A p p e n d ix C

Appendix C
Basic Food Microbiology
1.0 Meet the Culprits
1.1 Bacteria
1.2 Viruses
1.3 Parasites
1.4 Yeasts, Moulds, and Other Fungi

2.0 Factors affecting growth

2.1 Food
2.2 Acidity
2.3 Temperature
2.4 Time
2.5 Oxygen
2.6 Moisture

3.0 Sources of information

 B a s ic Food Mic rob iolog y

Microorganisms are tiny life forms capable of rapid reproduction under

some growth conditions. Many have been found to be useful to the food
industry. Examples include bacteria used in the production of yogurt
and cheese, or yeast for bread production. Many have also been found
to cause problems such as food spoilage and illness.

According to public health and food safety experts, millions of

illnesses in the United States can be traced to foodborne bacteria
each year. The U.S. Public Health Service has identified the
following microorganisms as being the biggest culprits of foodborne
illness either because of the severity of the sickness or the number
of cases of illness they cause. Beware of these pathogens:

• CAMPYLOBACTER – raw and undercooked meat and poultry,

raw milk and untreated water.
• CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM – honey, root vegetables, home
prepared foods.
• E.COLI O157:H7 – undercooked meat, produce, raw milk.
• lisTEriA MoNoCyTogENEs – dairy products, soil, water,
deli meat products, poultry and seafood, and produce.
• NOROVIRUS – any food if handled by someone who is
infected, or in a water storage system.
• SALMONELLA – raw and undercooked eggs, undercooked
poultry and meat, dairy products, seafood, produce.
• STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS – cooked foods high in protein,
commonly found on human hands.
• SHIGELLA – salads, dairy products, and unclean water.
Poor hygiene allows shigellosis to easily be transmitted from
person to person to food.
• TOXOPLASMA GONDII – primarily pork products.
• VIBRIO VULNIFICUS – raw or undercooked seafood.

Least Wanted Foodborne Pathogens fightbac.org, the

website of the Partnership for Food Safety Education (PFSE), is
your resource for Fight BAC! food safety and safe food handling
campaign information. © 2006 http://www.fightbac.org/content/
view/14/21

Appendix C-1
B a s ic Fo o d Micro b io lo g y

Microbes are everywhere. They are found in:

• Air;
• Water;
• Food;
• Soil;
• Humans (nose, gut, skin, etc.); and
• Surfaces.

Although many are found in locations where environmental factors are

ideal to support their multiplication, many also are able to survive and
even multiply outside their natural surroundings.

1.0 Meet the Culprits

There are more than 200 known illnesses that a person can get from
eating contaminated food. These illnesses can result from disease-
causing bacteria, viruses, toxins and parasites. These harmful
microorganisms are known as pathogens.
Pathogens can cause illness in three ways:

• Pathogens found on contaminated food infect intestines

causing illness;
• Pathogens on contaminated food produce toxins that cause
poisoning; and
• Pathogens found on contaminated food infect intestines and
produce toxins that cause illness.

1.1 Bacteria
These microorganisms are small, living, single-celled life forms that
are easily carried by food, water, humans, insects and air. They can
reproduce rapidly when exposed to ideal conditions and can be hard
to control. Some bacteria can survive freezing, some grow easily when
food is cold, and some can form endospores (change their structure to
create very tough, resistance outer coatings etc.).

Appendix C-2
 B a s ic Food Mic rob iolog y

When bacteria first come into new surroundings (e.g. food source),
they go through an adaptation phase. During this time, they do
not multiply. This lag phase is a key time to use controls, such as
temperature acidity, to inhibit bacterial growth. The next stage is called
a logarithmic growth phase. This is when bacteria rapidly multiply under
ideal conditions. (can double in number every 15 minutes). During this
multiplication, by-products like acid and a reduction of food resources
lead to a gradual slow-down and eventually limit further reproduction.
Toxins are most commonly produced at this point. Since toxins can form
before the bacteria are able to cause visible changes to the food, food
that looks fine may cause poisoning and illness.

1.2 Viruses
Viruses are extremely small life forms that need living cells to grow.
Viruses can also be described as a packet of genetic material that
needs a host to reproduce. Infection can occur with very few viruses,
which usually contaminate food through poor staff personal hygiene.
All foodborne viruses have been shown to originate from the human
gut, and therefore tend to affect the gut. Viruses have been known to
survive cooking and freezing.

1.3 Parasites
Like viruses, parasites need to live in or on a host organism to survive
and refer most commonly to toprotozoa or parasitic worms, which are
too small to be seen with the naked eye. Many of these parasites have
complicated life cycles where a human host is only one step. Commonly
infected organs include muscles, the brain, eyes and the gut.

1.4 Yeasts, Moulds, and Other Fungi

These organisms are more commonly connected with food spoilage
than food-related illnesses. However, a few moulds can cause illness in
humans. Often this is due to the production of toxins during growth.
These toxins have been shown to be able to cause cancer, hay fever
and some forms of asthma.

Appendix C-3
B a s ic Fo o d Micro b io lo g y

2.0 Factors Affecting Growth

All microorganisms, like any other living organism, depend on their
environment to survive. Unfavourable conditions have been shown to
alter their reproductive rates or even kill them. By influencing what
microorganisms need for growth, processors can gain control.

Toss the Sponge

Damp towels and sponges may provide the perfect environment
for pathogen growth. Consider using paper towels for cleaning up
surfaces or drying equipment and hands. If you use cloth towels,
wash and sanitize them often.

Your company can take several steps to prevent or control food

contamination by potentially harmful organisms. The most common
controls involve altering one or more of the following:

• Food;
• Acidity (pH);
• Temperature;
• Time;
• Oxygen; or
• Moisture.

2.1 Food
Like all animals, microbes require food or nutrients for growth and
survival. The easiest method of control is cleaning. Cleaning removes
visible soil and food residue from equipment and surfaces. Food
residue left on equipment is a source of food for bacteria. If equipment
and surfaces are not cleaned properly, these organisms multiply and
contaminate the next batch of food.

Appendix C-4
 B a s ic Food Mic rob iolog y

2.2 Acidity
Bacteria do not like living in very acidic or low-acid, or basic (alkaline)
environments. Many pathogenic organisms grow well somewhere
between a pH of 4.6 and 7.5. Many foods are preserved by adding acid
to their ingredients.
Acid Foods 4.6 Low-Acid Foods

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Neutral (7.0)
Increasing Acidity

Acidic foods have pH values below 4.6. These foods include pickles,
most fruits, and jams and jellies made from fruit. Acidic foods contain
enough acidity either to stop the growth of bacteria or destroy the
bacteria more rapidly when heated.
Low-acid foods include red meats, seafood, poultry, milk, all fresh
vegetables and some tomatoes. Low-acid foods have pH values higher
than 4.6 and do not contain enough acid to prevent the growth of
bacteria. When low-acid foods are used in formulations, it is important
that they be properly acidified before they have a chance to spoil.

Appendix C-5
B a s ic Fo o d Micro b io lo g y

2.3 Temperature
Like acidity (pH), there are minimum and maximum temperature values
for optimal pathogenic growth. Keep food out of the ‘Danger Zone’, the
temperature range when bacteria and spoilage organisms grow most
quickly: between 4º C and 60º C. When food is left in the Danger Zone,
bacteria can grow fast and reach unsafe numbers in your food product.
Follow the simple rule of keeping hot foods hot and cold foods cold to
help ensure that your product will be safe for your consumers.

Figure 1
Courtesy the Marketing Food Safety – Farm Direct Advantage Manual developed in a partnership with
Alberta Agriculture and Food and the Alberta Farmers’ Market Association.

High-risk foods can support fast microbial growth and exposure to the
Danger Zone should be minimized. These foods include:

• Meat, seafood, fish or poultry and foods that contain them, such
as casseroles, deli meats, salads and sandwiches;
• Eggs and other protein-rich foods, like soybean products, and
foods that contain these items;
• Dairy products and foods containing dairy products;
• Fresh-cut or peeled fruit or vegetables;
• Cooked vegetables, beans, rice and pasta dishes;
• Sauces, gravy, and other low-acid food products; and
• Sprouts, such as alfalfa and bean sprouts.

Appendix C-6
 B a s ic Food Mic rob iolog y

Appearance and touch are not reliable signs of safe temperatures.

Taking food temperatures correctly and using a properly adjusted food
thermometer is the only way to ensure that food is kept out of the
Danger Zone.
Many foods companies use heat processing to ensure safe products.
These products are usually foods where other controls do not work and
involve placing the food in extreme temperatures for a longer time.
For commercial sterility, this period must be long enough to reduce
the number of organisms by a factor of 109. That means there are one
billion times fewer organisms. Temperatures and processing times that
destroy microorganisms may fail to get rid of enzymes and not destroy
toxins that are heat stable. These toxins may cause illness in people
who eat them. Thermal processing is no substitute for good quality
raw materials, good raw-material safety and safe food handling
and processing.

2.4 Time
If they remain in the Danger Zone for more than four hours, all
pathogenic microorganisms can increase to unacceptable levels that can
result in illness.

2.5 Oxygen
Microorganisms have different oxygen needs. Some need oxygen to
grow, some will grow only when there is no oxygen, and some can grow
with or without oxygen. Some packaging methods work by restricting
or stopping availability of oxygen. These include modified-atmosphere
packaging and vacuum packaging.

2.6 Moisture
Water is necessary for most life forms to grow. If a product is dry, then
bacteria cannot grow as well as when there is water. Water in food that
is not bound to food molecules can support the growth of bacteria,
yeasts and moulds (fungi). The term water activity (aw) refers to this
unbound water.

Appendix C-7
B a s ic Fo o d Micro b io lo g y

The water activity of a food is not the same thing as its moisture
content. Although moist foods are likely to have greater water activity
than dry foods, it is not always so. In fact, certain foods may have
exactly the same moisture content and yet have quite different water
activities.

The Typical Water Activity of Some Food Products

Type of Product Water Activity (aw)

Fresh Meat and Fish 0.99
Bread 0.95
Aged Cheddar 0.85
Jams and Jellies 0.80
Plum Pudding 0.80
Dried Fruit 0.60
Biscuits 0.30
Milk Powder 0.20
Instant Coffee 0.20

The water activity (aw) represents the ratio of the water vapour
pressure of the food to the water vapour pressure of pure water under
the same conditions. It is expressed as a fraction. If we multiply this
ratio by 100, we obtain the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) that the
food product would produce if enclosed with air in a sealed container
at constant temperature. Thus, a food with a water activity (aw) of 0.7
would produce an ERH of 70 per cent. Maintaining a water activity of
0.85 or less holds back the growth of most pathogenic organisms that
threaten public health.

Appendix C-8
 B a s ic Food Mic rob iolog y

3.0 Sources of Information

1. Chamberlain, Neal R. Foodborne Diseases (2002). www.kcom.edu/
falculty/chamberlain/Website/Foodborne.htm.

2. Partnership for Food Safety Education (PFSE). Least Wanted Foodborne

Pathogens (2006). http://www.fightbac.org/content/view/14/21.

3. WHO/ICD. Food Safety for Nutritionists and other Health

Professionals – Teacher’s Handbook 2nd Edition (2000).

4. National Restaurant Association Educational Foundation.

ServSafe Instructor CD-ROM (1999).

5. JJ Keller and Associates Inc. Employee’s Guide

to Food Safety 2nd Edition (2000).

6. Rushing, John E. et al. NC State University Department of

Food Science. Basic Food Microbiology (2007). www.ces.
ncsu.edu/depts/foodsci/ext/pubs/microbiologybasic.html.

7. American Institute for Baking. Food Processing Sanitation/

Hygiene Correspondence Course (2000).

8. FDA Centre for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. Bad Bug Book
(2005). www.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/aap3.html.

9. John E. Rushing and Patricia A. Curtis Acidified Foods: formulating

Dressings, Sauces and Marinades, North Carolina Cooperative Extension
Service North Carolina State University College of Agriculture & Life
Sciences (2000).

Appendix C-9