IIT JAM

Mathematics (MA)
SAMPLE

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

1. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS OF ONE VARIABLE

Consider a function f : [a, b]  , Let a < c < b.

Definition : A function f is said to be continuous at a point c, if for any  > 0, there exist some
 > 0 such that
| f(x) – f(c) | < , when | x – c | <  ...(1)

or lim f(x)  lim f(x)  f(c).

x  c x  c

Definition : A function f is said to be continuous in an interval [a, b], if it is continuous at every

point of the interval [a, b].
Remark : If a function f is not continuous at a point c, then from (1), it follows that there exists
some  > 0 such that for each  > 0, there is some y satisfying
| f(y) – f(c) |  , when | y – c | < .
Definition : A function f is said to be discontinuous at a point x = c, if f is not continuous at
x = c.
Remark : The discontinuity of a function f at x = c is obtained in either of the following cases:

1. lim f(x) exists but lim f(x)  f(c).

xc xc

2. lim f(x) does not exist.

xc

3. f is not defined at x = c.
The function defined as

 x2  9
 ,x3
f(x)   x  3 ,
6 , x3


is continuous at x = 3.
We have

x2  9
lim f(x)  lim  lim (x + 3) = 6.
x3 x3 x  3 x3

Since f(3) = 6, lim f(x)  f(3).

x3

Hence f is continuous at x = 3.
Example : Show that the function
1
f(x)  x sin , x  0
x
 0, x0
is continuous at x = 0.

 1
Solution. We know lim f(x)  lim  x sin  = 0.
x0 x0
 x

Also f(0) = 0. So lim f(x) = f(0).

x0

Hence f is continuous at x = 0.
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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Example : Show that

 xa 
 , x  a
f(x)   x  a 
 1, x  a 
 

is discontinuous at x = a.

(x  a), if x  a 
Solution. We know x  a   
 (x  a), if x  a 

(x  a)
Now lim f(x)  lim = –1, as x  a.
x  a xa (x  a)

(x  a)
lim f(x)  lim  1, as x  a.
x  a xa (x  a)

Thus lim f(x) does not exist and so f is discontinuous at x = a.

xa

Example : Examine the continuously at x = 1 and x = 2 of the function

2x, if 0  x  1
 
f(x)  2  x, if 1  x  2 
 x 2  2x, if x  2 
 

Solution. We have lim f(x) = lim 2x = 2,

x  1 x 1

lim f(x)  lim (2  x)  1.

x  1 x 1

Thus lim f(x) does not exist and so f is discontinuous at x = 1.

x 1

Now lim f(x)  lim (2  x)  0,

x  2 x2

lim f(x)  lim (x 2  2x)  0.

x  2 x2

Also f(2) = 2 – 2 = 0.
Thus lim f(x) = lim f(x) = f(2) and so f is continuous at x = 2.
x  2 x  2

Example : Show that the function

x e1/ x
f(x)  , x0
1  e1/ x
= 0 x= 0
is continuous at x = 0.
Solution. We have

x e1/ x
lim f(x)  lim  0.
x0 x0 1  e1/ x

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

 lim f(x)  f(0). ( f(0) = 0)

x0

Hence f is continuous at x = 0.
Example : Show that the function
e1/ x  1
f(x)  , x0
e1/ x  1
 0, x0
is discontinuous at x = 0.

 e1/ x  1
 x0
f(x)   e1/ x  1
Solution.
 0 x0


We can approach it by following ways–

1. If we directly put the limit in the given function

e1/ x  1
lim (as x  0, e1/ x   )
x  0 e1/ x  1

e1/ 0  1
= lim
x 0 e1/ 0  1

e  1 
= 
e  1 

i.e. limit does not exist.

So f is discontinuous at x = 0.
2. By applying L-hospital rule

e1/ x  1
lim
x  0 e1/ x  1

 1 
e1/ x  2 
lim x 
= x 0 1/ x  1 
e  2
x 

= lim
x 0
(1)  1

so f(0) = 0
So f is discontinuous at x = 0.
3. By computing two sided limit
Left Hand Limit (LHL)

e1/ x  1
lim as x  0  e1/ x  0
x 0 e1/ x  1

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

0 1
  1
0 1
Right Hand Limit (RHL)

e1/ x  1
lim as x  0   e 1/ x  0
x 0 e1/ x  1

e1/ x (1  e 1/ x )
= xlim
0 e1/ x (1  e 1/ x )

(1  e1/ x ) 1  0
= xlim  1
0  (1  e1/ x ) 1  0
RHL  LHL  f(0)
So f is discontinuous at x = 0.
Example : Show that the function

 e1/ x  e 1/ x 
 , x  0
f(x)   e1/ x  e 1/ x 
1 , x  0 
 

is discontinuous at x = 0.
Solution. We know x  0–    e1/x  0 ...(1)
and x  0+    e–1/x  0. ...(2)

e1/ x  e 1/ x e1 x .e1/ x  1 0.0  1

 lim  lim   1, by (1)
x  0  e1/ x  e 1/ x x 0  e1/ x .e1/ x  1 0.0  1

e1/ x  e 1/ x 1  e1/ x .e 1/ x 1  0.0

lim  lim   1, by (2).
x  0  e1/ x  e 1/ x x  0  1  e 1/ x .e 1/ x 1  0.0

e1/ x  e 1/ x
Hence lim does not exist ( –1  1)
x  0 e1/ x  e 1/ x

and so the given function is discontinuous at x = 0.

Example : Examine the continuity of the function :
2
 e1/ x
 , when x  0
f(x)  1  e1/ x 2
 0 , when x  0

at x = 0.
2
Solution. Clearly, x  0+ and x  0+ and x  0–  1/x2  +   e1/ x  + 
2 2
    1/ e1/ x  0  e1/ x  0.
2
e1/ x 1 1
lim f(x)  lim 1/ x 2
 lim 1/ x 2
  1.
x  0 x  0
1 e x  0
e 1 0 1

Similarly, lim f(x) = –1 and so lim f(x) = –1  f(0) [ f(0) = 0]

x  0 x0

Hence f is discontinuous at x = 0.
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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Example : Show that the function f defined or R by setting

x
f(x) = , when x  0 and f(0) = 0
1  e1/ x
is continuous at x = 0.

x 0
Solution. xlim f(x)  lim 1/ x
  0,  lim e1/ x  0 
 0 x  0 1 e 1 0 x 0 

x x e1/ x 0.0
lim f(x)  lim 1/ x
 lim 1/ x
  0.  lim e 1/ x  0 
x  0 x  0 1 e x  0  e 1 0 1 x 0 

Also f(0) = 0. Hence f is continuous at x = 0.

Example : Show that
f(x) = | x | + | x – 1 |
is continuous at x = 0 and x = 1.
Solution. f(x) = – x – (x – 1) = 1 – 2x, when x < 0; ...(1)
f(x) = x – (x – 1) = 1 when 0  x < 1 ; ...(2)
Now lim f(x)  lim (1)  1, by (2).
x 0  x 0

Also f(0) = | 0 | + | 0 – 1 | = 1.

 lim f(x)  lim f(x)  f(0).

x  0 x  0

Hence f is continuous at x = 0.

Now lim f(x)  lim (1)  1, by (2)

x  1 x 1

lim f(x)  lim (2x  1)  1, by (3)

x  1 x 1

Also f(1) = | 1 | + | 1 – 1 | = 1.
 lim f(x)  lim f(x)  f(1).
x  1 x  1

Hence f is continuous at x = 1.
Example : Let f be the function defined on R by setting
f(x) = [x], for all x  R,
where [x] denotes the greatest integer not exceeding x. Show that f is discontinuous at the points
x = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ... and is continuous at every other point.
Solution. By definition, we have
[x] = 0, for 0  x < 1,
[x] = 1, for 1  x < 2,
[x] = 2, for 2  x < 3,

[x] = –1, for –1  x < 0.
[x] = –2 for –2  x – 1 and so on.
At x = 0

lim f(x)  lim [x]  1,

x  0 x0
( x  0)

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

lim f(x)  lim [x]  0.

x  0 x0
( x  0)

Since lim f(x)  lim f(x), f is discontinuous at 0.

x  0 x  0

At x = 1

lim f(x)  lim [x]  2,

x  1 x 1
( x  1)

lim f(x)  lim [x]  1,

x  1 x  1
( x  1)

So f is discontinuous at –1.
Similarly, f is discontinuous at – 2, – 3, – 4, ...
Let  R ~ Z be any real number but not an integer. Then there exists an integer n such that
n   < n + 1. Then
[x] = n, for n  x < n + 1.

Now lim f(x)  lim f(x)  f(  )  n.

x   x  

Hence f is continuous at .
Example : Let f be the function on [0, 1] defined by

 r 1 1
( 1) if
r 1
 x  ,r  1, 2, ...
r

f(x)   0, if x0
 1 if x  1.



1 1
Examine the continuity of f at 1, , , ...
2 3
Solution. We observe that

1
f(x) = –1, if  x< 1 (r = 1)
2

1 1
= 1, if  x < (r = 2)
3 2

1 1
= –1, if  x < (r = 3)
4 3
and so on.
At x = 1.

lim f(x)  lim f(x)  1. Also f(1)  1.

x  1 x 1
( x  1)

Since lim f(x)  f(1), f is continuous at x = 1.

x  1

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

1
At x = .
2
lim f(x)  lim f(x)  1,
1 1
x  x
2 2
1
( x )
2

lim f(x)  lim f(x)  1.

1 1
x  x
2 2
1
( x )
2

1
Thus f is discontinuous at .
2

1 1 1
Similarly, f is discontinuous at , , ...
3 4 5
Example : Show that the function f on [0, 1] defined as

1 1 1
f(x)  n
, when n  1  x  n , (n  0, 1, 2, ...)
2 2 2

2 3
1  1  1
is discontinuous at ,   ,   , ...
2 2 2
Solution. We observe that

1
f(x) = 1 when < x 1 (n = 0)
2

1 1 1
= , when 2 < x  (n = 1)
2 2 2

1 1 1
= , when 3 < x  3 (n = 2) and so on.
22 2 2
1
At x = .
2
1
lim f(x)  lim f(x)  ,
1
x  x
1 2
2 2

lim f(x)  lim f(x)  1.

1 1
x  x
2 2

1
Thus f is discontinuous at x = .
2
2
 1
At x =   .
2

1 1
lim f(x)  2
and lim f(x)  .
x
1
 2 1
x 2  2
22 2

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

2
 1
Thus f is discontinuous at x =   and s on.
2
n
 1
At x =   .
2

1 1
lim f(x)  n
and lim f(x)  n  1 .
x
1
 2 1
x n  2
2n 2

n
 1
Hence f dis discontinuous at   , n = 1, 2, ...
2
Example : Let f be a function defined by :

 x sin(1/ x) , if x  0

f(x)   0 , if x  0
2x sin(1/ x) , if x  0.


Discuss the continuous of f at x = 0.

Solution. We see that
1
lim f(x)  lim x sin  0.
x  0 x0 x
1
lim f(x)  lim 2x sin  2  0  0. Also f(0)  0.
x  0 x0 x
Hence f is continuous at x = 0.
Example : Examine the continuity of the function :
f(x) = 2x – [x] + sin (1/x), x  0 ; f(0) = 0
at x = 0 and x = 2, where [x] denotes the greatest integer not greater than x.
Solution. By Example lim [x] and lim [x] do not exist.
x 0 x 2

1
Also lim sin does not exist.
x 0 x

Thus lim f(x) and lim f(x) do not exist and so the given function is discontinuous at x = 0, 2.
x 0 x 2

Example : Let f be the function defined on R by setting

 1 
 x  [x]  , when x is not an int eger 
f(x)   2 
0 , when x is an int eger 

Show that f is continuous at all points of R ~ Z and is discontinuous whenever x  Z.

Solution. Let n  Z = {0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ...} be arbitrary.
Then lim [x] does not exist and so lim f(x) does not exist.
x n x n

Hence f is discontinuous whenever n  Z.

We observe that

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

[x] = 0, if 0  x < 1,
[x] = 1, if 1  x < 2,
[x] = 2, if 2  x < 3,
··························
[x] = m, if m  x  m + 1 and so on.
Using these, we obtain
1
f(x) = x – , if 0  x < 1,
2
1 3
f(x) = x – 1 – = x– , if 1  x < 2,
2 2
1 5
f(x) = x – 2 – = x– , if 2  x < 3 and so on.
2 2
The above relations are all linear and so f is continuous at all positive non-integral points. Similarly,
f is continuous at all negative non-integral points, since
1 1
f(x) = x – (–1) – = x + , if – 1  x< 0
2 2
1 3
= x – (–2) – = x+ , if – 2  x < –1 etc.
2 2
Hence f is continuous at all points of R ~ Z.
Types of Discontinuities

(i) The function f is said to have a removable discontinuity at x = c, if lim f(x) exists but is
xx

not equal to f(c).

(ii) f is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind at x = c, if lim f(x) and lim f(x) both
x  c x  c

exist but are not equal.

(iii) f is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind from the left at x = c, if lim f(x) exists
x  c

but is not equal to f(c).

(iv) f is said to have a discontinuity of the first kind from the right at x = c, if lim f(x) exists
x  c

but is not equal to f(c).

(v) f is said to have a discontinuity of the second kind from the left [right] at x = c, if lim
x  c

f(x)  lim f(x)  does not exist.

 x  c  
Example : The function f(x) = sin 2x/x, x  0 and f(0) = 1 has a removable discontinuity at the
origin.
Solution : We have

sin 2x sin 2x
lim f(x)  lim  lim 2  1.2  2.
x0 x0 x x  0 2x

Also f(0) = 1,  lim f(x)  f(0).

x0

Hence f has a removable discontinuity at x = 0.

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Example : Examine the continuity of the function f defined by

e1/ x  e1/ x
f(x)  if x  0, f(0)  0
e1/ x  e 1/ x
at x = 0. Also discuss the kind of discontinuity if any.
Solution. We have,
lim f(x)  1 and so lim f(x)  f(0);
x  0 x  0

lim f(x)  1 and so lim f(x)  f(0).

x  0 x  0

Hence f has a discontinuity of the first kind from the left and the right at x = 0.
Example : A function f is defined by

 x 2 , if x  0 
 
5x  4, if 0  x  1 
f(x)   2 
 4x  3x, if 1  x  2,
3x  4, if x  2 
 

Examine f for continuity at x = 0, 1, 2. Also discuss the kind of discontinuity, if any.

Solution. At x = 0.

lim f(x)  lim (  x 2 )  0,

x  0 x0

lim f(x)  lim (5x  4)  4.

x  0 x0

Also f(0) = 0.
Thus lim f(x)  f(0) and so f has a discontinuity of the first kind from the right at x = 0.
x  0

At x = 1.
lim f(x)  lim (5x  4)  1,
x  1 x 1

lim f(x)  lim (4x 2  3x)  1,

x  1 x 1

and f(1) = 5 × 1 – 4 = 1.
Thus lim f  lim f(x) = f(1) and so f is continuous at x = 1.
x  1 x  1

At x = 2.

lim f(x)  lim (4x 2  3x)  4  4  3  2  10,

x  2 x2

lim f(x)  lim (3x  4)  10.

x  2 x2

Also f(2) = 3 × 2 + 4 = 10.

Thus lim f(x)  lim f(x) = f(x) and so f is continuous at x = 2.
x 2  x  2

Example : Obtain the points of discontinuity of the function f defined on [0, 1] as follows :

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

1 1
f(x)   x, if 0  x 
2 2
3 1
= – x, if < x < 1
2 2

 1 1
f(0) = 0, f   = , f(1) = 1.
2 2
Also examine the kind of discontinuities.
Solution. At x = 0.

1  1
lim f(x)  lim f(x)  lim   x   .
x 0  x0
( x  0)
x0
2  2

Also f(0) = 0.  lim f(x)  f(0).

x 0 

Thus f has a discontinuity of the first kind from the right at 0.

1
At x = .
2

1 
lim f(x)  lim   x   0,
1
x 
1
x  2 
2 2

3 
lim f(x)  lim   x   1.
x  2
1 1
x  
2 2

lim f(x)  lim f(x).

 1 1
x  x 
2 2

1
Thus f has a discontinuity of the first kind at x = .
2
At x = 1.

3  1
lim f(x)  lim   x   . Also f(1)  1.
x 1 2
x 1
  2

 lim f(x)  f(1).

x  1

Thus f has a discontinuity of the first kind from the left at x = 1.

Example : Examine for continuity at x = 0, the function

 e1/ x
 , when x  0
f(x)  1  e1/ x2
 0, when x  0.


 e1/ x
 x0
Solution. f(x)  1  e1/ x2
 0 x0


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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

e1/ x
lim 2
x 0
1  e1/ x
By applying L-Hospital rule–

 1
e1/ x   2 
lim  x 
= x 0 1/ x2  2 
e  3 
 x 

xe1/ x
= lim 2
x 0
2e1/ x
= 0
 f is continuous at x = 0.
Example : Examine the function

e1/ x sin(1/ x)
f(x)  , x  0 ; f(0)  0
1  e1/ x
for points of discontinuity, if any.
Solution. We know that
x  0 –  e1/x  0 and x  0 +  e–1/x  0.

e1/ x (1/ x) sin(1/ x) 1

 lim 1/ x
 lim 1/ x  lim sin ,
x  0 1 e x  0  e 1 x  0  x
which does not exist. Hence f has a discontinuity of the second kind from the right at x = 0.
Theorems on Continuous Functions
Theorem : (a) If two functions f, g are continuous at a point c, then the functions f + g, f – g,
fg are also continuous at c and if g (c)  0, then f / g is also continuous at c.
(b) Prove that if a function f is continuous at x = a, then | f | is also continuous at x = a. But the
converse if not true.
Proof. Since f and g are continuous at c,
lim f(x)  f(c) and lim g(x)  g(c). ...(1)
xc xc

We show that f + g is continuous at c. We have

lim (f  g)(x)  lim [f(x)  g(x)]
xc xc

 lim f(x)  lim g(x)

xc xc

= f(c) + g(c), by (1)

 lim (f  g)  (f  g)(c).
xc

Thus f + g is continuous at c.
Again, lim (fg) (x) = lim f(x) g(x)
xc xc

 lim f(x) . lim g(x)

xc xc

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

= f(c) g(c) = (fg) (c).

Thus fg is continuous at c
Similarly, we can prove the remaining parts.
(b) Since f is continuous at x = a, therefore, for  > 0 there exists some  > 0 such that
| f(x) – f(a) | <  when 0 < |x – a | <  ...(2)
We know | | x | – | y | |  | x – y |  x, y  R.
 | | f(x) | – | f(a) | |  | f(x) – f(a) | < , 0 < | x – a | < , using (2)
i.e., | | f(x) | – | f(a) | | < , when 0 < | x – a | < .
Hence | f | is continuous at x = a.
However, if | f | is continuous at x = a, then f may not be continuous at x = a as seen below :

 1, when x is rational,
Let f(x)  
 1, when x is irrational.
Then | f(x) | = 1  x  R and so | f | is continuous at every point of R, but f is discontinuous at
every point of R.
Remarks : 1. Let f and g be defined on an interval I. If f + g and fg are continuous at a point p
 I, then f and g may not be continuous at p as explained by the following examples :

e1/ x  1
(i) Let f(x) = 1/ x , x  0 and f(0) = 0 ;
e 1

1  e1/ x
g(x) = , x  0 and g(0) = 0.
e1/ x  1
Thus f and g are discontinuous at x = 0, but f + g = 0 (being a constant function) is
continuous at x = 0.
(ii) Let f(x) = g(x) = 1, when x is rational
f(x) = g(x) = –1, when x is irrational.
By Example, f and g are discontinuous at every point of R, but fg = 1 (being a constant
function) is continuous at every point of R.
Similarly, we can give examples to show that if f – g, f/g are continuous at a point p 
I; then f and g may not be continuous at p.
Notice that in (ii), f/g = 1  x  R  f/g continuous  x  R.
If in (i), g(x) = f(x), then f – g = 0  f – g is continuous  x  R.
2. A polynomial function f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn is continuous for all x  R.
Clearly, lim xn = cn  n  N  xn is continuous  x  R,  x  N.
x c

Also an (being a constant) is continuous. By Theorem , anxn is continuous  n  N and  x 

R. Hence a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn is continuous  x  R.
Theorem : A function f defined on an interval I is continuous at a point p  I if and only if for each
sequence pn converging to p, the sequence f(pn) converges to f(p).
Proof. The condition is necessary.
We are given that the function f is continuous at p and the sequence pn converges to p. We
shall show that f(pn) converges to f(p). Since f is continuous at x = p, therefore for  > 0, there exists
a  > 0 such that
| f(x) – f(p) | < , when | x – p | < . ...(1)

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Since the sequence pn converges to p, so there exists some positive integer m such that
|pn – p| <   n  m. ...(2)
Replacing x by pn in (1), we get
| f(pn) – f(p) | <  when | pn – p | < . ...(3)
From (2) and (3), we obtain
| f(pn) – f(p) | <   n  m. Thus f(pn) – f(p).
The conditions is sufficient.
Let pn  p  f(pn)  f(p).
We shall show that f is continuous at x = p.
Let, if possible, f be not continuous at x = p.
Then for some  > 0 and for each  > 0,  at least one x such that
| f(x) – f(p) |  , whenever | x – p | < .
Let  = 1/n. Then  n  N, there exists x = pn such that
| pn – p | < 1/n  | f(pn) – f(p) |  
i.e., lim pn = p, but lim f(pn)  f(p). ( pn – p  0 as n  )
n n

Thus we have proved that there is a sequence pn such that pn converges to p, out the
sequence f(pn) does not converge to f(p). This is a contradiction to the given condition. Hence f is
continuous at x = p.
Theorem : Let f be a function defined on an interval I and p  I. Let g be a function defined on
an interval J such that f(I)  J. If f is continuous at p and g is continuous at f(p), then show that gof is
continuous at p.
Proof. Let pn be any sequence in I such that pn  p. ...(1)
Since f is continuous at p, so by Theorem, f(pn)  f(p).
Since f(I)  J, so f(pn) is a sequence in J converging to f(p)  J.
Since g is continuous at f(p) and f(pn)  f(p) in J, so
g(f(pn))  g(f(p))
or (gof) (pn)  (gof) (p). ...(2)
[By definition, (gof) (x) = g (f(x))  x  I.]
From (1) and (2), it follows that gof is continuous at p
Example : F be a function on R defined by

 1, when x is rational
f(x)  
 1, when x is irrational.
f is discontinuous at every point of R
Solution. Case I. Let a be any rational number, so that f(a) = 1.
 1 1
Then any nbd.  a  n ,a  n  of a contains an irrational number an for each n  N i.e., an 
 
 1 1
 a  ,a    n  N
 n n

1 1
 a – < an < a +  n  N
n n

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

1
 | an – a | <  n  N  | an – a |  0 as n  
n
 an – a  0  as n     an converges to a.
Now f(an) = –1 for all n ( an is irrational) and f(a) = 1.

 lim f(an) = –1  f(a) i.e., f(an) does not converge to f(a).

n

where an  a. Thus f is discontinuous at all rational points a.

Case II. Let b be any irrational number so that f(b) = –1.
As argued above, we can choose a rational number bn such that

1
|bn – b| <  bn  b as n  
n
 bn converges to b.
Now f(bn) = 1 for all n ( bn is rational) and f(b) = –1.

 lim f(bn )  1  f(b).

n

 f(bn) does not converge to f(b), where bn  b.

Thus the function f is discontinuous at all irrational points b.
Hence the given function is discontinuous at all points of R.
Example : Show that the function f defined by

 1, if x is rational
f(x)  
0, if x is irrational
is discontinuous at every point.
Solution. Case I. Let a be any rational number so that f(a) = 1.
Then any nbd. ] a – 1/n, a + 1/n [ of a contains an irrational number an for each n  N i.e.,
1
an  ] a – 1/n, a + 1/n [  | an – a | <
n
 | an – a |  0 as n   an  a.
Now f(an) = 0  n ( an is irrational) and f(a) = 1

 lim f(an) = 0  f(a)   f(an) does not converge to f(a).

n

Thus f is discontinuous at all rational points.

Case II. Let b be any irrational number so that f(b) = 0.
As argued earlier, we can choose a rational number bn such that

1
|bn – b| < n  N
n
 |bn – b|  0 as n      bn  b.
Now f(bn) = 1  n ( bn is rational) and f(b) = 0

 lim f(bn) = 1  f(b)  f(bn) does not converge to f(b).

n

Thus f is continuous at all irrational points.

Hence the given function is discontinuous at every point of R.

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Example : Show that the function f defined on R by

 x, when x is irrational
f(x)  
  x, when x is rational
is continuous only at x = 0.
Solution. Case I : Let a  0 be any rational number so that
f(a) = – a.
Then any nbd. ] a – 1/n, a + 1/n [ of a contains an irrational number an for each n  N i.e.,
1
an  ]a – 1/n, a + 1/n [  |an – a| <
n
 |an – a|  0 as n    an  a.
Now f(an) = an  n ( an irrational)
 lim f(an) = lim an = a  f(a) ( f(a) = –a)
n n

 f(an) does not converge to f(a), when an a.

So f is discontinuous at all non-zero rational points.
Case II. Let b  0 be any irrational number so that f(b) = b.
As argued earlier, there exists a rational number bn  n  N such that

1
|bn – b| <  |bn – b|  0 as n      bn  b.
n
Now f(bn) = bn  n ( bn is rational)

 lim f(bn )  lim bn  b  0

n n

 f(bn) does not converge to f(b). ( f(b) = 0)

Thus f is discontinuous at every non-zero irrational point.
Now we shall prove that f is continuous at x = 0.
We have f(0) = 0 and
|f(x) – f(0)| = |f(x)| = |x|, if x is rational
= 0, if x is irrational
Let  > 0. Then | f(x) – f(0) | < , for | x – 0 | <  ( = ).
Hence f is continuous only at x = 0.
Example : Let f be a function defined on ]0, 1[ by :

 0, if x is irrational
f(x)  
1/ q, if x  p / q, where p and q are positive integers having no common factor.
Prove that f is continuous at each irrational point and discontinuous at each rational point.
Solution. Case I. Let a  ]0, 1[ be any rational number so that a = p/q, where p and q are positive
integers having no common factor. Then f(a) = 1/q (as given).
Any nbd. ] a – 1/n, a + 1/n [ of a contains an irrational number an, for each n  N i.e.,
1
an  ] a – 1/n, a + 1/n [  |an – a| <
n
 |an – a|  0 as n    an  a.
Now f(an) = 0  n ( an is irrational)
 f(an)  0  f(a) ( f(a) = 1/q > 0.]
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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Hence f is discontinuous at every rational point in ] 0, 1 [.

Case II. Let b  ] 0, 1 [ be any irrational number, so that
f(b) = 0
Let  > 0 be given. We can choose a positive integer n such that
1/n < .
It is clear that there an can be only a finite number of rational numbers p/q in ] 0, 1 [ such that
q < n.
We can, therefore, find some  > 0 such that no rational number l/m in ] b – , b +  [ has its
denominator less than n i.e., m  n.
Thus | x – b | <   | f(x) – f(b) | = | f(x) – 0 | = 0 < , ...(1)
if x is irrational.
If x = l/m is rational such that | x – b | < , then
| x – b | <   | f(x) – f(b) = | f(x) | < 1/m  1/n < . ...(2)
( m  n)
From (1) and (2), we have
| x – b | <   | f(x) – f(b) | < .
Hence f is continuous at every irrational point b in ] 0, 1 [.
Example : Show that the function f defined as

 x, if x is rational
f(x)  
1  x, if x is irrational
1
is continuous only at x = .
2
1
Solution. Case I. Let a  be any rational number. Then f(a) = a.
2
We can find an irrational number an for each n  N such that

1
an  ] a – 1/n, a + 1/n [  | an – a | <   an  a.
n
Now f(an) = 1 – an  n ( an is irrational)
 lim f(an )  1  lim an  1  a  a.
n n

1
(Observe that if a = , then 1 – a = a).
2
 f(an) does not converge to f(a). ( f(a) = a)
1
Thus f is discontinuous at all rational points a  .
2
1
Now we shall show that f is continuous at x = only..
2

 1 1   1 1
We have |f(x) – f   | = |x – |, if x is rational  f  
2 2  2 2

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

1 1 1
 1 x    x  x  , if x is irrational.
2 2 2

 1 1
Thus |f(x) – f   | = |x – |.
2
  2
Let  > 0 be given. Choose  =  > 0. Then
 1 1
|f(x) – f   | < , when |x– | < .
2 2
1
Hence f is continuous only at .
2
Example : Let f satisfy
f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y)   x, y  R. ...(1)
Show that if f is continuous at a point c, then f is continuous at all points of R.
Solution. (i) Taking x = y = 0 in (1), we obtain
f(0) = f(0) + f(0)  f(0) = 0. ...(2)
Taking y = – x in (1), we obtain
f(0) = f(x) + f(– x)  0 = f(x) + f(– x), using (2)
 f(– x) = – f(x)  x  R. ...(3)
Let cn be any sequence of real numbers such that cn  0.
Then cn + c  0 + c = c
 f(cn + c)  f(c), as f is continuous at c
 f(cn) + f(c)  f(c), using (1)
 f(cn)  0.
Thus cn  0  f(cn)  0. ...(4)
Let x be any real number. We shall show that f is continuous at x. Let xn be a sequence of real
numbers such that xn  x
 xn – x  0
 f(xn – x)  0, using (4)
 f(xn) + (–x)  0, using (1)
 f(xn) – f(x)  0, using (3)
 f(xn)  f(x).
Since xn  x  f(xn)  f(x), f is continuous for all x  R.
Example : Prove that the function h(x) = sin x is continuous on [0, ].

Solution. First of all, we show that f(x) = x is continuous  x  0.

Let c > 0 so that f(c) = c . For x  0, we have

x c 1
f(c)  f(c)  x c   | x  c |.
x c c
Let  > 0 be given. Then

|f(c) – f(c)| < , when | x – c | < ,  = c  > 0.

Hence f is continuous at c > 0.

Obviously, lim f(x) = 0 = f(0). Hence f is continuous for all x  0.

x 0

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Next we show that g(x) = sin x is continuous for all x Î R.

For c  R, we have
xc xc
| g(x) – g(c)| = |sin x – sin c| = 2 cos sin
2 2
xc
 2 sin , since |cos x|  1  x  R
2

xc
2 , since | sin x |  | x |
2
= |x – c|,
Let  > 0 be given. Then |g(x) – g(c)| <  for |x – c| < ,  =  > 0.
Hence g is continuous for all c  R.
It is clear that h = fog, where g(x) = sin x, x  [0, ] and f(x) = x , x  0. By Theorem h(x) =

sin x is continuous on [0, ].

Example : Given examples of two discontinuous functions f and g such that
(i) fog is continuous but gof is not continuous.
(ii) fog and gof are both continuous.
Solution
(i) We define two functions f and g as follows :

0, when x  Q
f(x)  
 x, when x  R ~ Q

 1, when x  Q
and g(x)  
0, when x  R ~ Q
Then f is discontinuous at each non-zero point of R and g is discontinuous at each of R
If x  Q, then (fog) (x) = f(g(x)) = f(1) = 0.
If x  R ~ Q, then (fog) (x) = f(g(x)) = f(0) = 0.
 (fog) (x) = 0  x  R. Hence fog is continuous  x  R.
If x  Q, then (gof) (x) = g (f(x)) = g(0) = 1.
If x  R ~ Q, then (gof) (x) = g (f(x)) = g(0) = 0.

 1, when x  Q
Thus (gof )(x)  
0, when x  R ~ Q.
By Example gof is discontinuous  x  R.
(ii) We define two functions f and g on R as follow :

 1, when x  Q
f(x)  
1, when x  R ~ Q

 1, when x  Q
and g(x)  
 1, when x  R ~ Q.
Thus f and g are discontinuous at all points of R.

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

If x  Q, then (fog) (x) = f(g(x)) = f(–1) = 1. ( –1  Q)

If x  R  Q then (fog) (x) = f(g(x)) = f(1) = 1. ( 1  Q)
 (fog) (x) = 1  x  R  fog is a constant function on R.
It may be noticed that (gof) (x) = –1  x  R and so gof is continuous at all points of R.
Boundedness of Continuous
Definition : A function f : [a, b]   is said to be bounded in the interval [a, b], if there exist
two numbers k and K such that
k  f(x)  K  x  [a, b].
Thus a function is bounded in [a, b], if it is both bounded above and bounded below in [a, b].
Example
1. f(x) = x2 is bounded in [1, 2], since 1  f(x)  4  x  [1, 2].
2. f(x) = 1/x is bounded in ]0, 1[.
3. f(x) = x/(x – 1) is not bounded in [1, 4].
Note. The following results proved in earlier Chapters will be used in the proofs of some theorems:
(a) Every bounded sequence has a limit points.

(b) A number p is a limit point of a sequence an iff there exists a subsequence ank of an

such that ank  p.

(c) Every closed interval [a, b] is a closed set.

(d) A closed set contains all its limit points.
(e) If p is a limit point of a set S and S  T, then p is also a limit point of T.
Theorem : If a function f is continuous on a closed bounded interval [a, b], then it is bounded
in [a, b].
Proof. Let, if possible, f be not bounded above in [a, b].
Then for each positive integer n, we can find a point xn  [a, b], such that
that f(xn) > n  n  N. ...(1)
Since xn  [a, b] for each n  N, a  xn  b  n  N.
Thus xn is a bounded sequence and so it must have a limit point say p (Bolzano-Weierstrass
Theorem).
Obviously, p is a limit point of [a, b]. [Result (e)]
Now [a, b] being a closed interval is a closed set and so p  [a, b].
Since p is a limit point of the sequence xn, therefore, there exists a subsequence x nk of áxnñ
such that x nk  p. ...(2)

From (1), f (xnk ) > nk for all k  < f (xnk ) diverges to 

 f (xnk ) does not converge to f(p). ...(3)

From (2) and (3), it follows that f is not continuous at the point p  [a, b]
This is contrary to the hypothesis that f is continuous at every point of [a, b]. Hence f is bounded
above on [a, b].
Now we show that f is bounded below on [a, b].
Since f is continuous in [a, b], – f is also continuous in [a, b] and so – f is bounded above .
Consequently, there exists some k  R such that

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

– f(x)  k  x  [a, b]
 f(x)  – k or – k  f(x)  x  [a, b]
 f is bounded below in [a, b].
Hence f is bounded in [a, b].
Theorem : If a function f is continuous an a closed bounded interval [a, b], then it attains its
bounded in [a, b].
Proof. Since f is continuous in [a, b], therefore, it is bounded in [a, b]. Let M = sup f and m =
inf f.
 m  f(x)  M  x  [a, b].
We shall show that there exist points ,   [a, b] such that
f() = M and f() = m.
We shall prove it by contradiction.
Let f(x)  M  x  [a, b]
 M – f(x)  0,  x  [a, b].
Since f is given to be continuous in [a, b] and M, being a constant function, is also continuous
in [a, b], therefore M – f(x) is continuous in [a, b]. Since M – f(x)  0,  x  [a, b], therefore

1
is continuous in [a, b].
M  f(x)

1
 is bounded in [a, b]
M  f(x)

1 1
Let K = sup and k = inf .
M  f(x) M  f(x)

1 1
  K  x  [a, b]  M – f(x)   x  [a, b]
M  f(x) K

1
 f(x)  M –  x  [a, b].
K

1
 M– (< M) is an upper bound of f, which contradicts the fact that M is the l.u.b. of f.
K
Hence there exists some   [a, b] such that f() = M.
Similarly, there exists some   [a, b] such that f() = m.
Remark : If a function is not continuous on a closed interval, then it may not attain its bounded
as shown below :
1. The function f(x) = x  x  [0, 1[ is continuous and bounded in [0, 1[, 0  f(x) < 1  x
 [0, 1[ ; inf f = 0 and sup f = 1. Here inf f is attained but sup f is not attained, since there
is no point of [0, 1[ at which f(x) = 1.
(Observe that the domain of f is not a closed interval)
2. The function f(x) =  x  ]0, 1] is continuous and bounded in ]0, 1], attains the supremum
1 and does not attain the infimum 0.
3. The function f(x) = x  x  ]0, 1[ is continuous and bounded in ]0, 1[, but attains neither
the supremum 1 nor the infimum 0.

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Example. Prove that if f is continuous in [a, b] and c is the infimum of f in [a, b], then there exists
an x0 in [a, b] such that f(x0) = c.
Proof. We have c = int f in [a, b] i.e., c  f(x)  x  [a, b].
Let, if possible, f(x)  c  x  [a, b]. It follows that

1
is continuous in [a, b]
f(x)  c

1
 is bounded above in [a, b]
f(x)  c

1
  k  x  [a, b], k being some real number
f(x)  c

1 1
 f(x) – c   x  [a, b]  c +  f(x)  x  [a, b]
k k
 c + (1/k) is a lower bound of f in [a, b], where c + (1/k) > c.
The contradicts the given condition c = inf f. Hence there exists some x0  [a, b] such that f(x0)
= c.
Theorem : If a function f is continuous in [a, b] and c  ]a, b[ such that f (c)  0, then there exists
some  > 0 such that f(x) has the same sign as f(c) for all x  ] c – , c + [.
Proof. Since f is continuous at c, for any  > 0,  some  > 0, such that
| f(x) – f(c) | < , when |x – c| < .
i.e., f(c) –  < f(x) < f(c) + , when c –  < x < c + . ...(1)
Case I. Let f(c) > 0. We choose  > 0 such that
 < f(c)   f(c) –  > 0. ...(2)
From (1) and (2), f(x) > f(c) –  > 0, when x  ] c – , c +  [.
Case II. Let f(c) < 0  – f(c) > 0. We choose  > 0 such that
 < – f(c)  f(c) +  < 0. ...(3)
From (1) and (3), f(x) < f(c) +  < 0, when x  ] c – , c +  [.
Hence f(x) has the same sign as f(c)  x  ]c – , c + [.
Corollary. (i) If a function f is continuous at x = a and f(a)  0, then there exists some  > 0,
such that f(x) has the same sign as f(a)  x  [a, a + [.
(ii) If a function f is continuous at x = b and f(b)  0, then there exists some  > 0, such that f(x)
has the same sign as f(b)  x  ] b – , b ].
Theorem : If a function f is continuous in [a, b] and f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs, then there
exists some point c  ] a, b [ such that
f(c) = 0.
Proof. Since f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs, we may take
f(a) > 0 and f(b) < 0.
Let S be a subset of [a, b] defined as follows :
S = {x : a  x  b and f(x) > 0}. ...(1)
Then S is non-empty [ f(a) > 0  a  S]
and S is bounded above with b as its upper bound.
By order-completeness property of R, S has the supremum.
Let c = sup S, c  [a, b].

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Now we shall prove that c  a and c  b, so that c  ] a, b [.

Since f is continuous at x = a and f(a) > 0,  a 1 > 0 such that
f(x) < 0  x  ]b – 2 b], [by corollary of Theorem] ...(2)
 b – 2 is an upper bound of S, for otherwise, there exists some y  S such that y > b – 2.
i.e., b – 2 < y  b  f(y) < 0, by (2). ...(3)
As y  S, f(y) > 0, by (1). This contradicts (3).
Since c = sup S, so c  b – 2  c  b.
Thus c  a and c  b  c  ]a, b[.
Finally, we show that f(c) = 0.
Case I. Let f(c) > 0
Since f is continuous at c and f(c) > 0, so  a 3 > 0 such that
f(x) > 0  x  ] c – 3, c + 3 [. ...(4)
Let  be a number such that c <  < c + 3. ...(5)
   ] c, c + 3 [  f() > 0, by (4)    S, by (1).
   c ( c = sup S) or c  , which contradicts (5).
Thus f(c)  0.
Case II. Let f(c) < 0.
Since f is continuous at x = c and f(c) < 0, so  a 4 > 0 such that
f(x) < 0  x  ] c – 4, c + 4 [. ...(6)
Now c = sup S   at least one   S such that c – 4 <   c
   ] c – 4, c]  f() < 0, by (6).
But   S  f() > 0, which
 f(c)  0. Also f(c)  0.
Hence f(c) = 0 for some c  ] a, b [.
Theorem by (Inverse Function Theorem)
If a function f defined on the closed interval [a, b] is continuous on [a, b] and one-to-one, the
f–1 is also continuous.
Example : Let f be continuous on [0, 1] and let f(x) be in [0, 1] for each x in [0, 1] then f(x) =
x for some x in [0, 1]
Solution : We are given that f(x)  [0, 1]  x  [0, 1]
i.e., 0  f(x)  1  [0, 1]. ...(1)
If f(0) = 0 or f(1) = 1, then the problem is solved. Otherwise, we have
f(0) > 0 and f(1) < 1, by (1). ...(2)
Let g(x) = f(x) – x  x  [0, 1]
This g is continuous on [0, 1] and
g(0) = f(0) – 0 > 0, g(1) = f(1) – 1 < 0.
there exists some c  ]0, 1[ such that
g(c) = 0  f(c) – c = 0.
Hence f(c) = c for some c  ]0, 1[.
Example : Show that if f and g are continuous on [a, b] and if f(a) < g(a) and f(b) > g(b), then
there exists some c  ] a, b [ satisfying f(c) = g(c).
Solution. Let h(x) = f(x) – g(x)  x  [a, b]. ...(1)
Since f and g are continuous on [a, b], so by (1), h is continuous on [a, b].

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Also h(a) = f(a) – g(a) < 0, ( f(a) < g(a))

and h(b) = f(b) – g(b) > 0. ( f(b) > g(b))
Thus h is continuous on [a, b] where h(a), h(b) are of opposite signs.
Hence, by Theorem there exists some c  ]a, b[ such that
h(c) = 0  f(c) – g(c) = 0  f(c) = g(c).
Example : Let f be a continuous function on [– 1, 1] such that {f(x)}2 + x2 + 1 for all x in [–1, 1].

Show that either f(x) = 1  x 2 for all x in [– 1, 1] or f(x) = – 1  x 2 for all x in [– 1, 1].
Solution. Let, if possible, there exists two points x1, x2 in [– 1, 1] such that

f(x1 )  1  x12 and f(x 2 )   1  x 22 .

Then f(x1) f(x2) < 0.
Since f is continuous in [– 1, 1] so f is continuous in [x1, x2] and f(x1) f(x2) < 0. By Theorem 
some c  ] x1, x2 [ such that f(c) = 0.
We are given {f(x)}2 + x2 = 1  x  [– 1, 1].
In particular, {(f(x)}2 + c2 = 1 ( c  ]– 1, 1 [ )
2
 c = 1 ( f(c) = 0)
 c = ± 1, which is impossible.
Ex. Discuss the nature of discontinuity of the function f defined by

log(2  x)  x 2n sin x 
f(x)  lim 2n
,0  x  at x  1.
n 1 x 2

   
Show that f(0) and f   differ in sign, and explain why f still does not vanish in 0,  .
2  2
 
Sol. First of all we obtain expressions for f in 0,  in a form free from limits.
 2


 0 if 0  x  1

Since lim x 2n   1 if x 1
n
 
 if 1  x 
 2


log(2  x) if 0  x  1

log(2  x)  x 2n sin x  log3  sin1
 f  x   lim  if x  1
x  1  x 2n  2
 x 2n log(2  x)  sin x 
lim
 x    sin x if 1  x 
 x 2n  1 2

( x2n    x–2n  0)
1
Now f(1) = (log 3 – sin 1)
2
lim(x)  lim log(2  x)  lim log(2  1  h)  log 3
x1 x 1 h 0 

lim f(x)  lim (  sin x)  lim  sin(1  h)   sin 1

x 1 x 1 h0 

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Since lim f(x) and lim f(x) both exist, but are unequal, also neither of them is equal to f(1),
x 1 x 1

therefore, f has a discontinuity of the first kind at x = 1 on both sides.

  
Now f(0) = log 2 > 0 and f   = sin = –1 < 0
2 2
 
So that f(0) and f   have opposite signs. Also, it is clear that f does not vanish anywhere in
2
 
0, 2  .
 
 
The function f is not continuous on 0,  , the point x = 1 being a point of discontinuity. This
 2
   
explains the reason why f does not vanish anywhere in 0,  even though f(0) and f   are of opposite
 2 2
signs. Remark. The above example shows that the hypothesis as well as the conclusion of the Intermediate

 1 
value Theorem are not satisfied for the function f in 0,   .
 2 
Example : Show that the function

x 2n  2  cos x
(x)  lim
x x 2n  1
does not vanish anywhere in the interval [0, 2], though (0) and (2) differ in sign.
Hint. We have f(x) = – cos x for 0  x < 1 ;

1
f(1) = (1 – cos x) and (x) = x2 for x > 1.
2
f(0) = –1 < 0, (2) = 4 > 0.
Verify that  is discontinuous at x = 1.
Example : Given an example of a function which satisfies the conclusion but not the hypothesis
of the Intermediate value theorem.
Solution. We defined a function f on [0, 1] as follows :

 x, if x is rational
f(x)  
1  x, if x is irrational
1
Then f is not continuous in [0, 1] except at x =
2
However, f takes every value between 0 and 1.
Uniform Continuity
Definition : A function f defined on an interval I is said to be uniformly continuous in the
interval I, if for each  > 0, there exists some  > 0 such that
| f(x2) – f(x1) | < , when | x2 – x2 | < d and for all x1, x2  I.
Remarks.
1. It may be noted that whereas continuity of a function is defined at a point, the uniform
continuity of a function is defined in an interval. Even when we say that a function f is
continuous in an interval it means that f is continuous at all points of the interval.

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

2. In case of continuity of a function at a point c, the choice of  > 0 depends upon  > 0
and the point c. But in case of uniform continuity of a function in an interval, the choice
of  > 0 depends only on  > 0 and not on a pair of points of the given interval.
3. A function f is not uniformly continuous in an interval I, if there exists some  > 0, such
that for any  > 0, there exists a pair of points x, y  I for which | f(x) – f(y) | , when
| x – y | < .
Example : The function defined by f(x) = x2 is uniformly continuous in ]– 2, 2 [.
Solution. Let  > 0 be any number and x1, x2  ]– 2, 2 [. Then
| f(x2) – f(x1) | = | x22 – x12 | = | (x1 – x1) (x2 + x1) |
 | x2 – x1 | ( | x2 | + | x1 | )
= 4 | x2 – x1 | ( x1 < 2, x2 < 2)
 | f(x2) – f(x1) | < , when | x2 – x1 | < /4
or | f(x2) – f(x1) | < , when | x2 – x1 | <  (= /4)  x1, x2  ]– 2, 2[.
Hence the function f is uniformly continuous in ]– 2, 2[.
x
Example : Is the function f(x) = uniformly continuous for x  [0, 2] ? Justify your answer..
x 1
Solution. Let x, y be two arbitrary points x = [0, 2]. Then x  0, y  0
 x + 1  1 and y + 1  1  (x + 1)(y + 1)  1 ...(1)

x y xy
Now |f(x) – f(y)| =    |x – y|, by (1)
x  1 y  1 (x  1)(y  1)

Let  > 0 be given. Taking  = , we see that

|f(x) – f(y)| < , whenever |x – y| < ,  x, y  [0, 2].
Hence f is uniformly continuous in [0, 2].
Example : Show that the function f defined by f(x) = x3 is uniformly continuous in the interval [0,
3].
Solution. Let  > 0 and x1, x2  [0, 3].  x1  3, x2  3.
Now |f(x2) – f(x1) | = | x23 – x13 |
= | (x2 – x1) (x22 + x12 + x1x2) |
 | x2 – x1 | [ | x12 | + | x22 | + | x1 x2 | ]
= | x2 – x1 | [ | x1 |2 + | x2 |2 + | x1 | | x2 | ]
 | x2 – x1 | [9 + 9 + 9]
 | f(x2) – f(x1) |  27 | x2 – x1 |
or | f(x2) – f(x1) | < , whenever | x2 – x1 | < /27.
Thus for  > 0, there exists  = /27 > 0 such that
| f(x2) – f(x1) | < , when | x2 – x1 | < d,  x1, x2  [0, 3].
Hence f is uniformly continuous in [0, 3].
Example : Show that f(x) = x2 is not uniformly continuous on [0, [
Solution. Let  = 1/2 and  by any positive number. We can choose a positive integer n such that

1 1
n 2
or  2 . ...(1)
4 4n

Let x1 = n and x2 = n  1  [0, [. Then

2
| f(x2) – f(x1) | = | x 2
– x12 | = | (n + 1) – n | = 1 > ,

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

( n  1  n)( n  1  n)
and | x2 – x1 | = | n  1  n | 
n 1 n

n  1 n 1 1
    , by (1)
n 1 n n1 n 2 n

( n  1  n  n  n  2 n)
The | f(x2) – f(x1) | > , when | x2 – x1 | < .
Hence f is not uniformly continuous on [0, [.
Example : Let f(x) = x2, x  R. Show that f is uniformly continuous on every closed and finite
interval but is not uniformly continuous on R.
Solution. Let [a, b] be any closed and finite interval. Let x1, x2  [a, b]. We have
| f(x2) – f(x1) | = | x22 – x12 | = | x2 – x1 | | x2 + x1 |  | x2 – x1 | { | x1 | + | x2 | }
Let k = max { | x1 |, | x2 | }. Then k > 0.
 | f(x2) – f(x1) |  2k | x2 – x1 |.
Let  > 0 be given and let  = /2k > 0. Then
| f(x2) – f(x1) | < , whenever | x2 – x1 | < ,  x1, x2  [a, b].
Hence f is uniformly continuous on [a, b].
However, f is not uniformly continuous on R.
Example : Show that f(x) = 1/x is not uniformly continuous on ]0, 1].
1
Solution. Let  = and  be any positive number. We can choose a positive integer n such that
2
1
n . ...(1)

1 1
Let x1 = and x2 =  ]0, 1]. Then
n n 1

1 1
| f(x2) – f(x1) | =  = | n + 1 – n | = 1 > ,
x 2 x1

1 1 1 1
and | x2 – x1 | =    <  by (1)
n  1 n n(n  1) n

 | f(x2) – f(x1) | > , when | x2 – x1 | < .

Hence 1/x is not uniformly continuous on ]0, 1].
Example : Show that f(x) = 1/x is not uniformly continuous on ]0, 1[, but it is uniformly continuous
on [a, [, where a > 0.
Solution. By Example f(x) = 1/x is not uniformly continuous on ]0, 1[. Let x1, x2 Î [a, [ so that
x1  a > 0. Now we show that f is not uniformly continuous in (0, ).
1
Let  = and  be any positive number. We can always choose a positive integer n such that
2
1 1
n > or < . ...(1)
2 2n

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

1 1
Let x1 = and x2 =  (0, ). Then
n n 1

1 1
| f(x1) – f(x2) | = 2
 2 = | n – (n + 1) | = 1 > ,
x1 x 2

1 1 n 1 n
and | x1 – x2 | =  
n n 1 n n 1

1
 , on rationali sin g
n n  1( n  1  n)

1
 [ n n  1  n and n  1  n  2 n]
n .2 n

1
= < , by (1).
2n
Thus | f(x1) – f(x2) | > , when | x1 – x2 | < .
Hence f is not uniformly continuous on (0, ).

Example : Show that f(x) = x is uniformly continuous in [0, 1].

Solution. Let x, y  [0, 1], where x > y  0. Then

( x  y )( x  y )
| f(x)  f(y) |  | x  y |
x y

xy xy xy

    x  y.
x y x xy

 | f(x) – f(y) |  xy.

Let  > 0 be given. Then

| f(x) – f(y) | < , when xy < 

or | f(x) – f(y) | < , when | x – y | <  = (= 2)  x, y  [0, 1].
Hence f is uniformly continuous in [0, 1].
Example : Show that sin x is uniformly continuous on [0, [.
Solution. Let  > 0 be given and x, y be any two points in [0, [. Let f(x) = sin x. Then
| f(x) – f(y) | = | sin x – sin y |

xy xy
 2 sin cos
2 2

xy xy
 2 sin cos
2 2

xy
2 .1 [ since | sin  |  |  |, | cos  |  1  ]
2

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

 | f(x) – f(y) |  | x – y |
 | f(x) – f(y) | < , when | x – y | < , ( = )  x, y  [0, [
Hence f(x) = sin x is uniformly continuous on [0, [.
Example : Prove that f(x) = sin x2 is not uniformly continuous on [0, [
Solution. Let  = 1/2 and  be any positive number. We can choose a positive integer n such
that n > /2. ...(1)

n 
Let x1 = , x 2  (n  1)  [0, [. Then
2 2
| f(x2) – f(x2) | = | sin x22 – sin x12 |

 n
 sin(n  1)  sin
2 2

| 0  ( 1) |  1, if n is odd,

|  1  0 |  1, if n is even.
 | f(x2) – f(x1) | = 1 > ,

x 22  x12 /2
and | x 2  x1 |   ,
x 2  x1  n
(n  1) 
2 2

  
    , by(1).
 n  n n
2 2 
 2 

 | f(x2) – f(x1) | > , when | x2 – x1 | < .

Hence f(x) = sin x2 is not uniformly continuous on [0, [.
1
Example : Show that f(x) = sin is not uniformly continuous on ]0, [.
x
1
Solution. Let  = and  be any positive number. We can choose a positive integer n such
2
that n / 1/. ...(1)

1 2
Let x1 = and x2 =  ]0, [.
n (2n  1)


Then | f(x1) – f(x2) | = sin n  sin(2n  1) = 1 > ,
2

1 2 1 1
and | x1 – x2 | =     , by (1).
n (2n  1) n(2n  1) n

 | f(x1) – f(x2) | > , when | x1 – x2 | < .

1
Hence f(x) = sin is not uniformly continuous on ]0, [.
x

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

Theorem : Every uniformly continuous function on an interval is continuous on that interval, but
the converse is not true.
Proof. Let a function f be uniformly continuous on an interval I. Then for any  > 0, there exists
some  > 0 such that
| f(x) – f(y) | < , when | x – y | <   x, y  I. ...(1)
Let c be any point of I. Taking y = c in (1), we obtain
| f(x) – f(c) | < , when | x – c | < .
Thus f is continuous at the point c.
Since c  I is arbitrary, it follows that f is continuous at each point of I. Hence f is continuous on
the interval I.
However, the converse of the theorem is not true.
A function which is continuous on an interval may not be uniformly continuous on that interval.
For example, the function f(x) = 1/x  x  ]0, 1] is continuous on ]0, 1], but f is not uniformly
continuous on ]0, 1].
However, if a function is continuous on a closed interval, then it is necessarily uniformly continuous
on that closed interval as proved in the following :
Theorem : If a function f is continuous on a closed and bounded interval [a, b], then it is uniformly
continuous on [a, b].
Proof. Let, if possible, f be not uniformly continuous on [a, b]. Then there exists some  > 0 such
that for any n = 1/n (n  N), there is a pair of elements xn, yn  [a, b] for which

1
| f(xn) – f(yn) | > , when | xn – yn | < . ...(1)
n
Since a  xn  b, a  yn  b for each n, the sequences xn and yn are bounded and so by
Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, they have limit points. Let  and  be limit points of xn, yn respectively.
It follows that  and  are limit points of [a, b]. Since a closed interval is a losed set and further a closed
set contains all its limit points, so ,   [a, b].
Now a is a limit point of xn implies that there exists a subsequence x nk of xn such that

xnk  . ...(2)

Similarly, y nk  , where y nk is a subsequence of yn. ...(3)

From (1), we conclude that
1
| f(xnk )  f(ynk ) |  , when | x nk  y nk |  .
nk
It is clear that x nk  y nk  0 as k  

or lim x nk = lim y nk   = , by (2) and (3).

But | f(x nk )  f(y nk ) |    lim f(xnk )  lim f(nnk ),

provided the two limits exist.
In particular, lim f(x nk )  f() and lim (ynk )  f().

Thus we have two sequences xnk , y nk satisfying

xnk   and ynk  ,

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

but f(x nk ) and f(y nk ) do not converge to f(),   [a, b].

It follows that f is not continuous at  [a, b], which is a contradiction to the given hypothesis.
Hence f must be uniformly continuous in [a, b].
Example : If f and g are uniformly continuous on an interval I, then prove that f + g is uniformly
continuous on I.
Solution. Since f and g are uniformly continuous on I, for any  > 0,  some 1 > 0 and 2 >
0 such that  x, y  I.
| f(x) – f(y) | < /2 when | x – y | < 1, ...(1)
| g(x) – g(y) | < /2, when | x – y | < 2. ...(2)
Let  = min (1, 2). ...(3)
Now | (f + g) (x) – (f + g) (y) | = | {f(x) – f(y)} + {g(x) – g(y)} |
 | f(x) – f(y) | + | g(x) – g(y) |
 | (f + g) (x) – (f + g) (y) | < /2 + /2 = , when | x – y | < 
 x, y  I ; using (1), (2) and (3).
Hence f + g is uniformly continuous in I.
Example : If f is uniformly continuous in an interval I and xn is a Cauchy sequence of elements
in I, then f(xn) is a Cauchy sequence.
Solution. Since f is uniformly continuous in I, for any  > 0, there exists some  > 0 such that
 x, y  I,
| f(x) – f(y) | < , when | x – y | < . ...(1)
Since xn is a Cauchy sequence in I, for  =  > 0,  a positive integer m such that
| xn – xn | <   n  m. ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we obtain
| f(xn) – f(xm) | <   n  m. [Take x = xn, y = xm in (1)]
Hence f(xn) is a Cauchy sequence.
Example : Prove that if f is uniformly continuous on a bounded interval I, then f is bounded on I.
Solution. Let, if possible, f be not bounded on I. Then for each n  N, there exists some xn 
I such that
| f(xn) | > n  n  N. ...(1)
Since I is a bounded interval and xn  I  n  N, xn is a bounded sequence in I. By Bolzano-
Weierstrass Theorem, xn of xn has a limit point, say l. Then there exists a subsequence x nk of xn
such that x nk  l as k    x nk is convergent and so x nk is a Cauchy sequence in I. Since f

is uniformly continuous on I, f(xnk ) is a Cauchy sequence and hence f(xnk ) is bounded. From (1),
we obtain
| f(xnk ) | > nk  k for all positive integers k

 f(xnk ) is not bounded, which is a contradiction.

Hence f is bounded on I.
Example : Justify with an example that the product of two uniformly continuous functions may
not be uniformly continuous.
Solution. We shall prove that f(x) = x + 1 is uniformly continuous on R. Let  > 0 be given. Then
for any x, y  R ; we have

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

| f(x) – f(y) | = | (x + 1) – (y + 1) | = | x – y |.
 | f(x) – f(y) | < , when | x – y | <  = ,  x, y  R.
Thus f(x) = x + 1 is uniformly continuous on R.
Similarly, g(x) = x – 1 is uniformly continuous on R.
We shall now prove that f(x) g(x) = x2 – 1 is not uniformly continuous on R. For and  > 0, let
1 1  
x1 = and x2 =  . Then | x1 – x2 | = <  and
  2 2
2
1 1  2
| f(x1) – f(x2) | = |x1 – x 2  
| = 2   2   1   1.
2   4
If we choose  = 1, then | f(x1) – f(x2) |  for | x1 – x2 | < . Hence the product x2 – 1 of two
uniformly continuous functions x + 1 and x – 1 on R is not uniformly continuous on R.

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
SECTION-(A) MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ)

sin x o
1. Find xlim , where x0 is in degree and x is in radian
0 x
180
(A) 1 (B)


(C) 0 (D)
180

x 7/6  1
2. What is the value of the xlim ?
1 x 3/6  1
5 7
(A) (B)
2 3
7 3
(C) (D)
6 6

1
3x
3. What is lim (1  2x) ?
x0

(A) e 3/2 (B) e 1/3

(C) e 2/3 (D) e–1

xe1/ x
4. Evaluate xlim
0 1  e1/ x
(A)  (B) 0
(C) 1 (D) –1

1
5. If xlim = 0 then which of the following is TRUE ?
 x
1 1 1 1
(A) lim  lim (B) lim  lim
x x x  x x x x x

1 1 1 1
(C) lim  lim (D) lim  lim
x x x    x x x x    x

SECTION-(B) MULTIPLE SELECT QUESTIONS (MSQ)

1. If the function f(x) = sinx, x   then which of the following statement is true ?
(A) f(x) is unbounded (B) Range of f(x) is [–1,1]
(C) f(x) is bounded (D) Supremum of sinx is 1.

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

2. The function  defined as

0 for x0
1 1
 x for 0  x 
2 2
 1 1
(x)   for x
2 2
3 1
 x for  x 1
2 2
 1 for x 1
(A) has only one point of discontinuity (B) has discontinuity at x = 0
(C) has discontinuity at 3 points (D) both (A) and (B)

3. The function defined by

 1
sin x  0
f(x)   2
is
0, x  0
(A) Discontinuous on [0, ) (B) Continuous on [0, )
(C) Uniformly continuous on [0, ) (D) Not uniformly continuous on [0, )

sin2 (x  y)
4. Consider the function f : 2  , where f(x, y)  when (x, y)  (0, 0)
|x||y|
and f(0, 0) = 0.
(A) f is not continuous at (0, 0)
(B) f is continuous at (0, 0)
(C) f is continuous on the entire 2
(D) Only (A) is true

5. The equation x2 = x sin x + cos x has

(A) at least one real root (B) at least two real roots.
(C) at least three real roots. (D) No real roots.

SECTION-(C) NUMERICAL ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (NAT)

1. limx/2 {(1 – sin x) tan x} is equal to _______

2. The value of the lim [x + |x|] is _____.

x 0

1/ 2 In(1  x)
3. Estimation of  dx to within two-decimal-plane accuracy is ________.
0 x

2
4. If f(x) = e x ,then f(100)(0) (correct upto two decimal places) is ______.


n
5. If f(x) = 2 xn , then f(33)(0) (correct upto two decimal places) is ________.
n0

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

ANSWER KEY

SECTION-(A) MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ)

1 2 3 4 5
D B C B A

SECTION-(B) MULTIPLE SELECT QUESTIONS (MSQ)

1 2 3 4 5
B,C,D B,C B,D B,C B

SECTION-(C) NUMERICAL ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (NAT)

1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0.45 3.06 7.45

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

SOLUTION
SECTION-(A) MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ)


sin x o sin x
1. (D) lim  lim 180
x0 x x 1 x

  
sin x
  180    .1  
 lim  
x  1 180  180 180
 x 
 180 

x7 / 6  1  0
2. (B) lim 3/6  form 
x 1 x 1  0

(7 / 6)x1/ 6 7
 lim   [By L’ Hospital rule]
x 1 (1/ 2)x 1/ 2 3

3. (C) Let A = lim (1  2x) 3 x

x0

log(1  2x)  0
 log A = xlim
0 3x  from 0 
 

2
 lim [By L’Hospital rule]
x0 3.(1  2x)

2 2
 
3(1  0) 3

 A = e2/3
4. (B) We know that x  0+  e–1/x  0,
and x  0–  e1/x  0.

xe1/ x 0.0
We have xlim 1/ x
 = 0,
 0 1 e 1 0

xe1/ x x 0
and lim 1/ x
 lim 1/ x   0.
x  0 1 e x  0 e 1 0 1

xe1/ x
Hence xlim  0.
 0 1  e1/ x
5. (A) Let  > 0 be given. Choose M = 1/. Then

1 1 1
x > M      0 < .
x M x

1
Hence xlim = 0, by Definition.
 x

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

SECTION-(B) MULTIPLE SELECT QUESTIONS (MSQ)

1. (B,C,D)
The function f(x) is a bounded function because the range of f(x) is [–1,1].
The graph of the sine function looks like this:

y
2

1.5
y = sin(x)
1

0.5
x
o
–4 –3 –2 –  2 3 4
–0.5

–1

–1.5

–2

Note that the domain of the function y = sin x is all real numbers (since is defined for any
angle measure), the range is –1  y  1.
Function is bounded means the function can take only a certain values for a specified
value of x here sinx is bounded because it can only take values between -1 and 1 and
supremum of sinx is 1.
1
2. (B,C) We test the function for continuity at x = 0, and 1.
2
For x = 0, we have
1  1
(0) = 0, (0 + 0) = limh  0   (0  h)  .
2  2
Since (0)  (0 + 0), the function  is discontinuous at x = 0.
1
For x = . we have
2
 1 1  1  1  1 
    ,    0   lim     h    0
2 2 2  h  0 2  2 

1  3  1 
   0   lim     h    1.
 2  h0 2
  2 

1   1 1  1
Since    0          0  , the function is discontinuous at x = .
2  2 2  2
3  1
Finally, we consider x = 1. We have f(1) = 1, f(1 – 0) = lim   (1  h)  .
h
2  2
Since (1 – 0)  (1), the function is discontinuous at x = 1.
1
Hence the function  is discontinuous at x = 0, and 1.
2
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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

3. (B,D) Let a be any +ve real number then we can prove easily that
f(a + 0) = f(a – 0) = f(a) = sin1/a
[ a is arbitrary constant]. Hence function f is continuous on [0, [.
Uniformly continuity
1 1 2
Let  = and  > 0 be such that < d,  n  m. Taking x = and y =
2 n(2n    ) 2m
2
be any two point of [0, [, then
(2m  1)

2 2 1
xy    
2m  (2m  1) m(2m  1)
does not imply
 
f(x)  f(y)  sinm   sin  m     1  
 2
1
Hence sin is not uniformly continuous on [0, [.
x
4. (B,C) Note that

| x  y |2
| f(x, y)  f(0, 0) |   | x |  | y | (or | x  y |)
|x||y|

Therefore, whenever a sequence (xn, yn)  (0, 0), i.e, xn  0 and yn  0, we have
f(xn, yn)  f(0, 0). Hence f is continuous at (0, 0). In fact, this function is continuous on
the entire 2.
5. (B) Let f(x) = x2 – x sin x – cos x for all x  . Then f :    is continuous and f(–) =
2 + 1 > 0, f(0) = – 1 < 0 and f() = 2 + 1 > 0. Hence by the intermediate value theorem,
the equation f(x) = 0 has at least one root in (– , 0) and at least one root in (0, ). Thus
the equation f(x) = 0 has at least two real roots.

SECTION-(C) NUMERICAL ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS (NAT)

1. 0 limx/2 {(1 – sin x) tan x}

1  sin x  0
= limx/2
cot x  from 0 
 

 cos x
= limx/2 = limx/2 sin2x cosx = 0
 cos ec 2 x

2. 0 lim [x + |x|] = lim (x – x) = 0,

x 0  x 0

lim [x  | x |]  lim (x  x)  lim 2x  0.

x 0  x 0 x 0

Hence lim (x + [x]) = 0.

x 0

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 Mathematics (Sample Theory)

x2 x3 xn
3. 0.45 ln(1  x)  x    .........  ( 1)n1  .......
2 3 n

ln(1  x) x x2 x n1
 1   .........  ( 1)n1  ........
x 2 3 n


n 1 xn1
=  ( 1)
n 1 n

1/ 2 1/ 2 
ln(1  x) xn 1
 x
dx    ( 1)n1 n
dx
0 0 n 1

1/ 2

( 1)n 1 n 1

n 1 n x
0
dx

1/ 2

( 1)n1  xn11 
  
n 1 n  n  1  1 0

1/ 2

( 1)n1  x n 
  
n 1 n  n 0

1

( 1)n1 2n

n 1 n n


( 1)n 1
 2 n
n 1 n 2

1 1 1
    ........ (neglecting the higher terms)
2 16 72
We have
1/ 2
ln(1  x) 1 1 1 65
 dx      0.45
0 x 2 16 72 144

1 n
4. 3.06 ex =  n! x .
n0


1 f (100) (0) 1
2n
Hence, f(x) =  n! x , = a100 = .
n0 100! (50)!

100!
Hence, f(100)(0) = = 3.06
50!

f (n) (0)
5. 7.45 In general, an = . So f(33)(0) = 33!a33 = 33!233 = 7.45
n!

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