1.

Hydraulic Turbines

1.1 General
Hydraulic turbines may be considered as hydraulic motors or prime movers of a water power
development, which convert water energy (hydropower) in to mechanical energy (shaft power). The
shaft power developed is used in running electricity generators directly coupled to the shaft of the
turbine, thus producing electrical power.

Figure 1.1: Energy head variation in turbine passages

1.1 Classification
All types of turbines basically fall in to two categories impulse and reaction turbines.

Impulse turbine: All the available potential energy is converted in to kinetic energy with the help of
contracting nozzle/s. The water after impinging on the curved vanes or bucket is discharged freely to
the downstream channel (eg. Pelton wheel)

Figure 1.2: Example of Pelton turbine arrangement (single nozzle)

Reaction turbines: In this type the water enters the turbine in a circumferential direction in to the
scroll case and moves into the runner through a series of guide vanes, called wicket gates. The
available energy partly converted to kinetic energy & substantial magnitude remains in the form of
pressure energy (e.g. Francis, Kaplan, Propeller, Bulb, etc)

1
Figure 1.3: Representation of flow pattern in Kaplan turbine
Turbines may also be classified according to the main direction of flow of water in the runner as
¨ Tangential flow turbine ( Pelton wheel)
¨ Radial flow turbine ( Francis)
¨ Mixed flow turbine (modern Francis )
¨ Axial flow turbine of fixed blade (Propeller) or movable blade (Kaplan or bulb) type.
Furthermore, turbines may be classified based on head, discharge, speed, specific speed.

1.1 Characteristics of Turbines

Specific speed: is useful parameter for the selection of turbine for a given condition: It is defined as
the speed at which a geometrically similar runner would rotate if it were so proportioned that it would
develop 1 Kw when operating under a head of 1m , and expressed as ( from dimensional analysis )

Where Ns = Specific speed

N = rotational speed (rpm)
P = Power developed (kw)
H = effective head (m)
Turbine or synchronous speed: Since turbine & generator are fixed, the rated speed of the turbine is
the same as synchronous speed of the generator. The speed N, for synchronous running is given by:

Where f = frequency cycle/sec (50-60 cycles/sec.)

p = number of poles (divisible by 4 for head up to 200 m)
(Divisible by 2 for head above 200 m)
The speed of a turbine is an important parameter of design. The higher the speed, the smaller the
diameter of the turbine runner & the cheaper the generator coupled to the turbine. High speed,
however, makes a turbine more susceptible to cavitation.

Speed factor or peripheral coefficient, f : The ratio of the peripheral speed, u, of the bucket or vanes
at the nominal diameter, D, to the theoretical velocity of water under the effective head, H, acting on
the turbine is called the speed factor or peripheral coefficient, f

But ωin rad/sec;

Therefore, Where, D and H in m; N in rpm

2
The following table suggests appropriate values of f , which give the highest efficiencies for any
turbine, the head & specific speed ranges & the efficiencies of the three main types of turbine.
Type of runner f Ns H (m) Efficiency (%)
Impulse 8-17 85-90
0.43 - 0.48 17 >250 90
17-30 90-82
Francis 40-130 90-94
0.6 - 0.9 130-350 25-450 94
350-452 94-93
Propeller 1.4-2.0 380-600 <60 94
600-902 94-85
Thus in general:
· Pelton turbines are used for high heads & low discharges
· Francis types are used for medium & high head plants (has adjustable guide vanes but the runner
is a disc with fixed passage)
· Propeller & Kaplan (Kaplan has adjustable blades) types are used for low head plants with large
discharges.

Figure 1.4: Application of turbine based on head and specific speed

Runaway Speed: If the external load on the machine suddenly drops to zero (sudden rejection) and
the governing mechanism fails at the same time, the turbine will tend to race up to the maximum
possible speed, known as runaway speed. This limiting speed under no-load, maximum-flow must be
considered for safe design.
Type of runner Runaway speed Acceptable head variation (% of design head)
( % of normal speed )
Minimum Maximum
Impulse (Pelton) 170 - 190 65 125
Francis 200 - 220 50 150
Propeller 250 - 300 50 150

1.1 Procedure in Preliminary Selection of Turbines

1. From design Q and H, calculate approximate P that can be generated ,

2. From calculate N (or assume) & compute Ns . From this, the type of turbine can be
suggested

3
3. Calculate D from:
If D is found to be too large, either N can be increased or more units may be adopted. For approximate
calculations of runner diameter; the following empirical formula may be used (Mosony)

Where, D in m, Q in m3 /s, N in rpm

a = 4.4 for Francis & Kaplan; a = 4.57 for Kaplan.

Or for Propeller, H in m,
Nominal diameter, D, of Pelton wheel and dj is diameter of the jet:

Jet ratio given by , is important parameter in design of Pelton wheels.

Number of buckets, n b = 0.5 m + 15 (good for 6<m < 35)
It is not uncommon to use a number of multiple jet wheels mounted on the same shaft so as to develop
the required power.

Figure 1.5: Efficiency of a 6-jet Pelton turbine with automatic selection of number of active jets
Hydraulic turbines (runner) are designed for optimum speed & maximum efficiency at design head.
But in reality, head and load conditions change during operation & it is extremely important to know
the performance of the unit at other heads. This is furnished by manufacturer's curve.

4
Figure 1.6: Turbine efficiency versus relative discharge for different turbine type

1.1 Turbine Scroll Case

A scroll case is the conduit directing the water from the intake or penstock to the runner in reaction
type turbine installation (in case of impulse wheels a casing is usually provided only to prevent
splashing of water & lead water to the tail race). A spiral shaped scroll case of the correct geometry
ensures even distribution of water around the periphery of the runner with the minimum possible eddy
formations.

a) Francis turbine with steel spiral case b) Propeller turbine with partial spiral
Figure 1.7: Recommended dimensions of scroll casings
These kinds of spiral case will generally used in medium and high head installations where discharge
requirement is low.

The design of the shape of the spiral case is governed by the flow requirements. Initial investigation
should be based on the following assumptions:
a) spiral case of constant height
b) an evenly distributed flow in to the turbine
c) no friction losses

Figure 1.8: Typical cross-sections of spiral case

Referring to Fig 1.8 (a) the discharge in section of spiral case defined by angle θis

Where Q is the total discharge to the runner

Where (from the basic Euler equation for the power absorbed by the machine)

And the discharge through the strip dq is given by

5
This shows for given vortex strength, k, a definite relationship exist between Q & R.

The most economical design of a power station substructure and the narrowest spiral case can be
obtained by choosing a rectangular section adjoining the guide vanes (entrance ring) by step transition
(symmetrical or asymmetrical)
h where

Replacing and integrating

Knowing r1 from , the value of R defining the shape of the spiral case can be determined.
The height H0 at any angle θmay be assumed to be linearly increasing from h0 at the nose towards the
entrance. Shape at various θis determined by assuming existence of uniform velocity equal to

entrance velocity,

area of cross-section at angle θ

i

1.1 Draft Tubes

A draft tube is a conduit discharging water from the turbine runner to the tailrace. It is employed in
conjunction with reaction type turbines, and has twofold purposes:
¨ To recover as much as possible of the velocity energy of the water leaving the runner, which
otherwise would have gone to waste as an exit loss, thus increasing the dynamic draft head.
¨ To utilize the vertical distance between the turbine exit and the tail-water level, called the static
draft head. In other words, to allow the turbine to be set at higher elevation without losing the
advantage of elevation difference.
The most common is elbow type which minimizes the depth of substructure compared to vertical cone;
it also has a desirable effect in directing the flow in the direction of the tail water.

Figure 1.9: Elbow-type draft tube

6
Figure 1.10: Straight conical draft tube

The straight conical draft tubes are the simplest in design and the most efficient type, but they are
rarely used in actual practice. This is because, for effective recovery of velocity head, the outlet
section has to be many times the inlet section of the draft tube. For smooth eddy-free flow (flow with
no separation), the angle of flare of the tube has to be limited to 4 to 8 degrees. Hence, a considerable
long tube is necessary to achieve the desired result. This increases the depth of excavation of the
substructure, making it uneconomical and unsuitable from cavitation view point.

The elbow-type draft tube is often adopted, because of the following advantages it offers over the
conical type:

¨ Minimizes the required depth of excavation

¨ Directs the flow in the direction of the tail-water flow
¨ Allows the provision of gate at the outlet of the tube which can facilitate the de-watering of the
turbine for repairs, if necessary.
However from constructional point of view, the elbow draft tube presents more problems. Further
more, the change of shape in the elbow naturally increases the turbulent losses in the draft tube.

Figure 1.11: Recommended dimensions of an elbow-type draft tube (after Mosonyi)

Elbow type divided in to 3 - parts: vertical, bend, and almost horizontal sections. Between 1 & 3 in

Figure 1.10,

Therefore,

7
Where h d = efficiency of the draft tube

In order to avoid cavitation at the exit from the runner the condition

1.1 Cavitations in Turbine & Turbine Setting

Cavitations results pitting, vibration & reduction in efficiency & is certainly undesirable. Cavitations
may be avoided by suitably designing, installing, and operating the turbine in such a way that the
pressures with in the units are above the vapor pressure of water.

Referring Figures 1.10, Ys is the most critical factor in the installation of reaction turbines.

σ= Cavitation coefficient or Plant Sigma

Ha - Hv = Hb = barometric pressure (10.1 at see level)
H = effective head.

Ys, max = Hb - σc H (Thoma’ s formula, bottom of turbine setting)

If Ys is negative runners must be below TWL. Where σc is the minimum (critical) value of F at which
cavitation occur.

Francis runners Propeller runners

Ns 75 150 225 300 375 600 750
σc 0.025 0.10 0.23 0.40 0.64 0.8 1.5
The above may be approximated by

For Francis

For propeller
The preliminary calculation for the elevation of the distributor above the TWL, Yt is
For Francis
For propeller
Where D is the nominal diameter of the runner

1.1 Generators and Turbine Controls

Generators transform mechanical energy into electrical energy. Although most early hydroelectric
systems were of the direct current variety to match early commercial electrical systems, nowadays
only three-phase alternating current generators are used in normal practice. Depending on the
characteristics of the network supplied, the producer can choose between.

Synchronous generators equipped with a DC excitation system (rotating or static) associated with a
voltage regulator, to provide voltage, frequency and phase angle control before the generator is
connected to the grid and supply the reactive energy required by the power system when the generator
is tied into the grid. Synchronous generators can run isolated from the grid and produce power since
excitation is not grid-dependent

Asynchronous generators are simple squirrel-cage induction motors with no possibility of voltage
regulation and running at a speed directly related to system frequency. They draw their excitation
current from the grid, absorbing reactive energy by their own magnetism. Adding a bank of capacitors
can compensate for the absorbed reactive energy. They cannot generate when disconnected from the
grid because are incapable of providing their own excitation current.

8
Synchronous generators are more expensive than asynchronous generators and are used in power
systems where the output of the generator represents a substantial proportion of the power system load.
Asynchronous generators are cheaper and are used in large grids where their output is an insignificant
proportion of the power system load. Their efficiency is 2 to 4 per cent lower than the efficiency of
synchronous generators over the entire operating range. In general, when the power exceeds 5000
kVA a synchronous generator is installed.

Recently, variable-speed constant-frequency systems (VSG), in which turbine speed is permitted to

fluctuate widely, while the voltage and frequency are kept constant and undistorted, have entered the
market. This system can even ‘ 'synchronize'' the unit to the grid before it starts rotating. The key to the
system is the use of a series resonant converter in conjunction with a double feed machine.
Unfortunately its cost price is still rather high and the maximum available power too low.

The working voltage of the generator varies with its power. The standard generation voltages are 380
V or 430 V up to 1400 kVA and at 6000/6600 for bigger installed power. Generation at 380 V or 430
V allows the use of standard distributor transformers as outlet transformers and the use of the
generated current to feed into the plant power system. Generating at medium voltage requires an
independent transformer MT/LT to supply the plant services.

Figure 1.11: Generator Set up

Figure 1.12: Generator Installation

Turbines are designed for a certain net head and discharge. Any deviation from these parameters must
be compensated for, by opening or closing control devices such as the wicket-vanes or gate valves to
keep constant, either the outlet power, the level of the water surface in the intake or the turbine
discharge. In schemes connected to an isolated net, the parameter to be controlled is the runner speed,

9
which controls the frequency. The generator becomes overloaded and the turbine slows-down. In this
case there are basically two approaches to control the runner speed: either by controlling the water
flow to the turbine or by keeping the water flow constant and adjusting the electric load by an electric
ballast load connected to the generator terminals.

In the first approach, speed (frequency) regulation is normally accomplished through flow control;
once a gate opening is calculated, the actuator gives the necessary instruction to the servomotor,
which results in an extension or retraction of the servo's rod. To ensure that the rod actually reaches
the calculated position, feedback is provided to the electronic actuator. These devices are called speed
governors.

In the second approach it is assumed that, at full load, constant head and flow, the turbine will operate
at design speed, so maintaining full load from the generator; this will run at a constant speed. If the
load decreases the turbine will tend to increase its speed. An electronic sensor, measuring the
frequency, detects the deviation and a reliable and inexpensive electronic load governor, switches on
preset resistances and so maintains the system frequency accurately.

The controllers that follow the first approach do not have any power limit. The Electronic Load
Governors, working according to the second approach rarely exceeds 100 kW capacities.

1.1 Turbine Control

Governors
A governor is a combination of devices and mechanisms, which detect speed deviation and convert it
into a change in servomotor position. A speed-sensing and amplified to excite an actuator, hydraulic
or electric, that controls the water flow to the turbine. In a Francis turbine, where to reduce the water
flow you need to rotate the wicket-gates a powerful governor is required to overcome the hydraulic
and frictional forces and to maintain the wicket-gates in a partially closed position or to close them
completely.

Several types of governors are available varying from purely mechanical to mechanical-hydraulic to
electro-hydraulic. The purely mechanical governor is used with fairly small turbines, because its
control valve is easy to operate and does not require a big effort. These governors use a fly ball mass
mechanism driven by the turbine shaft. The output from this device .the fly ball axis descends or
ascends according to the turbine speed- directly drive the valve located at the entrance to the turbine.

The most commonly-used type is the oil-pressure governor that also uses a fly ball mechanism lighter
and more precise than that used in a purely mechanical governor. When the turbine is overloaded, the
fly balls slowdown, the balls drop, and the sleeve of the pilot valve rise to open access to the upper
chamber of the servomotor. The oil under pressure enters the upper chamber of the servomotor to
rotate the wicket-gates mechanism and increase the flow, and consequently the rotational speed and
the frequency.

10
Figure 1.13: Oil-pressure governor

In an electro-hydraulic governor a sensor located on the generator shaft continuously senses the
turbine speed. The input is fed into a summing junction, where it is compared to a speed reference. If
the speed sensor signal differs from the reference signal, it emits an error signal (positive or negative)
that, once amplified, is sent to the servomotor so this can act in the required sense. In general the
actuator is powered by a hydraulic power unit consisting of a sump for oil storage, an electric motor
operated pump to supply high pressure oil to the system, an accumulator where the oil under pressure
is stored, oil control valves and a hydraulic cylinder. All these regulation systems, as have been
described, operate by continuously adjusting back and forth the wicket-gates position. To provide
quick and stable adjustment of the wicket-gates, and/or of the runner blades, with the least amount of
over or under speed deviations during system changes a further device is needed. In oil pressure
governors this is achieved by interposing a ‘ 'dash pot'' that delays the opening of the pilot valve. In
electro-hydraulic governors the degree of sophistication is much greater, so that the adjustment can be
proportional, integral and derivative (PID) giving a minimum variation in the controlling process.

An asynchronous generator connected to a large net, from which it takes its reactive power to generate
its own magnetism, does not need any controller, because its frequency is controlled by the mains.
Notwithstanding this, when the generator is disconnected from the mains the turbine accelerates up to
runaway speed with inherent danger for the generator and the speed increaser, if one is used. In such a
case it is necessary to interrupt the water flow, rapidly enough to prevent the turbine accelerating, but
at the same time minimizing any water hammer effect in the penstock.

To ensure the control of the turbine speed by regulating the water flow, certain inertia of the rotating
components is required. Additional inertia can be provided by a flywheel on the turbine or generator
shaft. When the main switch disconnects the generator the power excess accelerates the flywheel; later,
when the switch reconnects the load, the deceleration of this inertia flywheel supplies additional
power that helps to minimize speed variation.

11
 2. HYDROPOWER PROJECT INVESTIGATION AND PLANNING
2.2 Investigation of Resources
· Basic Investigations
Hydropower investigations are often carried out as part of an inventory of water resources, to
identify, register and catalogue the hydropower resources existing in river basins, areas and
districts. They may also be carried out countrywide to prepare inventories of the complete
hydropower potential in a nation.
The main purpose of such investigation is to register the available resources and to determine
size and other qualities. Investigated projects are often ranked according to size, costs,
priority, etc.
Having no established development purpose such investigations are often termed as "basic
investigations"
· Purpose oriented Investigations
Other hydropower investigations are carried out for specific purposes, i.e. in order to meet
identified needs for electric power through finding suitable supply. Such investigations are
purpose oriented in as much as their objective is, among available hydropower resources, to
identify and select the best projects for the stated purposes.
Purpose oriented investigations have specific terms of reference to meet. They are far more
comprehensive than basic investigations and are organized accordingly.
It should be noted that purpose oriented investigations will benefit greatly when basic
investigations have been carried out in the area of interest as valuable data and information
will be available from the start.

2.2 Investigation of Hydropower Projects

A proposed hydropower project which supposed to meet for an established demand for
electric power and energy must be adapted to the physical conditions at hand. Precise and
reliable knowledge about the market situation, socio-economic trends and development plans
are needed in order to make predictions about the future need for electricity and to establish a
demand (or load) forecast. In this connection not only the size of the demand needs to be
known but also the type of load, peaking needs, etc.
Other requirements:
- value of future electricity supply to determine the benefits side of proposed hydropower
project
- long term data on hydrology and meteorology to determine river discharges, floods
- topographic data
- detail knowledge of the geomorphology and geology of the project area and sites needed
in connection with planning of project layout and design of the structures and other
facilities
- necessary expertise and skills and wide and varied experience from hydropower
investigations

2.2.2 Planning Parameters and Data

Several planning parameters and comprehensive data and information are needed for
investigation of hydropower resources and planning of hydropower projects. The main data
are derived from:
Forecast of demand for electricity, and from studies of:
- hydrology
- topography
- geology, soils and materials
Important issues, indirectly part of the planning process, are:
- environmental constraints
12
- socio-economic considerations
- electricity tariffs, and tariff policy
These issues influence project planning and project formulation and also contribute to project
costs

2.2.2 Power Market

Demand:
The need for and the purpose of demand forecasts are fully recognized. Not only the size but
the "shape" of the demand is important factor in planning the power supply. By shape is
meant the daily, seasonal and annual variation of the demand curve.

A lot of planning information can be derived from the demand curves of supply systems.
They will indicate need for regulation of watercourse contemplated for development as they
give information on the water needed for generation on a daily, seasonal and annual basis.
Such demand curves also provide data needed to determine the size of generation,
installations, unit size and transmission facilities.

The minimum installation in the development should at least satisfy the energy and power
demand required by the load curve often termed as firm power or energy and the maximum
size can also be fixed by referring the peak demand.

Figure 2.1 Typical 24 Hours Load Curve

The term "firm" is given to supply which can be guaranteed at all times or at large percentage
of the time (e.g. 90% of the time). This type of supply is distinguished from the supply
governed by the availability of water, which is often termed "secondary". Supply available as
a result of seasonal excess of water or abnormal runoff is termed "surplus" as the alternative
to generation is letting the water run off (spilling). Some of the river discharge is by nature
firm, usually the minimum flow, but its share of the total discharge can be increased by
introducing regulation of the river, i.e. provision of storage reservoirs from which water can
be drawn during dry periods.

The value of having guaranteed supply of water and the additional costs involved in
regulation is reflected in the price of electricity and firm supply commands a higher price
than secondary and surplus power and energy.

13
The highest priced energy, however, is often the supply termed "peaking". By peaking is
meant the load which can be supplied to meet the variation in demand in a supply system. It
is measured as excess of the average demand over a period of time, day, season or year.

Figure 2.2: Unregulated and Regulated firm flow

Figure 2.3: Unregulated and Regulated firm power

2.2.2 Supply system:

The network of consumers which can be reached by a generation scheme is known as the
supply system. Supply systems have to be studied in connection with the planning of new
generation facilities in order to ensure that the new scheme will satisfactorily fit the system
and the purpose for which it was originally conceived. The additional power should also be
fully compatible with the requirements of the system it will supply. System studies will have
to explore:
- the influence of the new scheme on the operation of the existing system and on the
structure of its production costs
- the effects of the new scheme on the expansion of the system
- the optimum dimensioning of the new scheme in relation to system requirements and the
phasing of its development

14
- the transmission capacity and any strengthening of the network needed for absorbing the
output from the new generation scheme

2.2.2 Power Market surveys:

In order to achieve a balanced and orderly development of the power supply to an area, the
planning has to be based on reliable knowledge of the market, the present and the future
demand. Power market surveys are means of evaluating the present and potential markets for
electric energy in a defined area. They are based on registration of the prevailing demand and
supply situation, adjusting for possible suppressed demand due to under supply, high tariffs,
etc. as well as overuse due to excess capacity in the system, price subsidies and similar
inducements.
The market survey will consider the effects on the use of electric energy within the survey are
of such factors as:
- geographical location
- natural resources
- industrial development
- new power uses
- the economic status and prospective growth of the population
- substitution loads

2.2.2 Demand forecast:

As hydropower development has long lead-time, it is necessary to be guided by a long term
demand prognosis. Normally demand forecast cover at least ten years or more. They are
organized in such a way that periodic updating is easy to perform.
- base case
- low case
- high case

2.2 Hydrology
Hydrological studies will provide data on the flow of water, one of the main parameters used
in hydropower planning.

Precipitation and hence water supply, varies widely between geographical locations, from
season to season and from year to year. Each of these variations has a profound effect on the
planning for the control and use of water resources.

All planning in hydrology terms is predicted on the assumption that the past history of water
occurrence will be repeated in future. In other words, plans for control and use of water are
based on the assumption that the precipitation and stream flow conditions which have been
observed in the past can be expected to occur, within reasonable limits of similarity, in the
future, except if stream flows are modified by acts of Man.

Obviously the ideal foundation for water resources planning would be comprehensive records,
covering an infinite period of years, of precipitation and other climatic conditions, stream
flows and groundwater conditions. Unfortunately, such records seldom exist, and the records
that are available in most instance fall far short of the ideal.

The generation of hydropower does not imply consumption of water except as a result of
incidental evaporation, especially from reservoirs. The extent to which power production will
affect the use of water for other purposes will depend on a number of factors such as:
- the location and capacity of power plants
- the nature of power to be produced, that is, RoR power, firm power or peaking power
15
- the amount of forebay and afterbay regulation provided
- and the relative preference assigned to the uses of water for various purposes
The determination of the water requirement for power production is probably best
accomplished by "trial and error" methods including incremental analyses and will require
close coordination and integration of power, economic and social studies.

Hydrological data:
- `historical series of daily or monthly flows
Rainfall data
- historical series of daily, monthly or annual total of rainfall
Basic hydrological studies are required mainly to determine water discharge and hydraulic
head.

2.2.2 Flow duration studies:

A useful way of treating the time variability of water discharge data in hydropower studies is
by utilizing flow duration curves. A flow duration curve is a plot of flow versus the percent
of time a particular flow can be expected to be exceeded. A flow duration curve merely
reorders the flows in order of magnitude instead of the time ordering of flows versus time
plot.
Methods of computing:
- rank-ordered technique
- class-interval technique

Figure 2.4: Flow Duration Curve (FDC)

The longer the record, the more statistically valuable the information that results from the
flow duration curve.

2.2.2 Estimation of flow to ungauged sites:

All too often the stream flow data that are available from measured gauging stations are not
from location for which a hydropower site analysis is to be made. Methods are required to
develop extrapolation of measured flow duration data which will be representative of a given
site on a stream. There are several methods to estimate flows from ungauged catchments.
Regional frequency analysis, sequential flow analysis and use of Parametric Flow Duration
Curve are some of them.

A regional frequency analysis involves regression analysis of gauged catchments within the
general region. Through this technique, sufficiently reliable equations can often be derived
16
for peak flow of varying frequency given quantifiable physical basin characteristics and
rainfall intensity for a specific duration. Once these equations are developed, they can be then
be applied to ungauged basins within the same region and data of similar magnitude used in
developing the equations.
A regional analysis usually consists of the following steps:
- Selecting components of interest, such as mean and peak discharge
- Selecting definable basin characteristics of gauged watershed: drainage are, slope, etc.
- Deriving prediction equations with single or multiple linear regression analysis
- Mapping and explaining the residuals (differences between computed and observed
values) that constitute "unexplained variances" in the statistical analysis on a regional
basis.

Figure 2.5: Regional Frequency Analysis Procedures

Some of the equations may have the form:

Where:
Q = peak discharge
A = drainage area
P = mean annual precipitation
H = altitude index

17
The basic approach in regulated and sequential flow analysis can be explained by referring to
the physiographic layout of figure 2.7. In this case a measured record for a considerable
length of time is assumed to be available at reservoir outlet A. the location for which flow
data are needed is at point B. the flow at B is the inflow from an area of considerable extent
where there is no stream gauge record, plus inflow from the operations of a reservoir at
station A. A normal annual precipitation map of the entire drainage area is required. Also
records from nearby stream gauge (station C) on an unregulated stream that can be
considered to represent the sequential variation of runoff from drainage area M
(Crosshatched area) are required. These long term records must cover the same period for
which regulated flow data are available at station A.
First an estimate must be made of the average annual runoff from area. This is done by
planimetering the isohyetal map of normal annual precipitation and getting the normal annual
water input into area M, the volume of water per year. Then a coefficient of runoff for the
area on an annual basis must be estimated. This can be done by referring to records of nearby
gauges on streams that have essentially the same hydrologic characteristics. Multiplying the
normal annual precipitation input value by the runoff coefficient gives the average annual
runoff from the area M.

Figure 2.6: Method for determining flow duration of regulated flow combined with ungauged
inflow

18
Figure 2.7: Physiographic layout

Figure 2.8: Flow diagram for computing sequential flow magnitudes from ungauged tributary
area.

19
A sequential flows coming off area M must be computed. The time increments or periods
must correspond to the records of discharge available from reservoir operation. First a flow
record at station C must be obtained and studied. The record at C is assumed to have the same
time distribution of flow as the runoff coming off area M. an incremental fraction of flow, ai,
for an increment of time in the total desired time period must be obtained for the
representative gauge C. Figures 2.6 and 2.8 give flow diagrams for a step by step procedure
to calculate the sequential inflow from the ungauged area labeled M in figure 2.7. Once the
sequential flows have been calculated it is a simple procedure to add, sequentially the flow
from the ungauged tributary to the regulated flows.

In regions where stream flow does not vary with respect to the contributing drainage area
flow duration curves can be plotted for the gauged sites. From these flow duration curves are
developed a family of parametric duration curves in which flow is plotted against the average

Figure 2.9: FDC for gauging stations in a homogeneous drainage basin

Figure 2.10: Parametric flow duration curve

20
annual runoff ( ) or annual discharge, at the respective gauges for several exceedence
interval percentages. A separate curve is developed for each exceedence interval used. A
correlation analysis is then performed to obtain the best-fitting curve for the data taken from
the measured records of stream flow.

To use the parametric flow duration curves effectively, it is necessary to determine the
average annual discharge, , at the point or location on the stream for which a hydropower
analysis to be made. Isohytal maps developed for normal annual precipitation in a river basin
are helpful for determining the annual discharge. The records of precipitation and stream
flow data should represent the same period of record.

Utilizing the records of average annual precipitation input to the basins at measured streams
nearby or having similar hydrologic characteristics, a runoff coefficient is estimated for the
drainage basin being studied. The product of this coefficient and the computed normal annual
precipitation input to the basin and the basin area can be used to calculate the average annual
discharge as:

(1.1)
With the average runoff annual discharge estimate it is possible to enter the parametric flow
duration curve and determine values of flow for different exceedence percentages for which
the parametric flow duration curve has been developed.

21
 3. POWER PLANT STATIONS: Conventional type of Power Stations
3.3 Components of Hydropower projects
Generally three basic elements are necessary in order to generate power from water: a means
of creating head, a conduit to convey water, and a power plant. To provide these functions,
the following components are used: dam, reservoir, intake conduit or penstock, surge tank
power house, draft tube and tail race.

Figure 3.1: Components of a hydropower project

22
Main components:
Dam: to create the head necessary to move turbines and impound. Storage is used to
maintain the daily or seasonal flow variations.

Reservoir: Consists of the Water impoundment behind a dam.

Intake: directs water from reservoir in to the penstock Gates or valves are used to shut off
the flow of water to permit emergency unit shut down or turbine and penstock maintenance.
Racks or screens prevent trash and debris from entering the turbine units. Projects that are
required to use water at a selected temperature must have multi-level intakes in order to
control inlet water temperature by mixing waters obtained from different levels.

Penstock: conveys water from the intake structure to the power house and can take many
configurations, depending up on the projects layout. For multi-unit installations it is often
desirable to serve several Units with a single penstock, and manifolds or bifurcation
structures are provided to direct flow to individual units.

Surge tanks: Flow through a penstock can change rapidly during the operation of power
plants. As long as flow is steady and constant, pressure changes on the conveyance conduits
are minimal. However, pressure changes within the conduit become greater as the rate of
change of flow increases. This phenomenon is known as water hammer and is caused by a
change of momentum within the water column. When there is a rapid changes in flow water
hammer effects can become serious. Surge tanks are constructed on the conduit to reduce
momentum changes due to water hammer effects.
Surge tanks are often necessary in medium and high head hydropower projects, particularly
where there is a considerable distance between the water source and power plant. Surge tanks
or chambers can also be provided on the draft tube where discharge conduits are very long.

3.3 Power house

The power house shelters the turbines, generating Units, control and auxiliary equipments,
and sometimes erection and service areas. The power house location and size is determined
by site conditions and project layout. It could be located within the dam structure adjacent to
it or some distance away from the dam. The power house would be located to economically
maximize available head while observing site physical and environmental constraints.

3.3.3 Power house types

There are four types of power house configurations (structure), three of which are classified
according to how the main generating unit, are housed: Indoor, Semi-out door, Outdoor and
Underground.
Indoor: this type of structure encloses all of the power house components under one roof.
Semi-out door: this powerhouse has a fully enclosed generator room. The main hoisting and
transfer equipment is located on the roof of the plant and equipment is handled through
hatches located in the roof.
Outdoor: a generator room is not provided with this type of power house structure.
Generators are enclosed in a weather proof individual cubicles or enclosures and are recessed
in to the floor.
Underground: this type of powerhouse is often used in mountainous areas where there is
limited space available to locate a power plant. It is also used to minimize penstock length in
these areas since the penstock can be located directly below the reservoir. Pumped storage
23
powerhouses are often located underground in order to shorten the penstock and obtain deep
settings on the turbines.

The selection of powerhouse configuration and structure should be based upon both Fixed
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) costs. The lower capital cost associated with out door
and semi-out door power plants is often offset by increased equipment and Operation and
Maintenance costs. The final selection of powerhouse for any given site would be made after
a detailed cost study, usually performed in the feasibility design stage

3.3.3 Power House planning

The basic requirement of a power house is the functional utility and the aesthetic
requirements. Planning the power house should be harmonious with the surrounding.
A power house of a hydropower may be

i. Surface Over ground power house

ii. Under ground power house

A surface power house has no space limitation where as an Underground power house has
space limitation. The surface power houses need an architectural planning so that they fit in
with the general landscape. If a particular area is affected by landslides and if the underlying
geology is suitable, an underground powerhouse is the obvious choice. For low head power
plant and small scale developments surface power house is the economical choice

Design of the powerhouse is primarily a structural and architectural problem and the size of
the building is governed by the requirements to accommodate the generator, the spiral casing
and the outlet area of the draft tube.

For feasibility studies powerhouse layout dimensioning can be done using theoretical and
empirical relations of the power house components. For final design it so customary for the
turbine and generator manufactures to furnish dimensions for the interiors of the spiral casing,
draft tube, and generator assembly.

The following items of equipment are considered for planning and dimensioning of the
power house:
i. Hydraulic equipment:
i. Turbines
ii. Gate and gate valves
iii. Relief valves of penstocks
iv. Governors
v. Flow measuring equipment
ii. Electrical equipment:
i. Generator
ii. Excitors
iii. Transformers, pumps, cooling systems, connections, funs and plate forms
iv. Switching equipment:
a. Low tension buses
b. Switch board panels
c. Switch board equipment and instruments
d. Oil switching and
e. Reactors
a. High tension system:

24
 a. Buses
b. Oil circuit breakers
c. Lightening arrestors
d. Out going connections
b. Auxiliaries:
a. Storage batteries
b. Station lighting
iii. Miscellaneous equipment:
i. Crane
ii. Work shops
iii. Office rooms
iv. Other facilities,( clinic, Store , etc)

The machine in the power house can be either vertical mounting or horizontal mounting. A
horizontal mounting machine requires more floor space but less height. A vertical mounting
machine requires less floor space but more height. For larger capacity installations, it is ideal
choice to have vertical mounting. In general power houses are oriented differently to
accommodate excavation and site preparation problems.

Figure 3.2: Power House System Network

Components of a power house

A power house can consists three main components in general:
i. Sub- Structure
ii. Intermediate structure and
iii. Super structure
The substructure of a power house is the portion below the turbine level. The super structure
is the foundation of the power house which consists of steel and concrete structures necessary
to form the draft tube, support the turbine stay ring and generator. It also gives
accommodation for drainage facilities, tail water and access galleries to the substructure. The
substructures transmit the load to the foundation.

25
Horizontal setting has advantage compared to vertical setting in the following aspects:
- Reduction in civil works because of less excavation
- Combination of sub and intermediate structures (only sub structure )
- A smaller height of power house, and
- Use of conical draft tube
The arrangement is also advantageous for easy inspection and accessibility during
maintenance.

3.3 Layout and dimensions of power house

3.3.3 Layout of Generating Units for small hydropower:

Suitable turbines: Horizontal Francis turbine and impulse (diversion type plant)
Two types of layout s are generally used namely with horizontal Francis turbines:
i. A Unit axis parallel to the power house axis
ii. A Unit axis perpendicular to the power house axis

Both are its own advantage and disadvantage discus

By yourself.

3.3.2The dimensions of power houses

The dimensions in the plant are determined by the dimensions of the generating units or by
the dimensions of the spiral case particularly when the head is low.

The width of the working bay is generally equal to about one unit bay, if the unit is planned
to be major overhauled in the power house. If the unit is planned to be major overhauled
outside the power house there can be no working bay in the power house. The width of the
unit bay is so determined that the clearance between the two units or between the unit and the
wall, should be sufficient for the erection and disassembly of the unit, generally, about 2m.
The passageway, for the operators should be 1-1.5 m, and the clearance between the switch
board / control panel and other apparatus should be at least 2m, and that the switchboard and
the wall should be about 0.8m. For the side unit, its unit bay should have an additional width
(about 1m per Units).

The determination of the setting elevation of the turbine is very important for the Power
House design, taking in to consideration the minimum tailrace level and the suction head of
the turbine.

The height of the Power House is mainly determined by over head craning of the heaviest
part of the unit.

3.3.3 Preliminary dimensions of power House for Medium and large Hydro (Reaction
Turbine installation
1. Unit spacing in terms of discharge (for steel scroll case )

26
 Discharge in Unit spacing in
m 3 /s m
25 10
50 13
75 15
100 17
150 20
200 22
250 24

2. Unit spacing in terms of discharge diameter

Discharge diameter of runner Unit spacing in terms of discharge

in m diameter(m)
1 5.5
2 5.1
3 4.7
4 4.4
5 4.2
6 4.0

Width and height of the power house in also calculated based on the capacity of the unit and
crane span required.

3. W idth of power house

Capacity of Crane span in m for operating head in m

unit in 1000 25 50 100 150 200
KV A
10 16.2 12.5 10.7 - -
20 - 16.0 13.0 11.6 11.0
30 - 18.3 15.3 13.7 12.5
40 - - 17.1 15.3 14.0
50 - - 18.3 16.5 15.3
60 - - - 17.7 16.5
70 - - - - 18.3

4. Height of the power house

Capacity of Height to crane rail from generator floor in meter of operating head in m
unit in 1000 25 50 100 150 200
KV A
10 16.8 12.6 11.1
20 14.8 13.1 12.3 11.5
30 14.4 13.4 12.6
40 15.8 14.4 13.8
50 16.8 15.6 14.4
60 17.8 16.4 15.1
70 18.4 17.4 15.8
80 18.0 16.4

Other formulae
i. Unit spacing :
a. width if draft table + wall thickness
b. E + B + W all thickness

27
 ii. Width of power house:

F+ C+2 + 1.85 D3
D3 = discharge diameter

Figure 3.3: Scroll Case

iii. Mosonyi's formula :

Unit spacing

Ns = specific speed

iv. J.J Donald's formula :

Unit spacing = 3.5 to 6 D3

5. Determination of discharge diameter, D3 (Mosonyi's formula)

D1 = (Entrance Diameter)

D3 = ( Exit Diameter)

Peripheral coefficient
N = speed of turbine in rpm

6. Guthrie Brown's formula

Where, Q discharge at full load in m3 /s

28
 4. UNDER GROUND POWER HOUSE

If there is a gorge and a valley, an underground power house may be economical. Other
factors for choosing underground power stations are frequent seismic activities landslides and
snow avalanches. An important characteristic of the underground power plant station is its
flexibility of layout. The shortest possible layout through various feasible alignments can be
draw up with minimum size of pressure conduits and omissions of anchors and valves. The
basic requirement for the feasibility of the underground power house is the availability of
good sound rock at the desired location and depth. Underground power house are also safer
during war attacks.

Most of the power projects that came in Europe after World War -II are underground power
houses.
Some of the underground power stations in the world:
- Portage Mountain (Canada) - 2300MW
- Komano (Canada)- 832 MW
- Vianden (Luxembourg) 920MW
- Tddiki (India)- 840MW
- Tekeze Hydropower (Ethiopia)-300MW

4.4 Location of underground power stations

Depending upon the rock quality, tunneling ease and overall economics, the power houses
may be located in various ways.
1. The whole power house may be totally underground:
2. The generator may be in a pit but the super structure may be on the surface
3. Semi-Underground, here the generator may be located on the surface while other
units, such as turbines may be under ground

4. The power house may be placed in a cut where the stable rock exists, the units may be
placed in a cut in the rock

4.2Arrangements of underground power stations

The type of layout of underground power plants depends largely on the positions of head and
tail water levels, control valves, turbines, generators, transformers, control room, access
shafts and ventilation shaft. The Other factors responsible for the location of such a plant are
the topography, geology and the head to be developed.

According to Mosonyi, the various characteristic types and layouts of the power station could
be described with reference to head and tail water levels as follows.

Characteristics types of underground power development

i. Upstream Station or head development

ii. Downstream station or tail development
iii. Intermediate station development
iv. Diagonal Tunnel alignment with air cushion surge tank

29
The upstream station or Head development (Swedish type of development): in this type of
development, the power station is located close to the intake and thus water is directly
fed from the reservoir/forebay to the generating units.

This arrangement is suitable for low head (25-50 m) and high discharge condition in the
continuously sloping or mildly rolling terrains. A surge tank could be provided at the
entrance to the tunnel to protect it from the water hammer during sudden opening and closure
of turbines.

Figure 4.1: The upstream power station or Head development (Swedish type of development)

Downstream Development or Tail race development (Swiss type of development): this

type of Development has its characteristics in a long and nearly horizontal pressure tunnel
together with pressure shafts and a short tail race tunnel. Such a development is most suited
for a rugged terrain and where high heads of the order of several hundred meters can be
utilized.

Figure 4.2: Downstream or Tail-race development power station arrangement (Swedish type
of development)

Intermediate station Development (Italian arrangement): the characteristics of this type

of arrangement are a long head-race tunnel and a long tail race tunnel. The consequent
pressure variations due to long tunnels are taken care of by surge tank both upstream and
downstream of the power house.

30
Figure 4.3: Intermediate power station arrangement (Italian type of development)
Diagonal Tunnel alignment with air cushion surge tank (Norwegian solution):

Figure 4.4: Diagonal alignment with air cushion surge tank (Norwegian Solution)

4.4 Comparing above-ground and underground power house stations (Basics for
comparison of power station alternatives)
- An underground power house is more costly than a powerhouse on the surface, implying
that underground powerhouse should be considered only when this solution is the only
option available due to site topography
- In many cases a number of parameters concerning investment costs, risks, operation and
maintenance will have to be considered before a conclusion can be drawn as to whether
the optimum layout of a hydropower plant shall have powerhouse on the surface or
underground
- In some case the assessment of rock conditions will be decisive in determining whether
an underground or a surface powerhouse is the most favorable solution. However, in
general the type, head, and capacity of the power plant and the topography of the project
site provide more important parameters for the decision

Some of the main parameters to be considered in the assessment of the overall plant layout are:
The dam /Reservoir Type: the dam itself creates the head to be utilized in the power plant
and so the waterways will be short. Maximum head for a pure design of this type is restricted
today by feasible dam heights to about 250-300m.

The powerhouse is integrated as part of the dam structure, located on the surface at the foot
or adjacent to the foot of the dam or may be located underground within one of the
31
mountainsides/abutments. At narrow sites with favorable rock conditions and heads our
40 - 50 m, a concrete arch dam and an underground powerhouse often offer the most cost
effective solution. With less favorable rock conditions a narrow site may not be the best dam
location. In such cases wider sites allowing a surface design may offer an alternative, which
give less total costs even with significantly possible higher dam costs. In suitable topography,
which may allow a penstock and power house on the surface without excavation of excessive
open cuts, surface powerhouse may give the cheapest solution even with excellent rock
condition.

The low dam /log water way type: this type of powerhouse layout is characterized by a low
dam where most of the head is created by a long water way releasing water down stream of
natural rapids in the same river basin (Trans-basin diversion). Hydropower plants with heads
of more than 250 m will have some of these characteristics.
A powerhouse located near the intake creates layout with a long tailrace tunnel in
mountainous locations. This design requires long access tunnels and pumping of leakage
water during excavation. On the other hand there is no much risk of losing water from a
pressurized headrace tunnel. Location of the powerhouse in rock near the intake may be
dictated by topography.

4.4 The functions of the powerhouse complex

The overall function of the powerhouse complex of a hydropower plants is to transform the
potential energy of water and head in to electric energy with the highest possible rate of
efficiency under reliable and safe operational conditions.

i. Hydraulic system:
- Intake with trash rack
- Rock trap and stone rack
- Bypass arrangements and energy dissipaters
ii. Generating system:
- Turbines
- Switch gear
iii. Auxiliary systems:
- Power house cranes
- Cooling water system
- Drainage system
- Ventilation
iv. Operational Aspects and Emergencies:
- Emergency chambers for fire risks, floods

4.4 The power House complex

4.4.4 Main characteristics of underground Power plants

Flexibility in powerhouse Location and plant layout:
- Selection of an Underground powerhouse implies great flexibility in the overall plant
layout and location of the powerhouse itself. In principle the powerhouse may be placed
anywhere along the water way, and the surface facilities at the tailrace out let will require
only minor space. Consequently, the alignment of the waterway may be selected among
several options, optimized to topography and geology of the project area and adjusted to
suitable locations of powerhouse, tailrace outlet and adits. Plants of the long waterway

32
 type have the largest degree of flexibility as regards to overall layout and powerhouse
location.
Cost saving potential:
- Comparing the general development layout plan in figure 4.4, the penstock and steel
lining represent notable parts of the construction cost of headrace is stage 1 and 2. The
pressure shaft of stage 2 is shorter than required for the penstock in stage1. In addition
the thickness needed for a steel lining embedded in rock is less. The result is cost saving
for stage 2 due to lower steel weight.
Total plant Efficiency:
- The steel parts are the most costly sections of the headrace. Optimum design gives higher
specific losses in steel parts than in the waterway in general. A surface powerhouse
implies longer steel parts than the underground alternative, thus, by applying equal
optimization criteria for the two options, the underground plant will achieve the lesser
total losses. Consequently, an underground development means higher total plant
efficiency and therefore more effective utilization if the natural resources.
Operational stability:
- Due to long distance from the turbine to the surge chamber, surface plants may be
unsuited for satisfying all technical criteria for stable operation. Plants with underground
powerhouse are more stable than the surface plants.
Deference, operational Reliability and personnel safety:
- As strategic infrastructure, an underground powerhouse is less vulnerable under war like
events than surface option and easier to prefect against sabotage .
Structural Design:
- Being completely fixed in its cavern, a powerhouse in the underground can be designed
very efficiently from a structural point of view, as any need for overall support will
easily be provided by the rock confinement. On the contrary, a powerhouse on the
surface may, in order to achieve appropriate safety against sliding or uplift failure,
require larger concrete volumes than what is needed for structural reasons alone.
- Steel lining embedded in rock will have similar advantage. All reactive forces from the
pipe are transferred directly through the concrete surround to the rock. The rock will
prevent any longitudinal movement of the lining and there is no need for expansion
joints.
Operation and Maintenance:
- Embedded steel linings need less maintenance than exposal penstocks on the surface,
which are subjected to deteriorating effects from changing temperature, sunshine, storm
and rain and from frost and snow in clod climates. There will be a need to maintain
external corrosion coating, expansion joints, erosion protection etc. W hile embedded
linings will need maintenance of the inside coating only. Further, lining in rock will be
shorter than surface options.
Conditions for Construction and Erection:
- Excavation for surface powerhouse will normally take less time than the access and
caverns for underground option. Therefore, construction of an underground powerhouse
will normally take longer time than surface alternatives. If the powerhouse including
erection works is on the critical path for project implementation, the construction
schedule may be decisive for the choice of alternatives. In cases with either very larger
dams or long waterway, powerhouse works including erection on commissioning will
not usually be on the critical path for implementation.
Environmental impacts:
- W hether located at surface or underground, the powerhouse itself will hardly cause
serious environmental concerns. It may be assumed though, that an underground plant,
occupying less surface area, will generally get higher environmental merits than a

33
 surface development. It causes less loss of forest or other valuable surface assets than a
surface plant and gives no negative visual impact of a penstock on the hillside.

4.4 Overall Plant layout

An underground hydropower plant will consist of:
i. headrace system with intake tunnel
ii. tailrace system with tailrace tunnel and outlet structure
iii. power house in one or more caverns with a system of tunnels serving various
functions
iv. certain facilities on the surface

The location and alignment of the power plant will depend on the conditions of rock cover,
rock type, access roads, construction adits, (Topography and geological conditions)
- Minimum need for heavy rock support
- Adjusting the vertical alignment to follow favorable strata of sedimentary rocks or
locate the headrace as pressurized tunnel in igneous rock below weaker sedimentary
rocks
The general design criterion, which has to be satisfied at any point in an unlined pressurized
tunnel or shaft, is that the minimum principal stress in the adjacent rock mass is higher than
the maximum future water pressure.

The embedded steel lining is the most expensive part of the headrace. Therefore, the penstock
has to be designed as short as possible for the actual head in the geological formation. The
next important task is to determine a suitable location and orientation of the powerhouse
cavern in as short a distance as possible from the end of the unlined part of the headrace. The
most important objectives are to ensure the stability of the powerhouse and adjacent tunnel
system and avoiding leakage directly in to the power house. A "Design as you go"
procedure with the possibility to adjust the relative positions of the two components after
excavation has reached the powerhouse area is a recommendable approach, especially for low
head or medium head development allowing rather short penstocks. At this point a detailed
study should be made of on the system of joints around the powerhouse cavern with special
focus on any risk of intersecting faults. Therefore, the location and final elevation of the end
of the unlined tunnel can be adjusted to minimize the risk of short cut leakage in to the cavern.
To further reduce risk of leakage along the penstock a fan shaped grouting curtain can be
done to cover the cover the concrete surround at the penstock inlet and the adjacent rock
mass.

The necessary length of the steel lining will depend on the head, the rock quality and the
existence of crack systems and possible faults.

4.4 Powerhouse Tunnel system

The powerhouse needs a tunnel system to serve various needs, which can be divided in to
two sets of requirements, one set, related to the period of construction and the other for
the future operation of the power plant.

During construction the tunnel system will have to serve as access for excavation of all parts
of the Power House, for transport of excavated material and ventilation, supply of electricity,
water, compressed air and other support from the outside for performance of the civil works
and erection. Further, the main access tunnel has to be designed for the largest
electromechanical components to be transported in to the power house.

34
After commissioning, the tunnel system around the powerhouse will need to serve a different
set of functions, the main ones being:
- Main access in to the powerhouse
- Branch-off tunnels to other installations like transformer cells or separate transformer
cavern , tailrace gate chamber, concrete plug with steel bulkhead , etc,
- Alternative emergency exit from the power house to the surface
- Routing of high voltage cables from the generators to the transformers and from the
transformers to the switchyard on the surface
- Routing of signal and control cables
- Supply and evacuation of air for ventilation
- Tailrace surge chamber, etc
Multipurpose aspects of tunnels: to minimize the total cost, multipurpose functions of the
tunnel layout should be a main design principle. Every tunnel and shaft may serve several
and different functions during the period of construction and after commissioning.

Example:
- 450 inclined shaft serving for the high-voltage cable connection , for supply of
ventilation air and as alternative escape route
- Combined cavern for the main transformers and machinery for tailrace gates and with
the same cavern as the starting point for a tunnel loop for excavation of the top
heading of the powerhouse cavern
- transport access tunnel to the tailrace latter serve as surge chamber

4.4 Excavation Equipment and construction procedures

It is important to recognize that excavating a tunnel sloping downwards means little
inconvenience. The main one is the continuous need for pumping of water from the working
face. Therefore, instead of a constant downward slope to overcome a moderate difference in
elevation, it is a recommended design to start on a minimum upward slope from the entrance.
In this way self-drainage is achieved for the tunnel stretch near the surface. The difference in
elevation is overcome by a concentrated steeper downward slope toward the end of the tunnel

Steeper tunnel slope reduce total tunnel lengths. At least 2% should be selected for effective
self drainage.

4.4 Transformer Arrangements and Locations

The transformer location will greatly influence the arrangement of an underground
powerhouse. Due to the cost of high amperage connection between generators and
transformers, transformers location at surface may only be economically viable by the
shallowest seated power house. Aspects of maintenance, operation and deference all favour
transformers underground, hence the transformers are located within the machine hall or in
an adjacent separate cavern.
- In a machine hall
- Between generators
- In extension of power house cavern
- In separate cavern

4.4 Hydropower Tunnels

35
Tunnels are underground conveyance structures constructed by special tunneling methods
without disturbing the natural surface of the ground. In many modern high head plants,
tunnels form an important engineering feature.
Tunnels have the advantages of:
i. Providing direct and short route for the water passage thus resulting in considerable
saving in cost
ii. Quicker completion due to simultaneous tunneling work at many points
iii. Protection of natural land scape
Tunnels of hydropower projects fall into two categories: water carrying tunnels and
service tunnels.
a) Water carrying tunnels: these include head race or power tunnels, tail race tunnels or
diversion tunnels. Flows in water tunnels are usually under pressure (pipe flow), but
sometimes free-flow (open channel flow) can be experienced, especially, in tailrace tunnels.
The design of free-flow tunnels follows the same principles as used in the design of open
canals.
- Head race tunnels: are tunnels that convey water to the surge tank. These are pressure
tunnels
- Tail race tunnels: could be free flowing or pressure tunnels depending on the relative
position of turbine setting and tailwater level.
- Diversion tunnels: are constructed for the purpose of diverting the stream flow during
construction period. Normally they are not of high pressure but should have sufficient flood
carrying capacity. Such tunnels either plugged with concrete or converted in to some use
such as spillway tunnelat the completion of the project.
b) Service tunnels: these may be:
- Cable tunnels: to carry cables from underground power house to the switch yard
- Ventilation tunnels: fitted with fans at the open end to supply fresh air to the underground
- Access or approach tunnels: these are passage tunnels from surface to underground power
house.
Shape: Tunnels are either circular or non-circular in shape.
Circular tunnels: are most suitable structurally. They are more stable when the internal pressure
is very high.
Non-circular tunnels: have a flat floor, nearly verticalor gently flaring walls and arching roofs.
The horse-shoe shape is the most popular and convenient from construction point of view.

Commonly adopted shapes:

a) Circular shape b) Horseshoe shape

Figure 4.6: Tunnelshapes

36
Alignment: Tunnels have generally smallbottom slopes, i.e. tunnels or aligned nearly horizontal.
Shaft is a tunnelwith verticalalignment or inclined shaft when it is steeply inclined to the
horizontal. It is very crucialto investigate in detailthe geology of the strata through which a
tunnelwould be passing. Sound, homogenous, isotropic, and solid rock formations are the most
idealones for tunneling work. However, such idealconditions are rarely present, and rather the
rock mass exhibits various peculiarities. There may be folds, faults, joint planes dipping in a
particular direction, weak strata alternating with good strata, etc. Thus, the alignment of a
tunnelshould be fixed keeping in view these phenomena. The alignment, for instance, should as
far as possible avoid major fracture planes.
Lining: Lining is a protective layer of concrete, R.C. or steelon the inner surface of the tunnel
to improve the efficiency and structuralstability of the tunnel. Tunnels in good, sound rock may
be left unlined.

Lining of tunnels is required:

i. For structural reasons to resist external forces particularly when the tunnel is empty
and when the strata is of very low strength.
ii. When the internal pressure is high, i.e. above 100m
iii. When reduction in frictional resistance and therefore the head loss is required for
increasing capacity
iv. For prevention or reduction of seepage losses
v. For protection of rock against aggressive water

In the case of low-pressure tunnels the tunnelsurface may frequently be left unlined except for
visible fissures. A watertight lining is usually required for tunnels operating under medium and
high heads. Seepage is more likely to occur as the head increases, water may leak through the
smallest fissures and cracks. Moreover, under high-pressure it may penetrate the otherwise
watertight rock and render it permeable.

Tunnel Design Features: the design of hydropower tunnels include alignment; choosing the
appropriate geometric shape, longitudinal slope and flow velocity; computation of head loss,
rock cover (overburden), lining requirements and economic x-section come in to play.

Alignment: in aligning water tunnels, the following points should be taken in to account:
- Length of the tunnel: as much as possible short route should be followed
- Location of surge tanks & adits: the alignment should provide convenient points for
surge tanks & adits.
- Rock cover (overburden): sufficient rock cover should be available along the
alignment

37
 - Discontinuities: the alignment should, if possible, avoid crossing of weakness zones,
joint planes, etc. If crossing of these features is unavoidable, suitable direction of
crossing should be considered.
- Rock quality: good quality of rock mass should be sought in aligning the tunnel
Geometrical Shape:
- The choice of the cross-sectional profile of a tunnel depends on:
- Hydraulic considerations: Circular is preferable
- Stability considerations: Circular is preferable
- Convenience for construction: D-shaped is preferable
- Available tunneling equipment :
Longitudinal Slope: the minimum slope for a pressure tunnelis limited on the basis of
dewatering requirements. And also the longitudinalprofile of the tunnelshould be such that the
roof remains below the hydraulic pressure line by 1 to 2 m. Likewise, the tunneling method and
the equipment employed for transportation of the excavated material (railor wheel transport)
can limit the maximum slope possible to provide. The usual practice is to keep the slope of
power tunnel gentle tillthe surge tank and then steeper (even vertical) for the pressure shaft.

Flow Velocity: the allowable velocities in tunnels depend upon whether it is lined or unlined. In
unlined tunnels, a velocity of 2 to 2.5 m/s is the upper limit, while in concrete lined tunnels 4 to
5 m/s is often employed. The velocities for the pressure shafts, which are generally steellined,
are usually higher than that in the power tunnel. The normalrange of velocities is between 5 to
8 m/s.

Rock Cover (overburden):for pressure tunnels, it is obvious that the overburden on the roof
of the tunnel serves to balance the effect of upward force due to internalpressure. The
required depth of overburden may vary for lined and unlined tunnels.

In the case of unlined tunnels, the entire internalwater pressure is resisted by the overburden
rock pressure. Where a steep valley side constitutes the overburden above the tunnel, the rule
of thumb equation, H= (0.4 to 0.8)*hr has to be modified and given by:

Where L is the shortest distance between the ground surface and the studied point of the
tunnel(or shaft) and b is the average inclination of the valley side with the horizontal(see figure
below).

38
Figure 4.4 Overburden requirement in a steep valley side

In the case of concrete or steellined tunnels, the linings are usually designed to carry part or
full load of the internal water pressure, and the above equations, given for unlined tunnels, are
modified accordingly in determining the required overburden depth.
Head Loss: head losses in tunnels can be computed using Manning's, Darcy-Weisbach, or
Hazen-Williams formulas.

Manning formula:

Darcy-Weisbach formula:

Hazen-Williams formula (rarely used):

Where, hf is head loss due to friction, L is tunnel length, V is mean velocity of flow, R is hydraulic

radius, Deq is equivalent diameter ( ), A is area of the tunnelx-section, n is

Manning's roughness coefficient, l is Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (can be obtained from
Moody diagram), and C is Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient.
Optimum X-section: the optimum x-section of a tunnel or a shaft is one for which the sum of
tunnelconstruction cost and the economic loss due to head loss is minimum.

Total cost

Economic Construction
loss cost

X -section

39
Figure 4.5 Optimum tunnel cross-section

For a quick initialestimate of the diameter of pressure tunnels, the empirical formula suggested
by Fahlbusch can be used:

For concrete-lined tunnels:

For steel-lined tunnels:

4.4 Rock Stresses

Most stress related problems are caused by stresses which are greater than the critical limit
for the rock mass in question. However, the problem may also be caused by too low stresses.
Generally, the stresses surrounding underground openings are defined are:
1. the stress situation prior to excavation (the "Virgin" stresses)
2. the geometry of the opening

When the virgin stresses and the geometry are known, it is in theory easy to evaluate the
magnitude and the direction of the stresses surrounding a tunnel or rock cavern. If the rock
mass properties are known, it is theoretically also relatively simple to analyze potential
stability and leakage problems caused by stresses, the need for rock support, the possibilities
for optimizing the excavation geometry, etc.

Nevertheless, empirical methods are mainly used for analyzing rock stress problems. The
reason for this is primarily the problem in obtaining reliable input parameters which are
needed for the more advanced analyses. The following parameters have been the most
difficult to quantify.
- the magnitudes and directions of the virgin rock stresses
- the properties of the in-situ rock mass, in particular the elasticity parameters
- the failure criterion of the in-situ rock mass
Origin of Rock Stresses: the virgin stress generally represents the resultant of the following
components:
- Gravitational stresses
- Topographic stresses
- Tectonic stresses
- Residual stresses
Gravitational Stresses: this component is a result of the gravity alone. When the surface is
horizontal, the vertical gravitational stress at a depth Z is:

σ= ρ.g..Z

When ρ.g = specific gravity of the rock

The magnitude of the total vertical stress is often identical to the magnitude of the
gravitational vertical component. However, at great depths, particularly, there are
considerable deviations from this trend.

40
Figure 4.6 Vertical and horizontal rock stresses as a function of depth below the rock surface
(Scandinavians Case)

In anelastic rock mass with Poisson's ratio of v, the horizontal stresses induced by gravity are:

For a Poisson's ratio of 0.25, which is fairly common for rock masses, this means that the
horizontal stress induced by gravity is approximately 1/3 of the vertical stress.

Topographic stresses: when the surface is not horizontal, the topography will affect the rock
stress situation. Stresses caused by topographic effects are generally referred to as
topographically induced stresses or simply topographic stresses.

In high valley sides, where hydropower plants are often located, the stress situation is totally
dominated by the topographic effects. In such cases the major principal stress (σ1) near the
surface will be more or les parallel to the slope of the valley, and the minor principal stress
(σ3) will be approximately perpendicular to the slope.

41
Figure 4.7 Magnitudes and directions of directions of the major and minor principal stresses
in a valley side as computed by a Finite Element Analysis
Tectonic Stresses: evidence of tectonic stresses is represented by dramatic incidents like
faulting and folding and also by movements such as heave of the Scandinavian Peninsula
after the last glaciations. The main cause of faulting and folding as well as tectonic stress is
the action of plate tectonics; drifting and tectonic activity along the margins of some 20 rigid
plates that constitute the earth's outer shell.
Because of tectonic stresses the total horizontal stress is often much higher than the
horizontal stress which is induced by gravity alone. This is particularly the case at shallow
and moderate depths.

Figure 4.8 Variation of ratio of average horizontal stress to vertical stress with depth below
surface
Residual Stresses: residual (or remnant) stresses are generally defined as stress which has
been locked in to rock material during earlier stages of its geological history. Stress caused
by contraction during cooling of a rock melt (magma) is probably the most relevant example
of this category. Vertical stresses which are abnormally high are often explained as being
caused by residual stress.Stresses Surrounding Underground Openings
When analyzing potential problems due to rock stresses, the stress situation close to the
contour of the tunnel or rock cavern is of particular interest.
- Stresses surrounding Circular opening
The simplest case is represented by the following idealized conditions:
- Homogeneous and isotropic, elastic material
- Isotropic virgin stresses (σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = σ)
If the radius of the opening is a, the radial and tangential stresses of a cross section (σr and σt,
respectively) will be the following as function of the distance r from the circle center.

In the figure below these equations are shown graphically. It is particularly important to
notice the rapid increase in tangential stress close to the contour. Generally, in a case like this,
a tangential stress with a magnitude of twice the magnitude of the isostatic stress will be
42
induced all around the periphery.

Figure 4.9Tangential and radial stress surrounding a circular opening in isostatic stress field.
For an anisotropic stress condition the so-called Kirsch's equations are used for evaluating the
tangential stresses. According to Kirsch the tangential stress will reach the maximum value
(σt(max)) where the σ1 direction is tangent to the contour, and its minimum value (σt(min) )
where the σ3 direction is tangent. The actual values will be:

Figure 4.10 The influence of rock anisotropy on the stress surrounding of a circular opening.
Potential problems due to the stresses are indicated
The above figure illustrates that the distribution of tangential stress is strongly influenced by
the degree of stress anisotropy. If the stresses are very anisotropic the minimum tangential
stress, as illustrated, may even be negative, i.e. tensional

4.4.4 Stresses near Corners

Non symmetrical geometry and sharp corners in particular, will strongly affect the magnitude
of the tangential stress as described by Jaeger & Cook and others.

When the curvature radius is reduced, the magnitude of the tangential stress will increase.
This means, for instance, that the sharper the corner between the wall and the roof of a
cavern, the higher the stress concentration will be in that corner. In extreme cases such stress
concentration may reach magnitudes of more than 10 times the major principal stress value

In cases with benches or protruding corners the stress situation will be the opposite. Here the
stabilizing stresses, or the confinement, will be reduced, and stability problems will often
result.

43
Influence of the Rock properties:
In a TBM-bored tunnel or in a carefully blasted tunnel the tangential stress will have a
distinct maximum at the tunnel contour as illustrated figure below. As a result of blasting
damage to the rock, however, the situation in most drill and blast tunnel will be very different
from this idealized picture. In such case the extra joining close to the contour caused by
blasting reduces the capability of the rock mass to transfer stress, and the distribution of
tangential stress will in principle be as shown in the figure with a maximum value some
distance from the contour.

Figure 4.11 Principle sketch illustrating the concentration of tangential stress in a tunnel
when:
1) the contour rock is undisturbed
2) it is fractured as a result of blasting damage ( the virgin stress is assumed isostatical,
σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = σ)

The detailed distribution of the tangential stress will depend mainly on the deformation
properties of the rock mass. In very jointed rock the stress peak is relatively flat, and the
maximum stress value is located relatively far from the tunnel contour. This is also the case
in typical soft rocks. In hard and elastic rocks the stress peak is much steeper, and the
maximum stress value is located close to the contour.

The magnitude of the maximum tangential stress depends in theory on the shape of the
underground opening, and not on its size. The zone of influence however will increase with
increasing size. In-situ rock stress measurements indicate that the stresses stabilize at a
constant level at a distance from the tunnel contour corresponding to approximately half the
tunnel width. The constant level corresponds to the actual virgin stress.

Stability problems Due to stresses:

In the contour of an underground opening, there are normally two diametrically opposed
areas of tangential stress concentration and two areas of minimum tangential stress as
illustrated in Figure 8 when rock stresses are causing problems. The problems are normally
confined to the areas of maximum tangential stress. However, if the minimum tangential
stress is very low, this may also be a problem.

44
Problems Due to Tensile stress:
Due to its discontinuous character, a rock mass can resist little tensile stress. Hence even a
very small tangential tensile stress may cause radial jointing as indicated in figure 8.

In most cases a tensile jointing will not have much influence on the rock stability. For high
pressure tunnel it is more important that secondary jointing and opening of existing joints
may increase the risk of water leakages out of the tunnel.

Problems Due to High Compressive Stress:

If the compressive tangential stress exceeds the strength of the rock, fracturing parallel to the
tunnel contour will be the result in hard rock as shown in figure 8. The situation has a certain
similarity of fracturing in point load testing, in which the fracture is also induced by a
compressive stress in the direction of fracturing.

The fracturing process is often accompanied by loud noises from the rock. A phenomenon
commonly referred to as rock burst. At moderate stress level the fracturing will result in a
loosening of thin rock slabs, often referred to as rock slabbing or spalling. If the tangential
stress is very high, the rock burst activity may be quite dramatic. In extreme cases it may
have the character of popping of large rock slabs with considerable force and speed.

When the stresses are very high, rock bursts may be a major thereat to safety if the right type
of rock support is not installed at the right moment. In such cases extensive rock support is
necessary.

Rock burst activity is most intensive at the working face immediately after excavation.
Experience shows that the most difficult area is the section 10-20 m closest to the working
face.

In soft rocks the stress problems will not be characterized by spalling. Because of the plastic
nature of such rocks the potential problem here will be squeezing. In extreme cases
reductions of the original tunnel diameter of several tens of centimeters due to squeezing
have occurred in Central Europe.

The Influence of Rock Mass properties:

The character of the rock stress problem will largely depend on the rock mass properties.
Important aspects such as primary jointing and strength properties have already been
discussed. However, anisotropy and elastic properties may also be influential.

The orientation of the major principal stress relative to the direction of major joints sets and
important structural features, such as bedding and schistosity, will have a major influence on
rock burst activity. Severe problems may occur if the schistosity runs parallel to the tunnel
axis, and the major principal stress acts perpendicular to the axis and in the dip direction of
the schistosity.

Along a tunnel there will be a certain variation in stresses, rock type and elastic properties,
and therefore also a variation in rock burst activity. Generally, there will be a concentration
of stresses in stiff rocks and considerably lower stress in softer rocks. In gneisses, for
instance it is commonly experienced that tunnel sections particularly rich in mica are often
characterized by stress relief, while the rock burst is confined to more quartz and feldspar
rich sections.

45
Major weakness zones may also affect the rock stress situation. As many such zones are only
able to transform shear stress to a minor extent, the principal stresses will often be parallel
and perpendicular to the zones. Hence a tunnel through a major weakness zone may
experience extensive rock spalling on one side of the zone, while the stresses are reduced to a
moderate or low level on the other side

4.4.4 Norwegian Experience, Examples

An old Norwegian rule of thumb states that if heights above the tunnel of 500m or more are
reached at an angle of 250 or steeper in a valley side, one should always be prepared for stress
induced stability problems. Although this simple rule does not consider the influence of for
instance tectonic stress, it still reflects general experience from the majority of Norwegian
hydropower plants.

Figure 4.12The Consequence of high horizontal stress and an isotropic condition.

As an example, the major principal stress in figure 10 is approximately horizontal and

perpendicular to tunnel axis. The vertical stress ( ) is only one quarter of the value of the
major principal stress. And according to Kirsch's equation, the tangential stress is therefore
2.75 times the maximum horizontal stress.

In water tunnels it has occasionally been experienced that spalling may continue for many
years. This long-term effect is probably caused by a combination of high stresses, a reduction
of rock strength due to water saturation, creep effects and hydraulic pressure variations.

4.4.4 Rock Stress Measurements

To be able to analyze the potential problems due to rock stresses, it is necessary to obtain
information about magnitudes and directions of the principal stresses. Reliable information
on this issue can be obtained only by carrying out rock stress measurements.
Methods:
Throughout the years a considerable variety of different equipment for in-situ rock stress
measurements has been developed. However, for hydropower projects the following methods
are most relevant.

46
 - Triaxial stress measurements by drill hole over coring
- Hydraulic fracturing
The drill hole over coring technique has the longest tradition, and there are several versions
of this method. Figure 11 illustrates the principles of the version which is most commonly
used. As can be seen, what is actually being recorded are the strains. To be able to compute
the stresses, laboratory analyses of the elastic properties have to be carried out.

1. A diamond drill hole is drilled to

the required depth. A concentric hole
with a smaller diameter is drilled
approximately 30 cm further.

2. A measuring cell containing three

strain rosettes is inserted, and the
rosettes are glued to the walls of the
small hole.
3. The Small hole is over cored by
the larger diameter bit, thus stress
relieving the core. The
Corresponding strains are recorded
by the rosettes. W hen the elastic
constants are known, the triaxial state
of stress can be computed.
Figure 4.13 The principle of three dimensional rock stress measurements by overcoming

The basic principle of hydraulic fracturing is to isolate a section of a drill hole and, by
gradually increasing the pressure of water which is pumped into the hole, to obtain fracturing
of the surrounding rock. By recording water pressure and flow, the principle stress situation
can be evaluated.

4.4.4 Modeling
For analyzing rock stresses and deformation, numerical models may be a valuable tool
.Because of the large quantities of data involved in such analyses, powerful computers have
to be used.

Principles:
Generally, there are two main categories of numerical models:
- Discontinuous
- Continuous
In discontinuous models (or" block models") the rock mass is modeled as a system of single b
locks which interact along their edges. One fairly well known example of a method belonging
to this category is the Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC). Obviously; the concept of
discontinuity represents certain advantages. However, as this is quite a new category of
numerical models, it has had little application up to now.

Continuous models, on the other hand, have been used on many occasions, in this model
category the rock mass is modeled as a basically continuous medium. Limited number of
discontinuities (joints .faults, etc) may also be included. Common methods in this category
are the Finite Element Method (FEM) and the Boundary Element method ("BEM")

47
The initial step of FEM-analyses is to define a geological model of the actual area. The next
step is to generate the element mesh. Based on in put of rock properties and boundary
conditions the magnitudes and directions of stresses for all nodal points of the element mesh
are finally competed.
Examples:
The basic principle of a Simple FEM- model (homogeneous and isotropic conditions) is
shown in Figure 12. In this model the size of the elements becomes generally smaller close to
the contour of the rock cavern which is being modeled. This is simply because this is the area
of prime interest when analyzing stability and planning rock support. A special feature of this
model is the possibility of excavation elements in the roof, thus permitting analyses for a
cavern with a curved roof as well as one with a flat roof.

The relevant mechanical parameters are given, i.e. specific gravity ( , modulus of
elasticity (E) and position's ratio (V) need to be known. The nodal points at the bottom of the
model are free to move horizontally only, while the nodal points at the left hand side are free
to move vertically only.

Vertically the model is loaded with gravity forces; .h. Horizontal load is applied on the
right hand side of the model, and is given as k. .h. This is both force resulting from elastic
deformation and tectonic force.

The computed directions and magnitudes of principal stresses from such model analysis are
as illustrated in Figure 13. Here, the magnitudes and directions of the major and minor
principal stresses are given by the vector lengths and directions, respectively, of each of the
crosses.

Numerical modeling as shown by the above examples may be very useful during the design
of underground openings as well as during the planning of rock support. However, one
should be aware that there are certain restrictions in connection with such modeling. The
main restriction is the difficulty in obtaining reliable input parameters. Greatest uncertainty is
connected to the boundary stress data and to the elasticity parameters of the rock mass.

When applying numerical analyses one should always keep in mind that the reliability of the
analysis will never be better than the reliability of the input parameters.

The main use of numerical analyses in hydropower tunneling is on planning and design of
high pressure tunnels and air cushion chambers.

4.4.4 Tunneling Methods

There are two commonly used types of tunneling techniques:

- Conventional "Drill and Blast"
- Use of tunnel boring machines (TBM)

Conventional "Drill and Blast"Method:

In this method of tunneling, the main equipment used is the so-called drilling jumbo or drilling
rig, which performs the main operation. The following are the main sequences to be followed
during excavation of each round:
48
i) Drilling
ii) Charging
iii) Blasting
iv) Ventilating
iii) Scaling
iv) Mucking and hauling
v) Tunnelsupporting

Drilling is carried out by the percussion method. The principle is to force a drillrod with a
suitable drill bit against the tunnel face, generate a stroke in order to obtain rock spalling, and
then rotate the rod before it is once again forced against the hole and a new stroke is
generated. The power for the drilling thrust and rotation is transmitted by hydraulic systems.

In tunneling, blast hole diameters of 45 to 50 mm are most common. Medium size tunnels
(about 40 m2) may require about 60 to 70 drillholes. The length of the drillholes usually varies
from 3 to 5 m.

Once the drilling operation is completed, charging of the drill holes with explosives willbe
performed. There are different types of explosives, the most common one being dynamite.

If the holes close to the planned contour of the tunnel are too heavily loaded with explosives, a
considerable "over-break" and a rough, uneven contour may result. This over-break greatly
increases the need for scaling and tunnelsupport. If the tunnelis unlined, it willalso greatly
increase the head loss. In order to minimize the over-break in the walls and roof of the tunnel,
reduced charges are used close to the contour.

In rock blasting the main principle is to break the rock and push the rock fragments towards a
free surface. In a tunnelthe degree of confinement of the blast volume is far higher than in a
quarry. In order to obtain a satisfactory result from a tunnelblast it is, therefore, necessary to
include the so-called "cut" in the blast hole design. These consist of holes of larger diameter
than the blast holes and are usually left unloaded.

After blasting the round, ventilation has to be carried out to lower the concentration of
blasting fumes to a satisfactory level. The fans are usually started just after the explosion. It is
very seldom possible to enter the working face area until15-20 minutes after the blast, but this
depends on the ventilation equipment.

49
After each blast round, scaling (removing loose rocks from the roof and walls of the tunnel) is
done for the sake of safety. For small tunnels the scaling is made directly from the muck pile, in
larger it is often carried out from the wheel loader.
The selection of equipment for mucking and hauling largely depend on the cross-sectional
area and the gradient of the tunnel. For tunnels with cross-sections smaller than 16 m2, the only
alternative for transportation is rail transport system. In larger tunnels, wheel transport system
shallbe used. For wheel transport in cross-sections between 16 and 30 m 2 "niches" are
required every 100 to 150 m for the purposes of loading and turning trucks.

A major restriction for the railtransport alternative is that the maximum gradient has to be less
than 2%. For wheel transport gradients up to 15% may be tolerated.

Use of Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM):

A tunnelboring machine (TBM) is a complex and very advanced piece of machinery designed
to excavate the entire cross-section in a single operation without the use of explosives. Tunnels
with diameters of about 1.8 m to more than 11m have been excavated with tunnel boring
machines.

TBM consists of a wheelcutter head fitted with teeth or rollers to cut or spall the rock. The
wheelis slightly smaller than the bore of the tunnel and is equipped with disc-cutters to
produce the designed bore. The wheelis forced against the tunnel face by hydraulic jacks and is
made to rotate. As excavation proceeds, the rock-cuttings are picked up in buckets attached
around the rim of the wheel and are discharged on to a conveyor belt incorporated with the
machine as shown in Figure 14.

The diameter of the cutters is normally within the range of 45 to 50 cm, and the total number
of cutters varies from 20 for smallest machines to more than 70 for the largest.
Compared to conventionalD &B tunneling technique, TBM tunneling has the following
advantages:
- For long tunnels (> 3 km) the excavation time and the costs in many cases are
considerably lower due to a higher advance rate combined with reduced requirement
for tunnel support and ventilation.
- The tunnel will have a circular profile with a smooth contour, which is of particular
importance in reducing head loss in unlined water tunnels.
- Potential problems due to blast vibrations are eliminated, especially in populated

50
 areas.
- Less number of "adits" is required.
There are, however, some limitations in connection with the use of TBM in tunneling. These
include:
- Initial cost of the machine is high
- Requires detail geological investigation than the D & B alternative
- Less flexible than Conventional D & B technique in tackling stability problems
o maximum gradient is restricted to approximately 2% for railroad transport
o the maximum curve radius is restricted to 150-450 m

4.4.4 Tunnel Supports

A basic philosophy in tunneling is that the extent of installed tunnelsupport should reflect the
actualrock conditions. In good quality rock the self-supporting capacity of the rock mass
should be used to its advantage, and the amount of tunnelsupport kept at a minimum. In poor
quality rock the design of support should be based on a sound understanding of the character
and extent of the stability problem.

The various geologicalfactors which may influence the stability are:

- The strength and quality of the intact rock
- The degree of jointing and their character
- Weakness zones and faults
- Rock stresses
- Water inflow
Tunnelsupport may be installed either at the working face (immediate support), or behind the
face (permanent support). Whenever possible the design for the immediate support should be
chosen which makes it possible to act later as permanent support.
The following support methods are the most commonly used in hydropower tunneling today:
- Rock bolting
- Shotcreting
- Grouting
- Concrete lining

Rock Bolting:
A rock bolt is a steelbar, which is inserted into a hole drilled in a rock to improve the rock
competency. The distant end has a device which permits it to firmly anchored in the hole and
the projecting end is fitted with a plate which bears against the rock surface (see Figure 15).
The bolt is placed in tension between the anchor and the plate, thereby exerting a compressive
force on the rock.
Rock bolting in tunnels is carried out according to one of the following two main principles:
51
 - Spot bolting of individual, unstable blocks
- Systematic bolting of a section of the tunnel or the cavern in a defined pattern
On average, the length of rock bolts in water tunnels is 1.5 to 4 m and the diameter is 16 to 25
mm. Rock bolting is usually used for an immediate support near the tunnelface.
Shotcreting:
A shotcrete is a quick-setting concrete plaster shot at rock surfaces pneumatically. It creates
the best possible rock support condition, which makes it an economical, rapid, and effective
means of providing tunnel support. In practice the shotcrete is placed in 5 cm layers untila
desired thickness is attained.

The use of steelfibres in the concrete mix has an effect of increasing the strength of the
shotcrete. For an immediate support in areas of heavily jointed rock masses or in areas of high
rock stresses, steelfibre reinforced shotcrete is commonly used.
In many cases, the shotcrete is combined with rock bolting for use as a permanent support. A
combination of steelfibre reinforced shotcreting and systematic rock bolting can replace
concrete lining alternative, provided that water inflow and active gouge material in the
discontinuities are minimal or absent.
A generalrestriction in the use of shotcrete is in areas with water leakage. The main restriction,
however, is where weakness zones contain swelling clay (smectite). If shotcrete is applied on
such zones, there willbe no room for expansion of the swelling clay, and high swelling pressure
willbe activated when the zones are exposed to water. This may easily destroy the shotcrete
lining.
Grouting: Agrout is a mixture of cement and water forced in to rocks around the tunnel
periphery. Grouting may be performed ahead of the tunneling face (pre-grouting) or behind
the tunneling face (post-grouting). Pre-grouting is necessary in areas where groundwater
inflow makes tunneldriving difficult. Probe holes are drilled ahead of the tunnelface to perform
permeability testing before deciding the necessity of pre-grouting. Post-grouting is done to
improve the stability of the rock mass behind the tunnelface.

52
5. TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRIC POWER

If the power plant and the load centers are close to each other, the costs of electric power
transmission and maintenance are minimum. In most cases power plants are located in remote
areas and inside gorges which demands high cost of for transmission of electric power to the
load centers.
A design criterion of transmission lines considers:
· The maximum allowable voltage variation from no load to full load
· The maximum economic power loss
· Protection from lightning and other damages
· Structural stability in high winds (or, in temperate areas, in ice and snow)
· Safety for people living and working near the lines

Underground or over ground?

Over ground lines are used most often because, by using air as the cable insulator, the cable is
less expensive. Insulation can be cheap and simple. In most developing countries, uninsulated
cable is more readily available than underground.

Uninsulated cables are exposed to lightning and to falling trees. The land close to the lines has
to be cleared of trees, and this has to be carried out periodically. The poles may also have a
finite life, and so may need replacing, perhaps every 15 years. Further, overhead lines are less
efficient than underground for a given conductor size because the wide spacing of the
conductors gives rise to inductive losses.

Underground lines have to be insulated, and protected against ground movement, ploughing,
new buildings, etc. Once installed, however, the line should run without maintenance until the
insulting material deteriorates.

High Voltage (HV) or Low Voltage (LV) lines?

If transformers are used to step up the voltage to high values, the currents in the conductors are
smaller and cables are smaller. The lower cost of the cables is offset by the cost of the two
transformers needed, one at the start of the transmission line, and one at the end, to step the
voltage back down to the standard value. Additional costs for checking of ventilation or
cooling level and insulators for attachment of the cables to support poles are needed. By
contrast low voltage (LV) lines without transformers are more easily erected and maintained
by the local users of power.

5.5 Transmission and Distribution (T&D) system planning

Planning of T&D in principle should satisfy the socio-economic premises, technical
requirements depending on the availability of investment, cost level and other political
measures. Hence, power system planning is based on specific objective: seeking a plan that
contributes to minimize the total socio-economical supply cost, keeping all relevant
restrictions during the period of analysis, typically 20-30 years.

The planning process may have the following phases:

i Establishing the database
· Electrical system data, i.e. description of existing system and suggested extensions
· Load data, i.e. historic and present energy consumption, description of heavy/light load
 situations as well as prognoses for energy and power

ii Determine the main principles for system layout/renovation strategy

· Decision whether to follow earlier practice(system layout) of the utility or if the system
philosophy is to be considered e.g. by use of optimization calculation based on simplified
system description
iii Technical analysis of different system alternatives
· Load flow analysis, short circuit calculations, reliability analysis, contingency analysis and
stability analysis
iv Establishing investment costs and operation costs
· The investment costs (including interest) and operation costs for qualified system solutions
are evaluated.
v Cost minimization
· When all the fixed and operation costs for all qualified are calculated for the period of
analysis, the task in this phase is to determine the system plan that contributes to
minimizing total costs. The quantities under investigation here are: which investments are
to be made in the system (type), the size of the investment (size) and when are investments
to take place (year)
vi Decision of investment plan
· This is an evaluation phase where a selection is made among the economically most
favorable plan. The evaluation is accounting for: uncertainties in the database (possibly by
sensitivity analysis), parameters not directly represented in the model of economic analysis
(not all relations can be cost evaluated), how flexible the different plans related to
uncertainty in the database.

5.5 Design philosophy of overhead lines

The main parts of a power line, as roughly shown in the figure below, are the conductors (1),
the supports (towers or poles) (2) which hold the bare conductors, insulators (3) needed
between the conductors and the support and shield wires (4) attached to tower extensions.
Towers keep the conductors at suitable distance from the ground and other objects (external
clearances) and mutually apart (internal clearances). The three elements: conductors, supports
and insulators constitute the main types of components of an overhead power line. In addition,
supports need either foundations, or the lower part is buried in the ground, to keep them in a
fixed position, and hardware and clamps are used to fix the insulators between supports and
conductors. Shield wires are provided in some power lines.

The clearance has to be large enough to avoid discharge. The components must have the
mechanical strength to resist the stresses they are exposed to.Standards and regulations are
required to layout and design over head power lines, which out line the criteria for electro
technical and mechanical aspects. The electro technical aspects will be to determine the
voltage stresses acting on the line and to determine the required resistance voltage. The
mechanical aspects will be to determine the loads acting on the line and to determine the
strength of the various components that will resist the stresses created by the loads.

Design philosophy and standard of overhead lines should aim in explaining the general frame
work of a power line (standard) that can be improved in line with practical and theoertical
experience.
5.5 Framework of a standard
i Probabilistic methods :
· based on statistical Knowledge of an event
e.g. a climate load, that can be quantified by its yearly maximum value or the properties of a
component that can be quantified by e.g. its ultimate strength
ii Loads (Analyzing loads)
· Mechanical aspects: Analyzing the loads acting on the line
- Basic loads: due to the weight of towers, conductors and hardware and to vertical and
horizontal changes to line direction
· Additional loads:
- Climate loads: due to wind, ice and temperature, either separately or in combination
(statistical basis and experience)
- Special loads: to meet situations that can occur occasionally during
construction and operation
- Security loads: to withstand and satisfy requirements to the security of the
over head line, e.g. a failure can occur due to unpredictable event,
longitudinal loads acting on a suspension tower may be due to broken
conductor under normal tension (deterministic basis)
- Safety loads: to withstand with a good safety margin for personnel working
on the transmission line
· Electro technical aspects: concerning the mechanical aspects, the electrical stresses acting
on the line have be analyzed
The loads are classified as the following voltages:
- Continuous power frequency voltages
- Temporary over voltages
- Slow front over voltages
- Fast front over voltages
With all loads the minimum required insulator string length and electric clearance distances
will be determined and certain measures will be taken to ensure the operation security for
safety for humans and animals

5.5 Right Way of planning

Laying to Transmission lines needs extensive work of panning: The planning process may
include:
· Early clarification of possibilities and alternatives
· Close contact with local interests and users of the areas in question
· Recording of all important interests connected with the actual alternatives
· Consultations where all justifiable feasible alternatives are included
In the process of planning it is very important that the planners do not choose their own
favorite alternative before all relevant information is brought forward.
i Adaptation to use of land
As a main rule, avoiding the most valuable and conflict filled areas, where satisfactory
alternatives are available should be the aim
Aim at avoiding:
· Pristine areas and areas of high protection value
· Large continues tracts of nature and out door activity areas
· Land cape gems
· Routes with towers in cultivated fields but crossing cultivated field is preferable to going
 through forest
Evaluate Border zones:
· Between forest and cultivated fields
· Between residential areas and other areas
· Along roads (but carefully)
ii Landscape
The main rule should be that wherever possible and where solutions are otherwise acceptable,
the aim should be to find right of ways adapted to, and subordinated to the landscape.
· avoid silhouettes
· avoid barrier effects
· avoid conspicuous effects
· avoid strand zones or crossing over lakes
· stay low, search for routes where the line and especially the towers get cover or back
ground in topography or vegetation
· follow existing curves in the landscape, e.g. border zones in topography and vegetation
· Crossing rivers, roads and traffic routes should, as a main rule be perpendicular to them.
· Take care of forest screens when crossing or going along side rivers and traffic routes
· Choose the upper side or inner curve when going along side traffic routes
iii Health Impacts of electric and magnetic fields
In recent years grater attention has been focused on electric and magnetic fields, both among
the general public and experts, as a result of the fear that these field can constitute a health risk.
The suspicion is mainly directed at the power frequency (50c/s) alternate fields since these can
induce electric currents in different materials, among them living tissue. All appliances
connected to the electric network as well as electrical component in the electricity supply;
develop such fields in their vicinity.

Electric and magnetic fields in relation to power lines are important in this combination even if
such fields usually are weak compared to what is found in other electric sources. However,
power lines extend over larger areas and thus the public is regularly, and in some cases
permanently, exposed to the fields.
a) The electric field ( E-field)
The electric filed is designated with the latter E and is a measure of the rate of change of the
voltage when moving in a certain direction. It is measured in volts per meter (V/m).

The electric field is proportional to the voltage of the line, it is reduced with increased distance
to the line and it is increased with increased diameter of the conductor. The E field is also
characterized by being affected by objects in the field. Trees, buildings, terrain etc. can
therefore intentionally be used to reduce the electric fields. Objects placed in the field will be
charged and this can cause a jolt when touched due to the electric discharge. Earthing objects
in the field normally solves this problem.
b) The magnetic field ( B - filed)
The magnetic induction is designated with the letter B and gives the strength of the magnetic
field in the unit Tesla (T).

The B- filed is not directly relative to the voltage of the line, but is proportional to the current.
It is reduced with increased distance from the line and with large distance the filed is
approximately reduced inversely with the square of the distance. The influence of physical
obstacles on B-filed is minor.
iv risk of Bird Habitat:
Power lines affect bird life. The power lines may have an impact indirectly on bird life by
disturbing the birds' habitat, e.g., by reducing their access to food, nesting possibilities and
destroying their territory. The power lines also affect birds directly as they can be killed or
injured in collision with the conductors or by discharges.

The risk of bird collision can be reduced by:

· Choosing right of way out side the best isotopes
· Keeping away from natural migration routes
· Leading over head lines of the same dimension conductors heights in parallel
· Adapting the choice of right of way so that the conductors are shielded by vegetation or
terrain to avoid conductors just above tree tops.

5.5 Tower spotting

Tower spotting is done with the help of land surveying. During pegging of the route centre line
all necessary information including measurement of crossing lines, communication lines,
houses, buildings, roads, rivers and other objects along the route and property boundaries have
to be recorded.

The pegging in principle is carried out as a polygon mesh to be able to look between each
survey instrument and back to the former. At each new survey instrument position back sight
is taken to the former station. Each station is marked with a peg with the station number. As
the pegging proceeds, reference points with known coordinates have to be used, to obtain the
required accuracy of the direction pages.

Measuring points are taken where the route centre line changes direction. The distance
between the direction pegs should not exceed 50 meters. A direction peg is located with
suitable distance between the stations, depending on the terrain type.

Side terrain is measured to both sides of the centre line where the side terrain is at a higher
elevation than the centre line. How far out from the center line it should be measured is
determined e.g. from phase distance and clearance required from the ground. Usually the side
terrain will be measured approximately to the horizontal projection of the outer phase. In
sloping terrain it has to be measured further out to the side to allow the conductors to swing
under wind loads. The width of the route to be measured is largely dependent on the span
lengths used, snce conductors in longer span have large sags and will thus swing much more
than those with shorter spans.

5.5 Sag calculations and drawing of catenaries

Catenary adoption is to draw the catenaries onto the route profile to check the distance to the
ground; it is draw for the highest temperature according to relevant regulations or standard.

If C is the lowest point on the curves, they forces acting on arc length CB are the tensions T at
B, To at C and the mass (ws) of portion CB, where w is the mass per unit length and S is the
arc length CB. Thus CB must be in equilibrium under the action of the forces:
Resolving Vertically Tsin =
Resolving Horizontally Tcos = To
 Therefore
For a small increment of the cable:

When x = 0, s = 0, k = 0 X =
The say correction for the whole span ACB

ABC =
i.e
where w = mass per unit length ( kg/m)
T = Straining length (m)
L = recorded length (m)

As

Egns (a) and(b) apply only to takes standardized on the flat and are always negative
The sag , y is calculated as :

If y is the maximum say at the centre of the cable, then s =

Hence the total length of the cable required due to sag is

The elastic elongation of the conductor due to the horizontal tension is approximately

Where A = the sectional area of the conductor

E = the elasticity Modulus (Young's Modulus) of the conductor
The elongation of the conductor between temperatures t1 and t 2 is
Where thermal elongation coefficient of the conductor
Hence, the overall length the cable b/n tow towers

5.5 Conditions influencing the Tower spotting

Tower Spotting is used for determining the location and height of towers on the route profile.
Several factors can be listed.
· Conductor type
· Tower type
· Terrain type
· Climatic loads
· Crossings
· Clearances to adjacent objects
· Building conditions, etc.
The conductor type used will influence span lengths as well as heights of towers. The breaking
strength of the specific conductor type will limit the capacity for long spans, especially for
smaller conductors. In connection with spans that means have to be long, e.g. across valleys, a
special conductor has to be inserted.

The conductor type is evaluated in relation to the electric power it is going to transmit and
from the needed mechanical strength ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel Core Reinforced)
conductors combine good conductivity with high mechanical strength. They consist of a steel
core with a certain number of steel strands with one or several layers aluminum strands outside.

The choice of tower type is very important. When building wood towers, the height of the
towers is limited and so as the span length since the lengths of wood poles is a limiting factor.

Terrain type and climatic loads will influence both span lengths and towers locations, for
instance in high mountainous areas where there often is heavy wind load. Too long length
should be avoided due to the risk of clashing between the conductors. Where very long spans
can not be avoided in such areas, the distance between the conductors (phase) could be
evaluated carefully to avoid clashing.

5.5 Tower Design: (Static Analysis and dimensioning based on agreed standards)
Towers and foundations should be designed to resist the forces transmitted to the towers from
the conductors through their suspension points in the tower. In addition to this comes the net
weight of the tower as well as wind load on the tower body.
Over head line supports with wood are used up to 132KV power lines. These conductors use
up to ACSR Conductor, (overall diameter 27.7mm). For larger conductors steel towers are
used. The Most commonly used wood tower for high power line is the H-frame with two legs
of round timber. The foundation is made by burying (digging down) the lower part in to the
ground. The digging depth depends on the height of the tower and diameter of the towers at
the ground surface.
.
Wood towers are usually built of timber, pressure impregnated by creosote or salt. A well
built construction, with an impregnated tower that largely prevents water from penetrating in
to the wood can attain longer life time under normal conditions.

The towers can roughly be divided in to two types: tension towers (separating the sections)
and tangent towers. The tension towers should be rigid and able to prevent loads from one
section being transmitted to the next. The tangent towers should support the conductors within
the section.

Longitudinal loads, e.g. due to a broken conductor, will as a rule be determining for the design
of the tension towers. For tangent towers transverse wind loads are usually decisive for the
designs. When designing transmission supports, attention should be give to the fact that
different load cases can be decisive for the dimension of different parts of the tower. In
principle therefore, parts of a tower must be controlled for all load cases, and the various
components must act so that force from the conductor can be transferred through the
construction from the conductor clamps to the foundation.

Tension towers are usually formed as so called A-towers with 2 or 3 legs. Top and base
connections must be designed for the anticipated shear forces and are carried out with the
necessary number of bolts. Alternatively, tension can be attained with guyed towers, but this
gives a less stiff construction. There are many types of tangent towers, depending on function.
Most often the so called H-frame with suspended insulator chain is used. The tower has
proved the needed flexibility for longitudinal and transverse load, as well as torsion. The
connection between cross arms and tower legs should be formed so that it allows for moments
without giving rise to wear.

In tension towers as well as in tangent towers with angle or up lift, tension chains are most
often used. The mechanical design of these, i.e. clamps, insulators and suspense are
implemented according to the regulations or standards.

Steel Towers:
Computer programs are most often used to analyze the loads on steel towers (forces and
displacements)

Testing of Towers:
Even though it can be documented by means of the design that towers in a power line have the
necessary strength, it is customary to test the different tower types of a large power line in a
testing station. At the testing station the towers are erected on foundations and checked for the
relevant loads cases in full scale. Loads are imposed on the towers in the suspension points for
conductors/insulators. To simulate wind loads on the tower body, loads can be applied
elsewhere in the tower.
The loads can be applied using simple weights or pulleys and hydraulic systems. During the
testing of the different load cases the loads can be applied steadily and controlled. With the
help of measuring equipment the deflection of the towers can be recorded and checked against
the loads the tower are designed for.

Concrete poles

5.5 Design of foundations

The foundations of the towers may be a separate construction upon which the tower is placed
in the case of a conventional wood pole the poles themselves are dug down in to the ground.

With regard to foundations as separate parts of the tower they are usually built on steel
reinforced concrete. This type of foundation may be divided in to:
i Foundation designed to resist compression only
ii Foundation designed to resist uplift
iii Foundation designed to resist both compression and uplift
iv Foundation designed to resist toppling overturning moment

An example of type i and ii is foundations of guyed steel towers.

The columns in this case are exposed to axial compression and may rest on foundations
designed for compression only. The guy wires for this type of towers are anchored in buried
foundations (anchors) designed for tension forces only.

In connection with self supporting lattice steel supports, they usually have separate foundation
for each leg which can be exposed to both compression and tension forces. In addition to these
forces these foundation also have to resist shear forces that the towers are exposed to.

Towers exposed to overturning are generally self supporting towers placed on a single
foundation only. These foundations have also to resist the axial and lateral forces transferred
from the towers.

6. CONSTRUCTION FEATURES OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS

Main feature of hydropower project:
· Storage
· Conveyance
· Power house

6.6 Reservoirs
Purpose: to stabilize the flow of water in order to satisfy a varying demand from consumers or
of regulates water supplied to a river course.
Investigation of reservoir sites:
In an investigation of a potential reservoir site, consideration must be given to the amount of
rainfall, runoff, infiltration, and evapotranspiration which occurs in the catchments area. The
climatic, topographical and geological conditions are therefore important, as is the type of
vegetation cover.
Basic data for reservoir design studies:
· Topographical Map
· Hydrological records
Leakage from reservoirs:
The most attractive site for a large impounding reservoir is a valley constricted by a gorge at
its out fall with steep banks upstream so that a small dam can impound a large volume of water
with a minimum extent of water spread. However, two other factors have to be taken in to
consideration:
i. The water tightness of the basin and
ii. Bank stability
The question of whether or not significant water loss will take place is chiefly determined by
the groundwater conditions, more specifically by the hydraulic gradient. Accordingly, once
the ground water conditions have been investigated an assessment can be made of water
tightness and possible ground water control measures.

Leakage from reservoirs takes the form of sudden increases in stream flow downstream of the
dam site with boils in the river and the appearance of springs on the valley sides. It may be
associated with major defects in the geological structure such as solution channels, fault zones,
or buried channels through which large and essentially localized flows takes place. Seepage is
more discrete flow, spread out over a larger area, but may be no less in total amount.

Apart from the conditions in the immediate vicinity of the dam, the two factors which
determine the retention of water in reservoir basins are the piezometric conditions in, and the
natural permeability of, the floor and flanks of the basin.
For ground water condition (Knell, 1971)
a. The groundwater divide and piezometric level are at a higher elevation than that of the
proposed top water level. In this situation no significant water loss takes place.

b.The ground water divide, but not the piezometric level, is above the top water level of the
reservoir. In these circumstances seepage can take place through the separating ridge in to the
adjoining valley.

c.Both the ground water divide and piezometeric conditions are at a lower elevation than the
top water level but higher than that of the reservoir floor. In this case the increase in
groundwater head is low and the flow from the reservoir may be initialed under condition of
low piezometeric pressure in the reservoir flanks
 d.The water table is depressed below the base of the reservoir floor. This indicates deep
drainage of the rock mass or very limited seepage.

Troubles from seepage can usually be controlled by exclusion or drainage techniques.

Exclusions:
· Cut of trenches
· Grouting
· Impervious lining - Asphalt membrane
· Clay blankets
Grouting:
· Curtain grouting
· Consolidation grouting
The depth of grouting hole should be more or equal to the dam height.

Drainage gallery:

Any seepage water through the foundation will be intercepted by the drain hole and brought up
to a collection drain from where water is pumped out.

6.2Concrete Dam Construction

i. Inspection galleries
ii. Transverse joints (Inter block joints): vertical contraction joints are formed at regular
intervals of 12-15m along the dam axis. The joints are made necessary be the shrinkage
and thermal characteristics of mass concrete. They permit minor differential movements
between adjacent blocks, and in their absence major transverse cracks will develop. To
control seepage along the plane of the joints a water barrier is formed close behind the
upstream face.
iii. Construction joints (inter life joint): individual concrete pours within each monolith must
be limited in volume and in height to reduce post construction shrinkage and cracking.
Concrete pours are therefore restricted by the regular formation of near horizontal
construction or "lift" joints. Lift height is generally limited to 1.5 -2.0m. The lift surface is
generally constructed with a stepped or uniform fall of 5-10% towards the upstream face to
improve the notional resistance to sliding on that potentially weaker plane.

Stages in dam site appraisal and project development Activities:

Construction of monolith can be done on either the ‘ alternate block' or the ‘

shrinkage slot'
principle. In either method the objective is to maximize shrinkage before pouring abutting
lifts of concrete in adjacent blocks.
 a) Alternate block construction adjacent pours phased to accommodate shrinkage- lag
time approximately 30-60 days.

b) Construction with contraction gaps or shrinkage slots: gaps concreted approximately

30-60 days after adjacent lifts completed.

Mass concrete in dams is not subjected to compressive stresses comparable with those
developed in most other major structures. The volume of concrete with in a dam is relatively
great, however, requiring large pours and high placing rates. Several other properties therefore
rank equally with strength as indices of quality and fitness for purpose. The desirable
characteristics for a mass concrete for use in dam can consequently be summarized as follows.
· Satisfactory density and strength
· Durability
· Low thermal volume change
· Resistance to cracking
· Economy
Cement Requirement (kg/m3):
Zoning of concretes in high dams (H>100m)
Constituent Materials:
Cement:
Ordinary Portland cement is not recommended in dam construction. The resulting
temperature rise and heat gain in large pours is unacceptable in relation to consequent
problems of shrinkage, heat dissipation and cracking. It is therefore preferable to employ a
low heat or modified Portland cement. Thermal problems can be alleviated by the use of
Pozzolana blended Portland cements. In the absence of special cements, partial replacement
with pulverized fuel ash (PFA) and /or cooling are also effective in containing heat build up.
Aggregate :( Cheap, inert)
A maximum size of coarse aggregate of 75-100 mm is considered the optimum with rounded
or irregular natural gravels generally preferable to crushed rock aggregates. In fine aggregate
range, i.e. <4.67mm size natural sands are similarly preferable to crushed fines. Aggregates
should be clean and free from surface weathering or impurities. A smooth well-graded particle
size distribution curve for the combined aggregate will ensure maximum packing density for
the compacted concrete mix.

W ater:
Water for use in concrete should be free of undesirable chemical contamination, including
organic contaminates. A general standard is that the water should fit for human consumption.
Admixtures:
Air entraining agent, (AEA) is added to the concrete which helps in reducing the water
contents, and handling becomes easy. Water reducing admixture (WRAs) is sometimes
employed to cut the water requirement, typically by 7-9%. They are also effective in delaying
setting time under conditions of high ambient temperatures.
Concrete mix parameter:
The parameters which are principally responsible for controlling the properties of concrete
manufactured with specific cement and aggregates are cement content, C (kg/m 3); water
content, w (kg/m3 )and water: cement ratio (by weight). Some further influence can be exerted
through the addition of PFA and and/or the use of other admixtures such as AEA and WRA.

The in-situ properties of the mature concrete are dependent upon attaining maximum density
through effective compaction. The ability to achieve this is largely controlled by the physical
characteristics of the fresh concrete, notably its cohesiveness and workability which is related
to the mix proportions, principally in terms of the water, cement and fines contents.

Handling and placing of concrete:

For lower lifts it may be possible to carry the concrete by trucks but for higher lifts, the
concrete is to be carried by crane arrangement, traveling overhead cable ways and conveyor
systems. Concrete lifts are normally formed in at least two layers, and compacted by poker
vibrators. The cost efficiency and effectiveness of the compaction may be improved by the
use of immersion vibrators mounted on suitable tracked plant running on the surface of the
concrete pour.
Uniformity and consistency has to be ensured during concrete production and placing over the
period of the construction.
Controlling concrete temperature:
During placing, the concrete temperature has to be maintained low (12-150C). The temperature
can be brought down either by pre-cooling of coarse aggregate and use of ice chilled water
during concrete production reduces the concrete temperature. Pre-cooling of the coarse
aggregate is done by spraying cool water.
Post Cooling:
Depending on the ambient temperature, post cooling may be needed. High density
polyethylene pipes are laid between 1.0 to 1.5m interval in the lifts and ice cooled water (3-
40C) is circulated through the pipes. The period of post cooling could be as high as 6 months.
Roller Compacted concrete dam. Construction (RRCC dam):
The construction of concrete gravity dam consumed long construction time due to the slow
curing process of mass concrete to avoid thermal shrinkages. A new technology, RCC dam
construction was introduced in 1970s which offers a potential of financial benefits associated
with shortening of construction period by up to 35% combined with a lower-cost variant of
concrete for large dams.
Three approaches:
RDLC- Rolled Dry Lean Concrete
RCD- Rolled -Concrete Dam (Japan) - lean hearting
RCC- Roller - Compacted Concrete - high paste content material and known to have high PFA
content

a) Rolled Dry Lean Concrete (RDLC)

b) High paste Roller Compacted Concrete(RCC)

In the construction of RCC dam the concrete is handled as an earth fill, and compacted at or
near its optimum moisture content in thin layers.
Construction in RDLC and some other RCCs permits an intensively mechanized construction
process, with concrete delivery and compaction plant. Construction joints, if considered, may
be sawn through each successive layer of concrete after placing.
The RCC approach is best suited to wide valley; giving scope for unobstructed ‘ end-to-end'
continues placing. The construction saving realized are at a maximum for high-volume dams
and arise from a 25-35% reduction in construction time as well as reduced unit costs for the
RCC. In its low-cost ‘ geotechnical' format (e.g. RDLC). RCC is particularly suited to more
remote sites where importation of cement and/or PFA is difficult or expensive.

Construction of Embankment Dams:

The construction operations of embankment dams fall in to four principal groups relating to:
i. Material source development: opening out of borrow areas or quarries, installation of fixed
plants, e.g. crushers, and conveyors, construction of access and haulage roads, etc.
ii. Foundation preparation and construction: river diversion, removal of top soil and
weathered surface.
iii. Fill construction: placing to materials and compaction.
iv. Ancillary works construction: construction of spillways, stilling basins, culverts, tunnels
and outlet works.

Geosynthetics in embankment dams:

Geosynthetics (geotextile and geomembranes) have considerable potential in dam engineering
given that issues of durability in specific applications can be resolved. A range of
geosynthetics have been employed in a number of different applications both in new
construction and in rehabilitation projects.
Geosynthetics can be employed to fulfill several different functions in embankment dams:
i. Impermeable membranes (upstream or internal): Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) and High
Density Polyethylene (HDPE) upstream membranes have been successfully employed in
dams up to 40m height. The membranes, typically 3-4mm thick, are laid in 4-6m wide
strips on a prepared sand bed and drainage layer, and anchored at crest and toe.
ii. Fitter and drainage layers (seepage control): Relatively thick geosynthetics with high
internal transmissivity are suitable for filters or drainage layers.
iii. Earth reinforcement (Stability of slopes, etc.): Geosynthetics reinforcement materials, e.g.
geogrids, can be used to permit construction of steeper face slopes or to help to contain
lateral deformation and spread within the embankment or on a soft foundation.
iv. Control of surface erosion (precipitation or limited overtopping flows). The use of
geogrids and mats in conjunction with natural vegetation has proved for erosion resistance.
v. Separation interlayer: geosynthetics can be used to act as an interlayer to ensure positive
separation of fill materials, at an interface.
6.6 Instrumentation Objectives and Dam safety
The principal objectives of a geo-technical instrumentation plan may be generally
grouped into four categories:
· Analytical assessment
· Prediction of future performance
· Legal evaluation and
· Development and verification of future research and designs
Instrumentation achieves these objectives by providing quantitative data to assess
groundwater pressure, deformation, total stress, temperature, seismic events, leakage, and
water levels. Total movements as well as relative movements between zones of an
embankment and its foundation may also need to be monitored. A wide variety of
instruments may be utilized in a comprehensive monitoring program to ensure that all
critical conditions for a given project are covered sufficiently.
Analytical assessment:
Analysis of data obtained from geo-technical instrumentation may be utilized to verify
design parameters, verify design assumptions and construction techniques, analyze
adverse events, and verify apparent satisfactory performance.
Prediction of future performance:
Instrumentation data should be used in such a manner that informed valid predictions of
future behavior of an embankment can be made. Such predictions may vary from
indicating continued satisfactory performance under normal operating conditions to an
indication of potential future distress which may become threatening to life or safety, and
necessitate remedial action. Often earth and rock fill embankments constructed for flood-
control purposes remain dry, or maintain only very low level conservation or recreation
pools, except during infrequent flood events.

As a result, these embankments may have existed for years without ever experiencing
maximum design conditions. However, instrumentation data obtained during intermediate
flood events can be projected to predict performance during potential maximum flood
stage or reservoir levels.
Legal evaluation:
Valid instrumentation data can be valuable for potential litigation relative to construction
claims. It can also be valuable for evaluation of later claims relative to changed
groundwater conditions downstream of a dam or landward of a levee project. In many
cases, damage claims arising from adverse events can be of such great monetary value
that the cost of providing instrumentation can be justified on this basis alone.

Instrumentation data can be utilized as an aid in determining causes or extent of adverse

events so that various legal claims can be evaluated.
Development and verification of future research and designs:
Analysis of the performance of existing dams and levees, and instrumentation data
generated during operation, can be used to advance the state-of-the-art of design and
construction. Instrumentation data from existing projects can promote safer and more
economical design and construction of future earth and rock fill embankments.
Operation and Maintenance Program:

69
The people responsible for dam operation and maintenance should become involved with
the dam during the design and construction stages. This will give O&M (operation and
maintenance) personnel an opportunity to become familiar with design and construction
considerations and to become aware of problems that may require special attention during
the operation and maintenance of the dam. An inspection should be made at construction
completion by design, construction, and operations personnel to ensure that all items are
complete or deficiencies are identified for later completion. During this inspection,
problems, unique operations, general maintenance requirements, etc. should be discussed
and procedures established for their proper handling. Requirements for initial filling
should be available and should be agreed upon. During this time extra precautions and
procedures for operation should be established because unpredictable situations may
occur. During the first filling the facility should be attended continuously.

Routine maintenance and inspection of dams and appurtenant facilities should be an

ongoing process. All unusual conditions that may adversely affect the operation,
maintenance, or safety of the dam should be reported promptly using predetermined
written procedures.

In addition to ongoing routine maintenance and inspection, periodic in-depth inspections

should be made on every dam at least every 5 years. The depth and frequency of these
inspections should depend on dam size, hazard, complexity, and the previous problems
encountered. A qualified team, usually headed by an engineer not directly involved in the
operation and maintenance of the facility, should perform these inspections. The engineer
should be accompanied by operations personnel familiar with all feature of the operation
and maintenance of the dam. Inspections should be scheduled, if possible, during
alternate periods of high and low water to observe conditions unique to these situations.
Special inspections should be scheduled when there is reason to believe that significant
damage has occurred or has potential to develop. Deficiencies noted during the inspection
should be identified and documented in the report, and procedures should be established
for correction in a timely manner. The responsibility for correcting problems should be
clearly documented. Funding schedules should be considered to ensure adequate and
timely funding to accomplish the work.

Underwater inspections of facilities not normally observable, such as stilling basins,

upstream face, etc., should be scheduled periodically to ensure continued performance.
An underwater inspection every 6 years is recommended; however, the inspection
frequency can be adjusted depending on the findings. Inspections should be scheduled
during low water periods to the maximum extent possible. Underwater divers and
photography may be used to good advantage in some cases; however, dewatering may be
required to better evaluate the condition of facilities. A report of all such inspections
should be prepared, describing the condition of facilities and citing identified deficiencies.

Written instructions should be available for use by O&M personnel to operate the dam.
These instructions furnished by designers and manufacturers should include the
procedures for routine servicing and the requirements for special operation and
maintenance of equipment. The procedures, generally referred to as SOP's (Standing

70
Operating Procedures) should also include emergency preparedness plans and inundation
mapping, the extent and nature of inspections, hydrologic and reservoir operations, and
other pertinent aspects of dam O&M. The operation and maintenance of the dam should
be carried out according to these procedures. Significant deviations from these procedures
by O&M personnel should not be made without the approval of higher management or
engineering personnel. A copy of these instructions should be accessible to the dam
operator both during routine operation and during abnormal conditions at the dam. A log
should be kept for each dam to record all significant actions or information, such as
releases, seepage, maintenance, emergencies, etc. This book should be kept at the dam or
other accessible convenient place for ready reference and use. It should become a part of
the permanent records for the dam. Dam O&M personnel should be trained before their
independent operation of a dam. The degree and complexity of training should depend on
the conditions and hazards at and below the dam.

6.6 Dam safety principle and concepts

New Dams:
i. Planning and Design
A new dam should be developed in accordance with state-of-the-art design techniques
and construction practices and in a manner commensurate with its size, function, geologic
setting, and potential hazard classification. Careful attention must be given to the
following planning and design considerations.
· Selection of the dam site
· Estimation of the PMF and selection of the IDF
· Identification of earthquake source are and structure, estimation of MCE's
(Maximum Credible Earthquake) and identification of earthquake related safety
concerns
· Development of a site-specific geotechnical exploration program
· Design of the foundation, dam, and appurtenant structures
· Design of a system of instrumentation to monitor the performance of the dam,
foundation, and appurtenant structures
· Development of an initial reservoir-filling and surveillance plan and of reservoir
drawdown criteria
· Preparation of designer's operating criteria and identification of special
considerations to be observed during construction and operation
· Provisions for the automatic, independent review by competent individuals of all
design decisions, methods, procedures, and results related to dam safety
· Provisions to revise the design to make it compatible with conditions encountered
during construction

ii. Construction
Quality construction is critical to dam safety. Construction personnel must be constantly
alert to recognize and recommend the possible need for adjustments in the design,
construction materials, and construction practices to properly provide for actual

71
conditions encountered. The essential aspects of the construction program include:
· Keeping construction engineers and inspectors informed of the design
philosophies, assumptions, and intent of the designer with regard to foundation
excavation and treatment, to the usage and processing of construction materials,
and to the design concepts associated with the construction of embankments and
concrete structures and with the installation of mechanical and electrical
equipment
· Keeping construction engineers and inspectors informed of the field control
measures and tests required to ensure quality construction
· Maintaining an adequately staffed and equipped materials laboratory at the dam
site to meet the field testing requirements
· Providing a formal plan for construction inspection to ensure that each facet of
essential work is accomplished in multi shift operations
· Giving the Project Construction Engineer the authority to suspend work until all
site conditions different from those anticipated are evaluated and the necessary
design or construction changes are implemented
· Inspection and acception of critical work stages, by the appropriate engineers or
geologist (design and/or technical review personnel)
· Keeping a job diary and documentation that provides a complete history of the
work
· Providing mapping and photographic documentation of the construction progress
and of significant events; e.g., geologic maps and photographs of final treated
foundations.

Existing Dams:
a.Operation and Maintenance
The operation and maintenance procedure implemented should ensure the safe operation
of the dam and provide for timely repair of facilities. The essential procedures include:
· Preparing SOP's (Standing Operating Procedures); information on the preparation
of SOP's is contained in chapter 12
· Training personnel in both normal and emergency operation and maintenance
responsibilities and in problem detection
· Maintaining a written record of reservoir, waterway, and mechanical equipment
operations and of maintenance activities
· Testing full operation of spillway and outlet works gates on a regular basis, using
both primary and auxiliary power systems
· Providing for public safety and for security against vandalism of essential
operating equipment
· Establishing and maintaining communication links with local governmental
agencies and authorities
· Preparing and maintaining current EPP's (Emergency Preparedness Plan)
b.Periodic Examinations and Evaluations
The periodic examination and evaluation of dams and reservoirs is of considerable
importance for public safety. The intent of conducting periodic examinations and
evaluations is to disclose conditions that can disrupt operations or threaten dam safety
early enough for these conditions to be corrected.

72
Documentation on Dams:
All significant design data, computations, and engineering and management decisions
should be documented and retained throughout the life of a dam. The documentation
should cover investigations and design, construction plans and specifications,
construction history, operation and maintenance instructions and history, instrumentation
monitoring instructions, structural behavior history, damage, repairs and improvements,
and periodic examinations and evaluations. Memoranda, reports, criteria, computations,
drawings and records of all major decisions regarding the design, construction, operation
and maintenance, and safety of the dam should be permanently retained and accessible in
central file.

73
 7. Mini Hydropower project Development considerations

7.7 Definition
Small Hydropower may be classified according to different criteria such as head, powerhouse
layout, and installed capacity. The definition may vary at different times and in different
countries implying that it has no strict definition. According to UNDO an installed capacity
between 101KW and 1000KW is defined as Mini Hydropower (MHP) development.

7.7 Energy supplies in Rural Areas

The main prerequisite for socio-economic development in an area is the acquisition of
economic and reliable energy. According to statistics from the United Nations, a total
installed capacity of 85 GW should be newly added in the world's rural areas so that the un
electrified rural areas inhabited by 1.7 billion people will have electricity for basic needs
(exclusive of industrial and agricultural loads). However due to the limitation of conventional
energy resources and a shortage of funds and expertise etc, only a few millions of rural
people in the world can be energized in a year. Therefore, the lack of electricity becomes a
great constraint to the rural and the national economic development of a country.

At the heart of rural electrification is the development of commercial energy owing to some
historic factors, vast rural areas are completely cut off from the national economy. Most
energy consumption in rural areas is still from biomass and electricity occupies only a small
portion of the energy consumed.

In our country more than 80% of the population is scattered in the country side consuming 88.
4% of the Biomass energy out of 94.5% of Biomass energy consumption in the country (1996
- statistics). On the other hand 751.128 metric tone of fuel oil was consumed out of which
only about 8% of the fuel oil was consumed by rural energy consumption. This shows that the
imposition on the financial balance of the country is high but urban and industrial centers are
using large proportion of imported energy sources. Such disproportionate energy allocation
leads to an increase in fire wood consumption in rural areas resulting in soil erosion and loss
as well as a decrease in soil fertility and damage to the environment. Therefore, the
promotion of rural commercial energy is a critical decision for our nation.

Those who are in favor of using conventional energy think that it all the total fire wood
consumption in rural areas of the world is replaced by oil, about 0.2 billion tons of oil will be
needed annually occupying only 7% of the total oil production in the world. So shortage of
energy in rural areas is actually is an issue of poverty rather than an energy issue.

However, past energy crises and escalation in oil prices clearly show that this strategy is
neither realistic nor cost effective Moreover; the large scale burning of Hydrocarbons would
exacerbate the green house effect, making a serious ecological impact on the environment.
Thus it is necessary to set up a clean rural energy structure.

Those who are in favor of a centralized energy supply think that MHP plants are neither
economically feasible nor technically viable and the energy demand in rural could be better
solved by the extension of large grids. Again this approach is not the case in reality. More

74
over many rural areas are rich in MHP resources and many remote areas can not be
economically energized by the extension of large grids. In reality a flexible or diversified
strategy of rural electrification should be considered based on local conditions. In china
diversity and decentralization of energy supply has brought effective rural economic
development.

So far only few small Hydropower plants (SHP) have been developed with SCS (Self
Contained System) Soar, Denbi and Yadot generate 5.00, 0.80 and 0.35 MW of electricity
respectively. Out of which Debi and Yadot are Mini Hydropower plants according to the UN
definition of hydropower classification

7.7 The Mini Hydropower development

In new and renewable energy sources, SHP is mature in technology. Long ago human beings
learnt how to make use of water for power. In the country it is still possible to find primitive
Hydraulic Devices (Water Mills). Nowadays, SHP is well developed, with the application of
new technology and design to shorten its construction period and the initial cost being
reduced by full use of local labour and materials as well as a series of preferential policies
from government.
The main advantages of MHP are:
· its suitably for decentralized development, fully using local materials and appropriate
technology with the participation of local people,
· its mature technology and small investment risk,
· its low operating costs easy maintenance and reliable power supply
· little environmental impact during construction with some positive impact on the
environment
· the obvious social benefit to a developing local economy and improvements in the
material and spiritual life of local residents
Hence, it is pointed out in a United Nations report that as a clean and renewable energy SHP
or MHP ought to be developed as a priority for its maximum economic benefits as well as its
multi purposes, such as irrigation water supply, fish breeding and ecological effects.

For developing countries, the maximum capacity of the rural industrial equipment is
generally less than 100KW and rural industries can be energized by MHP if MHP resources
are abundant in the region. For instance in China the unit cost of MHP is around $650- 00 and
its M&O cost is much less than that of diesel or coal fueled plants. Therefore China has gone
to great efforts to develop SHP and MHP, and ‘ 'to get richness by constructing MPH'' has
become the common experience in hilly regions of china.

7.7 Factors of MHP development

On the basis of the experience of some countries, the following factors are required for the
development of MHP:
· Rich MHP resources and certain loads
· Sufficient funds for the construction of MHP stations
· Expertise in its economic exposition
· Preferential policies from central and local governments

75
7.7 Preferential policy for MHP development
For instance in china, the government has stipulated a series of preferential policies to
promote SHP development as follows:
· The "three self policy", namely self construction, self management and self
consumption; which means that the people who invested in and constructed SHP
stations have the right to manage the plant to use, to use the output of SHP plant and
to obtain benefits from the station
· "Further developing SHP with benefits from existing stations which means that the
benefits of SHP should be reinvested to further develop SHP should be reinvested to
further develop SHP plants or local grids
· Local grids can have their own supply area and unified management system of
generation, distribution and power supply and be connected to and mutually aided by
large (or national) grids
· The government gives preferential loans and exemption to SHP developers

7.7 Funding
Generally speaking the unit cost of SHP or MHP is greater than that of medium and large
hydropower plants and its initial investment is a great burden for local developers. The
funding of SHP or MHP should mainly be self generated and be based on the particular
conditions of a country. In any case a feasibility study of the project is first required for the
developer or owner so as to make the right decision.
The funds for SHP or MHP can be gathered from:
· some subsidies or preferential loans from central and local governments
· loans from banks
· investment from industrial consumers and local people

7.7 Appropriate technology for MHP

· typical designs are available gates, pre-stressed concrete penstocks and pre-cast
concrete poles
· many micro hydropower plants have been packaged and commercialized
· electro mechanical equipment in SHP and MHP plants have been standardized and
serialized thus reducing thus SHP or MHP unit cost
· some practical devices, such as ELC (Electric Load Control), a simplified govern or
(operator), auto-valves with counterweight and automatic controllers have been
invented which reduces the operating cost and improved operation

7.7 Benefits of MHP

MHP has economic, social and environmental benefits such as:
· Providing cheap power for local industry and agro-by-product processing
· MHP development can be combined with irrigation, water log control and flood
prevention, thus promoting crop yields and agricultural modernization
· Increasing revenue for local government and income for local people
· Creating more jobs and reducing the migration of rural people in to cities
· Invigorating rural cultural life and improving the living standards of the local people

76
 · MHP can be used in hilly areas for cooking, instead of firewood, hence conserving
the environment
· Developing tourism in rural areas
· Benefiting social developments and stability
For example with the economic development of rural areas, there would be large numbers of
the rural population moving to other industries. MHP development will help to establish more
township-run enterprises, providing more employment opportunities for the rural people, who
will leave the farm land bit not the rural area. It is effective in preventing the rural population
from moving to cites.

Substituting electricity for fire wood gives positive effect by reducing deforestation and,
hence, conserving the ecological environment as well as improving the hygiene of rural
people

77
78