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Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction

What Operating Systems Do

Computer-System Organization

Computer-System Architecture

Operating-System Structure

Operating-System Operations

Process Management

Memory Management

Storage Management

Protection and Security

Distributed Systems

Special-Purpose Systems

Computing Environments

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Objectives

To provide a grand tour of the major operating systems

components

To provide coverage of basic computer system organization

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What is an Operating System?

A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware.

Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier.
 Make the computer system convenient to use.

Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

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Computer System Structure

Computer system can be divided into four components

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources

CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system

Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users

Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users

People, machines, other computers

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Four Components of a Computer System

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Operating System Definition

OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use

OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper
use of the computer

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Operating System Definition (Cont.)

No universally accepted definition

“Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system”
is good approximation
 But varies wildly

“The one program running at all times on the computer” is the
kernel. Everything else is either a system program (ships with
the operating system) or an application program

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Computer Startup

bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

 Typically stored in ROM or EEPROM, generally known as
firmware
 Initializates all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

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Computer System Organization

Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through
common bus providing access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles

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Computer--System Operation
Computer

I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.

Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type.

Each device controller has a local buffer.

CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers

I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.

Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by
causing an interrupt.

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Common Functions of Interrupts

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,

through the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the
service routines.

Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction.

Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being
processed to prevent a lost interrupt.

A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error
or a user request.

An operating system is interrupt driven.

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Interrupt Handling

The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing

registers and the program counter.

Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
 polling
 vectored interrupt system

Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken
for each type of interrupt

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Interrupt Timeline

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I/O Structure

After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O
completion. (Synchronous)
 Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
 Wait loop (conflict for memory access).
 At most one I/O request is considered at a time, no
simultaneous I/O processing.

After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting
for I/O completion. (Asynchronous)
 System call – request to the operating system to allow user
to wait for I/O completion, if desired.
 Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state.
 Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine
device status and to modify table entry to include interrupt.
 The main advantage of asynchronous I/O is increased
system efficiency.

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Two I/O Methods

Synchronous Asynchronous

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Device--Status Table
Device

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Direct Memory Access Structure

Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at

close to memory speeds.

Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage
directly to main memory without CPU intervention.

Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one
interrupt per byte for low speed devices.

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Storage Structure

Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly.

Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity.

Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with
magnetic recording material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are
subdivided into sectors.
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between
the device and the computer.

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Storage Hierarchy

Storage systems organized in hierarchy.

 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility

Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main
memory can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage.

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Storage--Device Hierarchy
Storage

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Caching

Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in

hardware, operating system, software)

Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily

Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is
there
 If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
 If not, data copied to cache and used there

Cache smaller than storage being cached
 Cache management important design problem
 Cache size and replacement policy

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Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or

implicit

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Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register

Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

value, not matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache

Distributed environment situation even more complex
 Several copies of a datum (a piece of information) can exist
 Various solutions covered in Chapter 17

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Operating System Structure

Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has
one to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs
so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running,
creating interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory
process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time
CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to
run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory

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Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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Operating--System Operations
Operating

Interrupt driven by hardware

Software error or request creates exception or trap
 Division by zero, request for operating system service

Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying
each other or the operating system

Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware

Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code

Some instructions designated as privileged, only
executable in kernel mode

System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets
it to user

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Transition from User to Kernel Mode

Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources

 Set interrupt after specific period
 Operating system decrements counter
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

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Process Management

A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system.

Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.

Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data

Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources

Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of
next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion

Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread

Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system
running concurrently on one or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads

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Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:

Creating and deleting both user and system processes

Suspending and resuming processes

Providing mechanisms for process synchronization

Providing mechanisms for process communication

Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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Memory Management

All data in memory before and after processing

All instructions in memory in order to execute

Memory management determines what is in memory when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users

Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move
into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

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Storage Management

OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
(This is the abstraction the operating system provides you, by hiding the details
about how the data is actually read/written from the hard drive, CD ROM and the pen
drive.)
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-


transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)

File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
 OS activities include

Creating and deleting files and directories

Primitives to manipulate files and dirs

Mapping files onto secondary storage

Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
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Mass--Storage Management
Mass

Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data
that must be kept for a “long” period of time.

Proper management is of central importance

Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its
algorithms

OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling

Some storage need not be fast
 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
 Still must be managed
 Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-
write)

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I/O Subsystem

One purpose of OS is to hide oddness of hardware devices from

the user

I/O subsystem responsible for
 Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts
of data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the
overlapping of output of one job with input of other jobs)
 General device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices

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Protection and Security

Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or

users to resources defined by the OS

Security – defense of the system against internal and external
attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses,

identity theft, theft of service

Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who
can do what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to
determine access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined
and controls managed, then also associated with each
process, file
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with
more rights

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Computing Environments

Traditional computer
 Blurring over time
 Office environment

PCs connected to a network, terminals attached to
mainframe or minicomputers providing batch and
timesharing

Now portals allowing networked and remote systems
access to same resources
 Home networks

Used to be single system, then modems

Now firewalled, networked

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Computing Environments (Cont.)

Client-Server Computing
 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by
clients

Compute-server provides an interface to client to request
services (i.e. database)

File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve
files

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Peer--to-
Peer to-Peer Computing

Another model of distributed system

P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
 Instead all nodes are considered peers
 May each act as client, server or both
 Node must join P2P network

Registers its service with central lookup service on network,
or

Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for
service via discovery protocol
 Examples include Napster and Gnutella

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Web--Based Computing
Web

Web is everywhere

PCs most common devices

More devices becoming networked to allow web access

New category of devices to manage web traffic among similar
servers: load balancers

Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-side, have
evolved into Linux and Windows XP, which can be clients and
servers

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End of Chapter 1

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