Power System Protection

1 Power System Protection Design

Introduction
Electrical Power Systems
± Power systems appear in various sizes and levels of complexity
± Energy sources in nature can be concentrated and far from the place
of demand
± Need to transmit energy over large distances
± Critical issues in energy transmission
± Efficiency
± Reliability
± Controllability
± Safety

± Energy in ELECTRICAL form is very suitable for transmission

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Introduction
Sources of Energy
± Fossil fuels, Hydro, Nuclear, Wind, Solar, Tidal, Geothermal, etc...

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Introduction
Electrical Energy Scenario in 2008 *

TOTAL ELECTRICAL ENERGY PRODUCED WAS 20261TWh

Fossil Fuels - 67.5% Renewable - 16%

± Coal - 41% ± Hydro - 14.7%
± Natural Gas - 21% ± Wind - 0.96%
± Oil - 5.5% ± Geothermal - 0.3%
± Solar photovoltaic - 0.0096%
Nuclear - 13.5% ± Solar thermal - 0.00064%

Other Sources - 3%
(*Source IEA/OECD)

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Introduction
Electrical Energy
± Most of this is done by electrical GENERATORS
± Converts MECHANICAL energy to ELECTRICAL energy
± As per IEA statistics for 2008
± Total energy consumed at electrical power plants was 51,158 TWh,
which was 36% of total primary source of energy
± Gross electricity generated was 20,185TWh
± 39.5% efficiency in generation
± Energy delivered to consumer was 16,430TWh
± 32% of the total energy input to the power plant
± Still energy in electrical form is the a widely preferred form of
transmission and distribution
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Electrical Energy
Generation to Consumption Life Cycle

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Power System Operation

FAULT
NORMAL ABNORMAL

๏ System subjected
๏ System operating
outside designed to severe stress
๏ System operating limits ๏ Threat of immediate
within designed limits ๏ Allowed to operate damage to
๏ Maximum life for short periods equipment and
expectancy of ๏ Accelerates aging of system
equipment equipment ๏ Risk of human and
๏ Higher margin for ๏ Susceptible to failure financial loss
operating ๏ Lower margin for ๏ Can affects
contingencies further contingencies adjacent system.

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Power System Operation

Faults in Power System
± Damage to equipment due to
± exceeding thermal withstand limit
± high electromagnetic forces
± fire caused by arc
± explosion due to sudden release of energy

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Power System Operation
Faults in Power System
± Risk to human life from
± shock due to direct contact with live parts
± potential rise of exposed metal parts
± hazardous fumes and gases from burning insulation

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Power System Operation

Faults in Power System
± Affect adjacent un-faulted power system due to
± delayed fault clearance
± voltage dip affecting loads / stalling motors
± loss of synchronism of synchronous machines
± power interruption

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Power System Operation
Power System Protection
± Detect
± undesirable incidents a power system
± Take the appropriate action
± in the RIGHT time

± In order to ensure
± SAFE, EFFICIENT & RELIABLE operation of the power system

± Akin to ensuring LAW & ORDER in a society

± Investment in a protection system is often compared to the
investment in an INSURANCE POLICY

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Power System Protection Design

Contents

Protection System Design

Main & Back-up Protection

Types of Protection

Protection Relay Technology

Summary

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 Building block -

Protection System Design

Power System Protection

Building Blocks
± Building block consists of
± Instrument transformers
± Protection relays
± Circuit breakers
± Auxiliary power supply batteries
± Secondary connecting cables
± Auxiliary relays

± Performance of the protection depends

on the performance of every
component forming the protection
system
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Power System Protection
Building Blocks

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Building blocks -
Influencing factors -

Protection System Design

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Protection System Design
Influencing Factors

± Equipment/system to be protected
± Type of fault/abnormal conditions expected in the protected
system
± Parameters available for measurement
± Sensitivity of the measured parameter to various types of
faults/abnormality
± Amount and location of sources in the power system
± Type of grounding of the power system
± Rating of various power system equipment

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Protection System Design

INFLUENCING FACTORS - Fault and its Effects

± Short circuit ± Loss of control

± high current ± over/under voltage
± low/high voltage ± over/under frequency
± loss of synchronism ± Loss of load
± Open circuit ± over voltage
± unbalance current ± over frequency

± Overloading
± over heating

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Protection System Design
INFLUENCING FACTORS - Equipment/System to be Protected

± Type of equipment
± motor, generator, cable, transformer, etc..

± Cost of the equipment to be protected

± capital cost of equipment
± cost & time for repair / replacement

± Criticality of the application

± cost of downtime
± cost of interruption

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Protection System Design

INFLUENCING FACTORS - Type of Fault/Abnormality Expected

± Short circuit
± phase to phase, phase to ground

± Open circuit
± single phasing due to fuse / CB pole
± open jumper

± Over load
± Loss of synchronism
± Loss of control
± etc...

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Protection System Design
INFLUENCING FACTORS - Parameter Available for Measurement

± Current
± location, type and class of CTs

± Voltage
± location and type of VTs

± Derived parameters
± frequency, harmonics,...
± power, power factor,...
± impedance, reactance, ...
± pressure, temperature, vibration, ...

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Building blocks -
Influencing factors -
Zones of protection -

Protection System Design

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Protection System Design
Zones of Protection
± Part of the power system under the responsibility of a protection
system
± Zone boundaries are defined by the location of circuit breakers

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Protection System Design

Zones of Protection
± However the fault detection zone is governed by the location of
instrument transformers (mainly CTs)

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Protection System Design
Overlap of Zones
± Adjacent zones are arranged to have overlap at the boundaries to
avoid any unprotected zone

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Protection System Design

Current Transformer Location
± When using multi-core CTs, the location of CTs affects the protection
zone and tripping schemes

Stub Stub

๏ CB and the stub ๏ CB and the stub

included in the bus zone included in the feeder
๏ If remote bus has zone
source, then stub ๏ If local bus has source,
protection is necessary then stub protection
๏ Tripping of remote required.
breaker also if remote ๏ Delayed fault clearance
source present for stub fault

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 Building blocks -
Influencing factors -
Zones of protection -
Properties of protection system -

Protection System Design

Protection System Design

Properties of a Protection System

± Selectivity
± Ability to discriminate the fault various areas of the power
system.

± Speed
± The time taken by the protection system to detect the fault and
take action.

± Phase discrimination
± Ability of the protection system to determine the phases
involved in fault

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Protection System Design
Properties of a Protection System

± Dependability / Reliability
± Indicates the probability of the relay operation for all faults in
the area of the power system it is supposed to operate for

± Security / Stability
± Indicates the probability of the relay not operating for faults
outside the area of the power system it is supposed to operate.

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Protection System Design

Dependable / Reliable Protection System

± Loss of reliability of the protection system can be due to

± Failure of protection relays

± Instrument transformer problem

± Circuit breaker due to mechanism failure

± Circuit breaker trip coil failure

± Auxiliary trip relay failure (if present)
± Faulty or loss of auxiliary DC supply

± Non-operation of the protection system can prove extremely

expensive and dangerous

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Protection System Design
Dependable / Reliable Protection System

± Faults occurrences are rare and the protection system should be

healthy at the time of such incidents
± Periodic testing helps detect faulty elements of the protection
system

± Periodicity and exhaustiveness of the testing schedule should be

adapted to the application

± Self supervision in numerical relays help monitor relay health

± On-line monitoring of auxiliary supply, instrument transformer

output and trip coil healthiness

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Protection System Design

Secure / Stable Protection System

± Challenges to protection system security can arise from

± Current transformer saturation
± Protection relay mal-function
± Disturbances in power system not accounted for in the relay
setting
± Failure of VT secondary fuse
± Electromagnetic transient & radio frequency interferences
± etc..

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Protection System Design
Dependability and Security
± Duplication of the protection relays can help improve dependability /
security by appropriately connecting them

R1 R1
TRIP TRIP
& OR
R2 R2
R1
1/2 for TRIP
2/2 for TRIP
TRIP
R2 >2
R3

2/3 for TRIP

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Protection System Design

Speed

± The protection relay has to detect the fault in the shortest

possible time
± The tripping is initiated at the most appropriate time
± Fast enough to minimize damage to equipment

± Fast enough to avoid instability of synchronized systems

± Slow enough to ensure selectivity and phase discrimination

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Protection System Design
Phase Discrimination

± Possible in phase segregated protection systems

± Necessary if single pole tripping and re-closing is required
± Identifying the phase(s) involved in fault helps in easy
troubleshooting / maintenance

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Main Protection -

Main & Back-up Protection

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Main & Back-up Protection
Main Protection

± Protection relay or element designated as the primary protection

for a particular zone.
± First relay to operate for faults in the zone
± Should be able to detect all types of fault in the zone
± Should be able to isolate the part of the power system without
much damage to the equipment or system
± Some times more than one main protection relay is provided to
increase the dependability/security
± Usually protection systems are designed for “N-1” contingency

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Main Protection
Duplicated Main Protection System

CT VT Battery

Relay Relay
Main 1 Main 2

CB
Trip Coil

CB
Trip Mechanism
& Interrupter

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Main Protection
Duplicated Main Protection System

CT Battery VT Battery CT

Relay Relay
Main 1 Main 2

CB CB
Trip Coil Trip Coil

CB
Trip Mechanism
& Interrupter

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Main protection -
Back-up protection -

Main & Back-up Protection

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Main & Back-up Protection
Back-up Protection

± Protection relay or element designated to operate when the

main protection relay/system fails
± Back-up protection can be either
± Local back-up protection, or
± Remote back-up protection

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Main & Back-up Protection

Local Back-up Protection

M B

± The back-up protection relay is at the same location as that of

the main protection relay
± Usually fed from a different CT core from the main protection
± provides back up against CT failure also

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Main & Back-up Protection
Local Back-up Protection

± Back-up operation also results in min. system isolation

± Protection system design decides the degree of back-up against
failure of other protection system blocks such as
± dc supply failure
± tripping circuit failure

± Does not provide back-up protection against circuit breaker

failure
± Either provide circuit breaker failure protection (LBB)

± Or rely on remote back-up protection

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Main & Back-up Protection

Remote Back-up Protection

M B
M B

± The back-up protection relay for a zone is situated at the

adjacent upstream zone
± Back-up protection operation results in isolation of a larger area

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Main & Back-up Protection
Remote Back-up Protection

± Can provide back-up against failure of any element of the

protection system
± Has to be sufficiently time co-ordinated
± Usually “N-1” contingency considered while designing the
protection system
± High degree of reliability can be achieved by combining main &
remote back-up protection along with
± Local breaker back-up (LBB) / Circuit breaker failure
± Trip circuit supervision (TCS)

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Main protection -
Back-up protection -
Trip circuit supervision -

Main & Back-up Protection

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Main & Back-up Protection
Trip Circuit Supervision - Post Close Only

(+) (-)
PR 52a

52TC

TRIP CIRCUIT FAULTY

Separate DC or AC

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Main & Back-up Protection

Trip Circuit Supervision - Pre & Post Close

(+) (-)
PR 52a

52b 52TC

X Y

TRIP CIRCUIT FAULTY

Separate DC or AC

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Main & Back-up Protection
Trip Circuit Supervision

± TCS monitors online the healthiness of

± CB trip coil
± DC auxiliary supply used for tripping
± trip circuit wiring
± CB auxiliary contact healthiness
± Post close supervision monitors the trip circuit only when the CB
is in close position
± Pre & post close supervision monitors always
± The logic can be incorporated in modern numerical relays

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Main protection -
Back-up protection -
Trip circuit supervision -
Local breaker back-up -

Main & Back-up Protection

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Main & Back-up Protection
Local Breaker Back-up Protection

± Provides back-up protection against failure of CB at the local

location itself
± Faster back-up protection operation possible
± Better selective isolation possible as compared to remote back-
up
± Uses one or a combination of following information
± Status of main protection

± Presence of current

± Status of CB auxiliary contact

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Main & Back-up Protection

Local Breaker Back-up Protection - Logic

± Main protection detects faults and issues trip command to CB

and initiates LBB protection
± LBB protection starts a timer
± timer set to include the

± breaker opening time

± protection reset time

± safety margin

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Main & Back-up Protection
Local Breaker Back-up Protection - Logic

± After the timer elapses if the CB has still not opened, CB failure
is confirmed
± CB open is confirmed by
± monitoring the current (most reliable)
± resetting of the protection element
± monitoring the CB auxiliary contact

± On confirmation of CB fail, the LBB protection sends trip signal

to all adjacent zone breakers
± Dedicated trip relays required if busbar protection is not present
± A faster re-trip of same breaker can some times help
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Types of Protection

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Types of Protection
Unit & Non-unit Protection

± Unit / restricted protection

± has a defined boundary of operation
± can be set to operate instantaneously
± does not provide back-up protection for adjacent zones

± Non-unit / unrestricted
± has no defined boundary of operation
± operation has to be time delayed
± could be a directional protection
± provides back-up for adjacent zone faults

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Types of Protection
Based on Operating Parameter

± Current
± Voltage
± Frequency
± Derived / calculated parameters
± impedance
± power
± harmonics
± thermal content

± Vibration, pressure, flow, etc..

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Types of Protection
Protection Devices

± Fuses
± Bi-metallic releases
± MCB
± MCCBs with static reales
± Discrete electromechanical relays
± Combined multi-functional relays
± Comprehensive protection and management relays

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Types of Protection
Operating Principle

± Under / over a set threshold

± Non-directional / directional
± Voltage dependent
± High impedance / biased differential
± Phase comparison / directional comparison
± Sequence threshold / comparison
± Control relays
± Auxiliary / tripping

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Types of Protection
ANSI Codes
Description ANSI Code Description ANSI Code
Time delay 2 Thermal over load relay 49

Over-speed device 12 Instantaneous over current 50

Distance relay 21 Inverse time over current 51

Over flux (V/f) relay 24 AC circuit breaker 52

Under voltage relay 27 Power factor relay 55

Annunciator relay 30 Over voltage relay 59

Directional power relay 32 Ground fault relay 64

Under current or power relay 37 Directional over current relay 67

Loss of field relay 40 Frequency relay 81

Unbalance current relay 46 Lockout relay 86

Unbalance voltage relay 47 Differential protection relay 87

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Functional building blocks -

Protection Relay Technology

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 Protection Relay Technology
Protection Relay Block Diagram
Trip
I
&
or/and
Alarm
V Input and Scheme
signal Decision
logic
Making
conditioning and output

± The voltage and/or current signal is first reduced to measurable

quantities and necessary conditioning done
± The decision making stage does the actual protection as per the set
value
± The output stage implements the necessary logic before issuing trip and
alarm commands

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Protection Relay Technology

PROTECTION RELAY

Electromechanical Static

Attractive force Analog Electronic

Rotational torque Digital Electronic

hardware

Processor Based

µPs

software DSPs

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Protection Relay Technology
Protection Relay Design

± Building blocks ± Operating quantity

± Level detector / amplitude ± Voltage
comparator ± Current
± Phase comparator ± Frequency
± Time delay elements ± Impedance
± Inputs ± Power
± Voltage
± Current

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Functional building blocks -

Electromechanical -

Protection Relay Technology

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Electromechanical Technology

Balanced Beam Induction Cup

φ
o

φ
p

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Electromechanical Technology

Hinged Armature Induction Disc

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 Functional building blocks -
Electromechanical -
Static analogue / digital -

Protection Relay Technology

Analogue / Digital Technology

Building Blocks

± Inverters
+VS
± Summing circuits
+
± Squaring circuits
-
± Phase shifting circuits
± Integrators -VS

± Coincidence circuits
± Level Detection
± ‘AND’ing circuits &

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 Analogue / Digital Technology
Phase Comparator

Integrator

S1 + Level detector

Squaring & -
+ θ
+
Trip

S2 +

Coincidence
comparator

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Functional building blocks -

Electromechanical -
Static analogue / digital -
Numerical -

Protection Relay Technology

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Numerical Technology
Crystal
Clock

Digital Signal Processor &

VTA Filtering
S/H ADC
User Interface
& Buffer

from VTB
Filtering
& Buffer
S/H ADC
VT D
I
VTC Filtering S/H
G
& Buffer
ADC
I • Data acquisition
T • Digital Filtering
Filtering A • Protection Algorithm
CTA S/H ADC
& Buffer L
• Scheme logic
MUX • DR, ER, FR, etc.
from CTB
Filtering
S/H ADC
& Buffer • Comm. & HMI
CT
Filtering ADC
CTC S/H
& Buffer

Communication
Digital Output Interface
(Relays)

Digital Input Power

(Optos)
Supply

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Numerical Technology
Functional Building Blocks - Hardware
± Signal Conditioning
± Scaling and isolation
± Anti-aliasing filters
± Data Acquisition
± Buffer
± Sample and hold circuit
± Analog to digital converters
± Multiplexers

± Digital Processors
± DSP chips, micro-controllers, microprocessors

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Numerical Technology
Functional Building Blocks - Software
± Data Acquisition
± Acquires the sampled values from the Data-Acquisition System and
stores it in memory
± Processing Software
± Algorithms
± Phasor Estimation and all protection decisions
± Ancillary Functions
± Eg. Breaker maintenance, keeps log of all CB open and close, I2t
values
± Eg. Generators - Frequency deviations from nominal value are
recorded

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Numerical Technology
Functional Building Blocks - Software
± HMI Settings
± Setting software for all protection functions
± Communication
± Message formats based on different protocols with remote end
± Self-Supervision
± All self-testing software

± Logic
± Has logic gates like AND, OR, NAND etc.
± User can build his own logic

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Numerical Technology
Functional Building Blocks - Software
± Post fault diagnostic tools
± Disturbance records
± Sampled instantaneous values of analog and digital signals
± Fault records
± Comprehensive history of every tripping incident
± Sequence of Event record
± Record of all events time stamped to very high resolution
± Offline PC based setting and analyzing tool

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Summary

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Summary
Protection System Design
± The performance of the protection system depends on the
performance of every element of the system
± Application of the protection systems is based on the system and its
operating practice
± Cost economics play a vital role in designing the protection system
± Modern technology gives a very cost effective comprehensive
system
± Protection
± Monitoring
± Control
± Management
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