status or

position within a structure. "Status and role tend to go
together in what Parsons calls the 'status-role bundle.
(Paul Johnson/Contemporary Sociological Theory, 2008)
According to Ritzer (1996), Parson’s System…
1. System have the property of order & interdependence of
parts
2. System tend toward self-maintaining order &
equilibrium.
3. The system may be static or involved in an ordered
process of change.
4. The nature of one part of the system has an impact on the
form that the other part can take.
5. Systems maintain boundaries with their environment.
6. Allocation and integration are fundamental process
necessary for given state of equilibrium of a system
Social action and value system

Meaningful Social Actions

Actions are patterned into structured and

social order

Normative orientation of Actor

Society’s structuring people’s norms,

belief & values
 Personality
Development process
(Freud)

Collective social value system Rational action/ rational

of common / Secure social ideas and value for social
order & solidarity (Durkheim) change (Weber)

Personality System
needed for
modernization
 Social actions of Parsons

• The meaningful social action that Parsons interpreted as being voluntary and
subjective. The action was patterned into a structure, or social order. This
social patterning of action occurred through the “normative orientations” of
actors—that is, society structuring people’s norms, beliefs, and values.

• The social actor was a selective, perceiving, evaluating agent, or a

“personality system.” The actor participated in a social system characterized
by institutionalization which is, stable patterns of social interaction controlled
by norms that mirrored cultural patterns in such areas as religion and beliefs.
Humans were goal seeking beings active in creating their own lives. Actors
made choices within an action system constrained by what Parsons termed
“pattern variables.”
 Structure of Social Action
The System Theory of Parsons mainly depends the arguments of The
Structure of Social Actions, Parsons developed three arguments in this
regards
1. The classical social theory was unable to properly explain the social
action in terms of rational and positivistic perspective
2. The four major theorists (Marshal, Pareto, Weber, Durkheim)
promoted voluntaristic theory of action but it could not explain
social order.
3. Development of sociology of values is essential for sociology, social
value is important for all actions, Social order is possible if social
actors share a culture of common value
The social system of Parsons attempts to develop general sociology of
values. He derived the principle components of social system from the
structure of social action. Parsons focus on the idea of value orientation
of cultural pattern of action and their relationship to motivational aspects
of social process. (Sharrock et al/ Understanding Modern Sociology, 2003)
 Parson’s Functionalism
Parson wanted to promote social order in the society through
functionalism against the America pragmatism and behaviorism
which were rather based on selfish and individualized motive and
interest.
According to what Parson (1968) wanted to have an action model
that was handle the state of tension between two different orders of
elements. They are normative and conditional (action that can not
be controlled by actor)

Social order is the solution to many problem in a system based on

theory of social action.
Where do these ultimate value originate? How do they become
common value? It is the structure of social action based on
common value system finally provide solution to all
 Pattern Variables
Parsons constructed a set of variables that can be used to analyze the
various systems. These are the "categorization of modes of orientation in
personality systems, the value patterns of culture, and the normative
requirements in social systems" (Turner, 1991) These became a way of
describing and classifying different societies, and the values and norms
of that society. All of the norms, values, roles, institutions, subsystems
and even the society as a whole can be classified and examined on the
basis of these patterned variables.

Ascription and Achievement. Ascription refers to qualities of

individuals, and often inborn qualities such as sex, ethnicity, race, age,
family Achievement refers to performance, and emphasizes individual
achievement.
Diffuseness and Specificity. These refer to the nature of social contacts
and how extensive or how narrow are the obligations in any interaction
in a bureaucracy, social relationships are very specific, where we meet
with or contact someone for some very particular reason associated with
their status and position, e.g. visiting a physician. Friendships and
parent-child relationships are examples of more diffuse forms of contact..
Affectivity and Affective Neutrality. Affective neutrality may refer to
self discipline and the deferment of gratification. In contrast, affectivity
can mean the expression of gratification of emotions. Neutrality refer to
the amount of emotion or affect that is appropriate or expected in an
given form of interaction.
Particularism and Universalism. A particular relation is one that is with
a specific individual. Parent-child or friendship relationships tend to be
of this sort, where the relationship is likely to be very particular, but at
the same time very diffuse. In contrast, a bureaucracy is characterized by
universal forms of relationships, where everyone is to be treated
impartially and much the same. No particularism or favoritism is to be
extended to anyone, even to a close friend or family member.
Collectivity or Self. These emphasize the extent of self interest as
opposed to collective or shared interest associated with any action. Each
of our social actions are made within a social context, with others, and in
various types of collectivities. Where individuals pursue a collective form
of action, then the interests of the collectivity may take precedence over
that of the individual. Various forms of action such as altruism, charity,
self-sacrifice (in wartime) can be included here. In contrast, much
economics and utilitarianism assumes egoism or the self seeking
individual as the primary basis on which social analysis is to be built.
Expressive and Instrumental. Expressive aspects refer to "the
integrative and tension aspects. These are people, roles, and actions
concerned with taking care of the common task culture, how to integrate
the group, and how to manage and resolve internal tensions and conflicts.
Eg female role in the family. The instrumental characteristics refer to "the
goal attainment and adaptation aspects. These are the characteristics,
people, roles, and actions associated with ideas, problem solving, getting
the task done. These tasks are often associated with male roles, public
activities, the economy, or politics.
 Social System

• Parson’s described a system as a “complex unit

of some kind with boundaries, within which
parts are connected, and within which
something takes place.

• The social system is an arrangement between

parts and elements that exist over time, even
while some elements change.
 Social System
• Parson’s general assumptions:

– Systems are made of order and the interdependence of parts

– The system, and all the sub-systems, strive for equilibrium

– Systems are generally static, or move in a deliberate

manner

– A disruption in the normal flow of one subsystem can cause

a disturbance throughout the whole system.

– Systems have boundaries, which may involve actual

physical space, or time and distance.
 What is System

• A social system consists in a plurality of individual

actors interacting with each other in a situation which
has at least a physical or environmental aspect, actors
who are motivated in terms of a tendency to the
"optimization of gratification" and whose relation to
their situations, including each other, is defined and
mediated in terms of a system of culturally structured
and shared symbols (The Social System, pp. 5-6).
 AGIL
A function is complex of activities directed towards meeting a need or
needs of a system (Ritzer,1996).
Parsons believes that process in any social system is subject to four
independent functional imperatives or problems which must be met
adequately if equilibrium or existence of the system is to be maintained.

• Adaptation (A system must cope up with external environment and

its needs)
• Goal Attainment (A system must define and achieve its primary
goals)
• Integration (A system must regulate the interrelationships of its
parts and manage the relations of other three imperatives)
• Latency or Pattern Maintanence(A system must furnish, maintain
and renew motivation of individual and cultural pattern)
 Action Theory of Parsons

Latency Integration

Cultural Social
System System

Behavioral Personality
System System

Goal
Adaptation Attainment
 External Environment ACTION SYSTEMS within
(Natural & Social) PARSONS’ AGIL MODEL

GOAL ATTAINMENT
ADAPTATION

Political:
Economic:
Selective
Energy for Environmental Interactions
Group-Determination

INTEGRATION
LATENT PATTERN MAINTENANCE
& TENSION MANAGEMENT
Kinship (family) System:
Cultural-Legal System: Values and Norms,
Institutions of socialization and social Beliefs and Ideologies
control