ECEG – 4201: Introduction to Instrumentation

Chapter 1: Measurements and Error

Introduction:

Measurement

 The measurement of a given parameter or quantity is the result of a quantitative

comparison between a predefined standard and an unknown quantity to be measured.
 Two quantities are compared and the result is expressed in numerical values.

Basic requirement for a meaningful measurement

 The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted.
 The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.

Methods of Measurement

 Direct method – In these methods, the unknown quantity (Measurand) is directly compared
against a standard.
 Indirect method- The measurements by direct methods are not always possible, feasible
and practicable. In engineering applications measurement systems are used which require
need of indirect method for measurement purposes. It involves some conversion process to
determine the unknown quantity.

Instrumentation

 Instrumentation deals with the science and technology of measurement of a large number
of variables embracing the disciplines of physical sciences such as physics & chemistry
and engineering disciplines like mechanical, electrical, electronics, communication and
computer engineering.
 Thus an instrumentation system is an assembly of various instruments to measure, analyze
and control the electrical and non-electrical quantities.
 Instrumentation is classified into
 Intelligent instrumentation system
 Dumb instrumentation system

Definition of instruments
An instrument is a device in which we can determine the magnitude or value of the
quantity to be measured. The measuring quantity can be voltage, current, power and energy etc.
Generally instruments are classified in to two categories.
 Instrument

Absolute Instrument Secondary Instrument

Absolute instrument
 An absolute instrument determines the magnitude of the quantity to be measured in terms
of the instrument parameter.
 This instrument is really used, because each time the value of the measuring quantities
varies. So we have to calculate the magnitude of the measuring quantity, analytically
which is time consuming.
 These types of instruments are suitable for laboratory use. Example: Tangent
galvanometer.
Secondary instrument
 This instrument determines the value of the quantity to be measured directly.
 Generally these instruments are calibrated by comparing with another standard secondary
instrument.
 Examples of such instruments are voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter etc.
 Practically secondary instruments are suitable for measurement.

Secondary instruments

Indicating instruments Recording Integrating Electromechanically

Indicating instruments
Errors:

Error: The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the quantity to
be measured is called an error.
1.1 Definitions:

Measurement work employs a number of terms which should

be defined here.

Instrument: A device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or

variable.

Accuracy: Closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true

v a l u e of the variable being measured.

Precision: A measure of the reproducibility of the measurements; i.e.,

given a fixed value of a variable, precision is a measure of the
degree to which successive measurements differ from one
another.

Sensitivity: The ratio of output signal or response of the instrument to a

change of input or measured variable.

Resolution: The smallest change in measured value to which the instrument will

respond.

Error: Deviation from true value of the measured value.

1.2 Accuracy and Precision:

Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness or conformity to the true value of the
quantity under measurement. Precision refers to the degree of agreement within a
group of measurements or instruments.

To illustrate the distinction between accuracy and precision, two voltmeters of

the same make and model may be compared. Both meters hav e knife-edged pointers
and mirror-backed scales to avoid parallax, and they have carefully calibrated scales.
They may therefore be read to the same precision. If the value of the series resistance
in one meter changes considerably, i t s readings may be in error by a fairly large
amount. Therefore the accuracy o f the two meters may be quite different. (To
determine which meter is in error, a comparison measurement with a standard meter
should be made.)

Precision is composed of two characteristics: conformity and the number of

significant figures to which a measurement can be made. Consider, for example, that a
resistor, whose true resistance is 1,384,572 Ω, is measured by an ohmmeter which
consistently and repeatedly indicates 1.4 MΩ. But can the observer “read” t h e true
value from the scale? His estimates from the scale reading consistently yield a value
 of 1.4 MΩ. This is as close to the true value as he can read the scale by estimation.
Although there are no deviations from the observed value, the error created by the
limitation of the scale reading is a precision error. The example illustrates that
conformity is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for precision because of the lack
of significant figures obtained. Similarly, precision is a necessary, but not sufficient
condition for accuracy.

1.3 Significant Figures:

An indication of the precision of the measurement is obtained from the number

o f significant f i g u r e s in which the result is expressed. Significant figures convey
actual i n f o r m a t i o n regarding t he magnitude and the measurement precision of a
quantity. The more significant figures, the greater the precision of measurement.

For example, if a resistor is specified as having a resistance of 68 Ω, its

resistance should be closer to 68Ω than to 67 Ω or 69 Ω. If the value of the resistor is
described as 68.0 Ω, it means that its resistance is closer to 68.0 Ω than it is to 67.9
Ω or 68.1 Ω. In 68 Ω there are two significant figures; in 68.0 Ω there are three. The
latter, with more significant figures, expresses a measurement of greater precision than the
former.

1.4 Types of Errors

 The types of errors are

 Gross errors or Human errors
 Systematic errors
 Random errors

Gross errors:

 Gross errors are largely due to human mistakes in reading the instruments, recording
and calculating measurement results.

 This errors can be eliminated by

 Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data
 Taking number of readings of same quantity and by number of observers.

Systematic errors:

 It is further classified into

 Instrumental errors
 Environmental errors
 Observational errors

Instrumental errors:
  These errors are due to the following:
 Inherent short comings in instrument
 Misuse of the instrument
 Loading effects

Inherent short comings in instrument:

 These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure
 It may be due to
 Construction
 Calibration or Operation of instrument or Measuring devices
 Example: If the spring used for producing controlling torque of permanent magnet
instrument has become week, then the instrument will read high. These errors are
eliminated by careful planning and recalibration.

Misuse of the instrument:

 These errors are due to the fault of the experimenter than that of the instrument
 Example: An experimenter may fail to adjust the zero of instrument, poor initial
adjustments.

Loading effects:
 These errors are committed by beginners, is the improper use of instruments
 Example: A calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage when connected
across a high resistance circuit. Same voltmeter when connected across a low
resistance circuit may give a more dependable reading. Hence the voltmeter is said to
have loading effect.

Environmental errors:

 Errors which are introduced due to using an instrument in different conditions than in
which it was assembled and calibrated are called environmental errors.
 This may due to temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, etc.,
 This can be eliminated by recalibration (which should be made in the new conditions).

Observational errors:

 The errors which occur due to improper observation made by the observer are called
observational errors.
 Example: The pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus
an error on account of parallax will be incurred unless the line vision of the observer is
exactly above the pointer.
 To minimize parallax error, highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales.

Random errors:
 Errors which occur due to the multitude of small factors which change from one
measurement to another. These are also called as unpredictable errors.
1.5 Statistical Analysis:

A statistical analysis of measurement data is common practice because it allows an

analytical determination of the uncertainty of the final test result. The outcome of a certain
measurement method may be predicted on the basis of sample data without having detailed
information on all the disturbing factors. To make statistical methods and interpretations
meaningful, a large number of measurements are usually required. Also, systematic errors
should be small compared with residual or random errors, because statistical treatment of data
cannot remove a fixed bias contained in all the measurements.

Arithmetic Mean

The arithmetic mean is given by the following expression:

⋯
=
Where, = arithmetic mean
x1 + x2 + …+ xn = Readings taken
n = No.of Readings taken

Deviation from the Mean

Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the group of
readings. If the deviation of the first reading, x1, is called d1, and that of the second reading,
x2, is called d2, and so on, then the deviations from the mean can be expressed as
d1 = x1 -
d2 = x2 -
.
.
.
.
.
dn = xn -

Note that the deviation from the mean may have a positive or a negative value and that
the algebraic sum of all the deviations must be zero.

Average Deviation

The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instruments used in

making the measurements. Highly precise instruments will yield a low average deviation
between readings.
By definition, average deviation is the sum of the absolute values of the deviation
divided by the number of readings. The absolute value of the deviation is the value without
respect to sign.
Average deviation may be expressed as

D= | d1 | + | d2 | + | d3 | + . . . + | dn |
n

Σ | di |
n
 D =

Standard Deviation

In statistical analysis of random errors, the root-mean-square deviation or standard

deviation is a very valuable aid.
By definition, the standard deviation (σ) of an infinite number of data is the square
root of the sum of all the individual deviations squared, divided by the number of readings.
Expressed mathematically:

σ = (d12 + d22 + ………+ dn2) / n = (∑ di2) / n

In practice, of course, the possible number of observations is finite. The standard

deviation of a finite number of data is given by

σ = (d12 + d22 + ………+ dn2) / (n – 1) = (∑ di2) / (n – 1)

Variance
Another expression for essentially the same quantity is the Variance or mean square
deviation, which is the same as the standard deviation except that the square root is not
extracted. Therefore
Variance (V) = mean square deviation = σ2

The variance is a convenient quantity to use in many computations because variances

are additive. The standard deviation, however, has the advantage of being of the same units as
the variable, making it easy to compare magnitudes. Most scientific results are now stated in
terms of standard deviation.

1.6 Probability of Errors:

Normal Distribution of Errors

Table 1 shows a tabulation of 50 voltage readings that were taken at small time
intervals and recorded to the nearest 0.1 V. The nominal value of the measured voltage was
100.0 V. The result of this series of measurements can be presented graphically in the form of
a block diagram or histogram in which the number of observations is plotted against each
observed voltage reading. The histogram of Figure 1 represents the data of Table 1.
 Voltage reading
Number of
(volts) readings

99.7 1
99.8 4
99.9 12
100.0 19
100.1 10
100.2 3
100.3 1

50

Table 1: Tabulation of Voltage Readings

20
19

18 Number of
Observed Readings

16

14

12
12

10
10

4
4
3

2
1 1

0
99.6 99.7 99.8 99.9 100 100.1 100.2 100.3 100.4
Volts

Figure 1: Histogram showing the frequency of occurrence of the 50 voltage readings of Table 1

Figure 1 shows that the largest number of readings (19) occurs at the central value of
100.0 V, while the other readings are placed more or less symmetrically on either side of the
central value. If more readings were taken at smaller increments, say 200 readings at 0.05-V
intervals, the distribution of observations would remain approximately symmetrical about the
central value and the shape of the histogram would be about the same as before. With more
and more data, taken at smaller and smaller increments, the
contour of the histogram would finally become a smooth curve, known as a Gaussian curve.
The sharper and narrower the curve, the more definitely an observer may state that the most
probable value of the true reading is the central value or mean reading.
The Gaussian or Normal law of error forms the basis of the analytical study of random
effects. Although the mathematical treatment of this subject is beyond the scope of the text,
the following qualitative statements are based on the Normal law:
1. All observations include small disturbing effects, called random errors.
2. Random errors can be positive or negative.
3. There is an equal probability of positive and negative random errors.

We can therefore expect that measurement observations include plus and minus errors in
more or less equal amounts, so that the total error will be small and the mean value will be the
true value of the measured variable.
The possibilities as to the form of the error distribution curve can be stated as follows:
1. Small errors are more probable than large errors.
2. Large errors are very improbable.
3. There is an equal probability of plus and minus errors so that the probability of a given
error will be symmetrical about the zero value.

The error distribution curve of Figure 2 is based on the Normal law and shows a
symmetrical distribution of errors. This normal curve may be regarded as the limiting form of
the histogram of Figure 1 in which the most probable value of the true voltage is the mean
value of 100.0 V.

Probable Error

The area under the Gaussian probability curve of Figure 2, between the limits +∞ and
−∞, represents the entire number of observations. The area under the curve between the +σ
and −σ limits represents the cases that differ from the mean by no more than the standard
deviation. Integration of the area under the curve within the ±σ limits gives the total number
of cases within these limits. For normally dispersed data, following the Gaussian distribution,
approximately 68% of all the cases lie between the limits of +σ and −σ from the mean.
Corresponding values of other deviations, expressed in terms of σ, are given in Table 2.

Deviation(±)
(σ) Fraction of total area included

0.6745 0.5000
1.0000 0.6828
2.0000 0.9546
3.0000 0.9972

Table 2: Area under the Probability Curve

If, for example, a large number of nominally 100 Ω resistors is measured and the mean
value is found to be 100.00 Ω, with a standard deviation of 0.20 Ω, we know that on the
average 68%.

12
 0.4
Occurence

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

(−) Error (+) Error

0
−4 σ −3 σ −2 σ −1 σ 0 1σ 2σ 3σ 4σ
−r +r

Figure 2: Curve for Normal Law. The highlighted portion(between bold dotted lines) indicates
the region of probable error, where r = ±0.6745σ.

Table 2 also shows that half of the cases are included in the deviation limits of ±0.6745σ.
The quantity r is called the probable error and is defined as

probable error r = ±0.6745σ (6)

The value is probable in the sense that there is an even chance that any one observation will
have a random error no greater than ±r. Probable error has been used in experimental work to
some extent in the past, but standard deviation is more convenient in statistical work and is
given preference.

1.7 Limiting Errors:

In most indicating instruments, the accuracy is guaranteed to a certain percentage of full-

scale reading. Circuit components (such as capacitors, resistors, etc.) are guaranteed within a
certain percentage of their rated value. The limits of these deviations from the specified values
are known as limiting errors or guarantee errors.
For example, if the resistance of a resistor is given as 500 Ω ± 10 per cent, the
manufacturer guarantees that the resistance falls between the limits 450 Ω and 550 Ω. The
maker is not specifying a standard deviation or a probable error, but promises that the error is no
greater than the limits set.
Problems:
1. A set of independent voltage measurements taken by four observers was recorded as
117.02 V, 117.11 V, 117.08 V, and 117.03 V. Calculate

1. The average voltage,

2. The range of error.

Solution

1. Average
Voltage

E1 + E2 + E3 + E4
Eav =
N

117.02 + 117.11 + 117.08 +

= 117.03 = 117.06 V
4

2. Range

Range = Emax − Eav = 117.11 − 117.06 = 0.05V

But also Range = Eav – Emin

= 117.06 − 117.02 = 0.04 V

The average range of error = (0.05 + 0.04) / 2 = ±0.045 = ±0.05V

2. In calculating voltage drop, a current of 3.18 A is recorded i n a resistance of 35.68 Ω. Calculate

the voltage drop across the resistor to the appropriate number of significant figures.

Solution

E = I R = 3.18 × 35.68 = 113.4624 = 113V

Since there are three significant figures i s involved, the answer can be written only to
a maximum of three significant figures.
5. A voltmeter, having a sensitivity of 1,000 Ω/V, reads 100 V on its 150-V scale when connected across
an unknown resistor in series with a milli ammeter.
When the milli ammeter reads 5 mA, calculate
1. apparent resistance of the unknown resistor,
2. actual resistance of the unknown resistor,
3. Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter.

Solution
1. The total circuit resistance equals ,

RT = VT / IT = 100/ (5*10-3) = 20 KΩ.

Therefore, the value of the unknown resistor is RX = 20 kΩ

2. The voltmeter resistance equals,

RV = 1000 × 150V = 150 kΩ

Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown resistance, we can write

Rx = (RT*RV) / (RV – RT) = (20*150) / (150 – 20) = 23.05 Kω

3. Error

% Error = [(Actual – Apparent) / actual] * 100 = [(23.05 – 20) / 23.05]*100 = 13.23%

6. A set of independent current measurements was taken by six observers and recorded as 12.8 mA,
12.2 mA, 12.5 ma, 13.1 mA, 12.9 mA, and 12.4 mA. Calculate
1. the arithmetic mean,
2. the deviations from the mean.

Solution

1. the arithmetic mean,

= (12.8 + 12.2 + 12.5 + 13.1 + 12.9 + 12.4) / 6
= 12.65 mA
 2. the deviations are,
d1 = 12.8 − 12.65 = 0.15 mA
d2 = 12.2 − 12.65 = −0.45 mA
d3 = 12.5 − 12.65 = −0.15 mA
d4 = 13.1 − 12.65 = 0.45 mA
d5 = 12.9 − 12.65 = 0.25 mA
d6 = 12.4 − 12.65 = −0.25 mA

Note that the algebraic sum of all the deviations equals zero.

7. Ten measurements of the resistance of a resistor gave 101.2 Ω, 101.7 Ω, 101.3 Ω, 101.0 Ω, 101.5 Ω,
101.3 Ω, 101.2 Ω, 101.4 Ω, 101.3 Ω, and 101.1 Ω.
Assume that only random errors are present. Calculate
1. the arithmetic mean,
2. the standard deviation of the readings,
3. the probable error.

Solution
With a large number of readings a simple tabulation of data is very convenient and avoids confusion
and mistakes.

Reading Deviation

x d d2
101.2 -0.1 0.01
101.7 0.4 0.16
101.3 0.0 0.00
101.0 -0.3 0.09
101.5 0.2 0.04
101.3 0.0 0.00
101.2 -0.1 0.01
101.4 0.1 0.01
101.3 0.0 0.00
101.1 -0.2 0.04

Σ x = 1,013.0 Σ | d | = 1.4 Σ d2= 0.36

1. Arithmetic mean = Σ x / n = 1,013.0 / 10 = 101.3 Ω

2. S.D = σ = Σ d2 / (n-1) = 0.36 / (10-1) = 0.2Ω

3. Probable error = 0.6745σ = 0.6745 × 0.2 = 0.1349 Ω

8. A 0-150-V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 per cent full-scale reading. The voltage measured
by this instrument is 83 V. Calculate the limiting error in per cent.

Solution

The magnitude of the limiting error is

0.01 × 150 = 1.5 V
The percentage error at a meter indication of 83 V is

(1.5/83)× 100 per cent = 1.81%

It is important to that a meter is guaranteed to have an accuracy of better than 1 per cent of
the full-scale reading, but when the meter reads 83 V, the limiting error increases to 1.81 percent. The
increase in per cent limiting error, as smaller voltages are measured, occurs because the magnitude of
the limiting error is a fixed quantity based on the full-scale reading of the meter.