J

Groups and Rings 1. 1

( UNIT 1J
Groups and Rings
1.1 Groups : Definition - Properties

Definition : Group :
If G is a non-empty set and is a binary operation on G, th e- n
o
(G, o) is called a group, if it satisfies the following conditions

(i) Closure For all a , b E G, a ob E G.

(ii) Assod "ltive For all a, b, c E G, a o (b o c) = (a ob) o c.

(iii) Identity There exists e E G with a o e =e o a = a,

for all a E G .

(i v) Inverse For each a E G the re is an element b E G

.
>
•I such that a o b = b oa = e.
;

~ Note 1. (Z, +), (Q, +), (R , +) a nd (C, +) are groups.

~
t
. :! 2. (N, +) and (Z, •) a r c not groups .
.,

Definition : Commutative (or) Abelian Group :

A group (G, o) 1s said to be an Abelian group if
,; a ob =boa, V a, b E G.
&
:,,

-~ u
(
Note : 1. (Z, + ), (Q, + ), I

(R, +) and (C, +) are Abelian Groups

' :
~
1 2. (Z, • ). (Q, •), (R, • ) and ( C , • ) a re not Abelian Groups .
,,
_.i
3. (Q*, •), (R*, •) and (C*, •) are Abelian Group~.
[Q *, R *, C* are non-zero c I emcnts o f Q, R and CJ
4. If (R, +, •) 1s a nng, then (R, +) is an Abelia n Gro up.

5. If (F, +, •) is a field , then (F, *, • ) is an Abelian Group.

6. Abel -+ Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik A be l

 1.2 Algebra and Number Theory Groups and Rings
1.3
7. From here on the group operation will be written ec by (1)
multiplicatively, unless it is given otherwise, r ) a ob = C
now becomes a b .
=b = C
8. Z -+ integer, Q -+ rational number
Hence, the inverse 1s unique.
R -+ real number, C -+ complex number
Note : We denote ~he inverse of a by a - 1.

!!THEOREM 1.11 IITHEOREM 3.11

For every group G, the identity of G is unique.
For every group G, if a, b, c E G and ab= ac, the n b =c
[Left-cancellation property)
Proof : Let e 1 and e 2 be two identity elements m G.
Proof : Let a, b, c E G

e1 [". · e 2 1s the identity] (1) Given : ab ac (1)

We know that, b eb
ez e1 e1 ez = ei ["." e1 1s the identity] ... (2)
(a- 1 a)b
(1) & (2) => e1 = e2
a- 1 (ab)
Hence, the identity 1s unique.
a - I (ac) by (1)
(a- 1 a)c
l frBEoREM 2. lj ec
For · 1erv group G, the inverse of each element of G 1s unique.
= C
Proof : Let a E G
=> b = C

Suppose b and c be two inverses of a Thus ab = ac => b =c

Then ab ba = e (1) r _. b lS the inverse of a 1 whicii is c a lled the left-canc:ellation law.

ac = ca - e ... (2) [" ." c 1s the inverse of a] IITHEOREM 4.11

W e know that, b be For eve ry group G , if a, b, c E G and l:a = ca , then b =c
[Right-c a n cella tion law]
b (ac) by (2) Proof : L e t a, b , c E G

(ba) c [by associati~ -~Yl Given : ba ca ... (1)

 \:;,
Groups and Rings i.5
1 .4 Algebra and Number Theory ~
W e know thnt, t, -= tu : Consider (al>) (b - l a - 1) -::: a (/J/J - l ) 0 -
1
~
= b (aa - 1)
\' .' ,w - 1
= c\ = a (c) a · l
~
(ae) a -· l
-:"" (ba) a - t
= aa - 1 l
1
= (ca)a - by ( I)
= e .. . (I) ~
= c (aa - 1 )
Similarly, (l> - I a - 1) (ab) = e ... (2)
= cc
C
From (1) & (2), we gel (ab) (b - u- 1 1) = (b-t 1
0- ) (ab) = e
= C C-
⇒ (ab) - 1 = b - ta - 1
T hus ba = ca :o b =c
c.
Nok l. lf it is a group , we need to det er mine its idcnl it v and
which is called the right -cuncclbti0 n \aw.
the inverse of each of its clement. ,
2. lf it is not a group , we need to state the co ndition o f
'
Q .,rob\cms under Group and Abc\ian-grou\l the definition th at it violates.
'
\lExample· 1. 10)\
If G is a gm.tip, prove that for all a. b E G then
\ \\Example 1.1.2\\
Verify the set S = {-1, l} is a group or not
'"
(i) (a - 1 ) - 1 = a (ii) (ab)- 1 = b- 1 a - 1 (a) und '.!r multiplication; (bJ under addition.

Proof : \ (i) Given : G is a group .\

Let a E G => a - 1
E G
\
\l
Solution : Given : S
\ (a)\ (i) Closure property :
= {-1 , l}
' C.
-1.1 = -lES C
r.. ll - l I~ inverse of (l \
i
'
\ 1 . ( -- 1) - l E S (
=> a is the inverse of a - I S is closed under- multiplication .
\ i
\
(ii) Associative property : •
1 Since there are only two eleme nts in S, the associative property
Proof : \ (ii) Given : G is a group\ !
is meaningless.
Lcl a., b E G
(iii) Existe nce o f identity
1 1
To prove : (ab) - 1
= b - d·- 1_· .' ae =ea= n.1
The multiplicative identity 1 E S.
1 1
To prove: (ab) (b -- 1 a - ) = (b-la- ) (ab) = e i.e., e = l
 Algebra and Number Theory Groups and R"ings
1.7
(iv) Existence of inverse : (iv) Existence of inverse : Here,
(-1) . (-1)-l = (-1)- 1 .(-1) = 1 (-1) +1 = 1 + (-1) = O -1 is the inverse of 1
(1) . (1)- 1 = (1)-l. (1) = 1 1+(-1) (-1)+1 = O 1 is the inverse of -1

The inverse of -1 is -1
o+o 0 0 is the inverse of O

The inverse of 1 is 1 wh,ch shows that the inverse of each element exist in s.
Hence, S is a group under addition.
which shows that each element has its own mverse.
Hence, S is a group under multiplication.
\ ~ (i) Closure property : \\Example 1.1.4\\
-:-l+l=Of/::.S Verify that set S = {10n z} under
\n E addition is a group or not.
S is not closed under addition. Solution : Given S = {10n \ n E Z}
S is not a group under addition. (i) Closure property :

Let n,m E Z
\\ Example 1.1.3\\ 10n + 10m = 10 (m + n) ES since m + n E Z

V crif-y the set S { -1, O, l} is a group or not under addition. : . S is closed under addition.

Solution : Given : S = {-1,.0, 1} (ii) Associative property :

(i) Closure property : Let n,m,p EZ
-1+0 = -lES 10n + (10m + lOp) 10n + 10 (m + p)
0 + 1 = 1 ES 10 (n + (m + p)1
1 + (-1) = 0 ES 10 [(n + m) + P1

S is closed under addition. = (10n + 10m) + lOp

Associa~ive property : Thus S is associativf' under addition.

(ii)
(-1)+(0+1) = (-1+0)+1 = 0 (iii) Existence of identity :
... elements of S follow associative property. The additive identity O E S
- (iii) Existence of identity : i.e., e = 0 ES
)
The additive identity O E S 10n + 0 = 0 + 10n = 10n, Since 0 E Z

) i.e., e = 0 ES

'
.,
 1 .9
1.8 Algebra and Nurr-':>er Theor1 Groups and Rings

(iv) Existence of inverse : (iv) Existence of inverse

Let k E Z be the mverse of 10 n Let g :A -+A
Let k be an inverse of g
10n +k 0 [·: 0 is identity of SJ
then, gok
k O - 10n
k
-lOn
Thus, G follows properties for a group.
10 (-n) ES
Hence, S is a group under addition. Hence, G is a gro11p.

l!Example 1.1.sll
I j/Example 1.1.sll Verify the set S = {;n,a&n EZ,n ~o} 1s a group und e r

II'
Verify the set of all one-to-one functions g : A -+ A, where
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} under function composition. addition.
Solution
Let G be a set of all one-to-one functions,
Solution : S {;n,a&n EZ,11 ~o}
(i) Closure property
g :A -+A where A= {1, 2, 3, 4}
Let _jz__ ES
(i) Closure property : 2m
Let /, g : A -+ A are one-to-one functions a zm + b zn
----ES
then / o g :A -+ A is also one-to-one and hence fog E G. 2 m+n

Thus G is closed under functions composition. ["_" (a 2m + b 2n), (m + n) E Z for m, n ~ 01

(ii) Associative property :
: . S is closed under addition.
Let /, g, h : A -+ A are one-to-one functions, then
(ii) Associative property :
f o (.go h) = (fog) o h
a b c
Thus, G is associative. Let - - -ES
2n' 2m' 2P

I-
i
(iii) Existence of identity :
Let e E G +-
C

2P
goe = g
a zrn+p + b 2n+p + c 2m+n
Thus e = IA ... (1)
2 m+n+p
 1 .1O
Algebra and Number Theory Groups and Rings
a 1 .11
-2n + and
3 - (2 - 4) = 5
a 2m+p + b 2n+p + C 2m+n
Since - 3 'F- 5, associative property is not satisfi~d .
... (2)
2m+n+p
Hence, Z is not a group under subtraction.
From (1) & (2),
\\THEOREM 5. \\
;n + ( :m + ;p) - (;n + :rr.) + ;, For any group G is abelian if and only if (ab)2 = a2 b2
H e nce, S is associative under addition. for a\l a,b E G
(iii) Existence of identity Proof ; Given : G is abelian ... (1)
= a2 b2

i '-
The additive identity O __Q_ ES
2n \
r,
To prove : (ab)2

(ab)2 (ab) (ab)

F ..
~
a 0
-
2n
+-
2n
= _Q_ + .E_ -a ~ a (ba) b
2n 2n 2n
Proof ; \ If Part

n """
-...: ....__
Hence, 0 lS identity of S.
(iv) Existence of inverse
Given : G is a abelian.
i.e., 'r/ a, b E G => ab = ba ... (1)

~---: ..._,
= -a is the inverse of
0

.E_
To prove : (ab)2

Proof : (ab)2
= 2
a b

(ab) (ab)
2

--
.._, 2n 2n a (ba) b
....,
,_ Hence, S is a group under addition. a (ab) b by (1)
=
~
.._, !!Example 1.1.7\\ (aa) (bb)

Why is the set Z not a group under subtraction ?

•j ~

~
Solution :
Only if Part : \
Given : 'r/ a, b E G, (ab)2

• :, for Z .
Here, subtraction 1s not an associative ( closed) binary opera.Lion
To prove G is abelian

I , Consider an example, 2, 3, 4 E Z. Then, we have

(3 - 2) - 4 = - 3,
Proof ; (ab)2
(ab) (ab) (aa) (bb)
I
&l '~
 "1
1.12 Algebra and Number Theory 1.13 ,,_,
Groups ar.d Rings
ab ab aa bb ⇒ ba ab
a (ba) b a (ab) b [·. · right and left cancellation law] ~
⇒ ab ba
ba ab Hence, G is an abelian group . ~
ab ba
f::
Hence, G is an abelian group. [Example 1.1.s II
C
Ii THEOREM 6. II Show t:lat (A, •) is an abelian group where A {a E Q / a ,t; -1 }
. -1 and for any a, b EA a• b =a+ b + ab G
For any group G is abelian if and only 1f (ab) = a -1 b -1
for all a, b E G.
Solution : C
(i) Cbsu::e property :
Proof : ~ r i _ J C
Let a , b EA, then a ":I!: - l and b -;t; - l, a . b EA
Given : G is abelian.
i.e ., V a, b E G ⇒ ab = ba ... (1) i
~
: . a.b-;t;-l
- '
To prove : (ab) -1
= 0
-1 b-1
~

i
Suppose a• b = -1 then a+ b
⇒ a
+ ab =
+ b + ab + l = 0
-1

'
Let (ab)- 1 (ba)- 1 by (1)

II ⇒ (a + 1) + b (a + 1) = 0
'
a - l b- l [" ." V a, b E C ⇒ (ba) -l = a·- I b - l] ⇒ (a + 1) (b_+ 1) = 0
'
(ab)- 1 = a- 1 b- 1
I.-0-n-ly_if__-par-t--,:I
i

il
⇒ a= -1 (or) b = -1
'
't
This is a contradiction.
.-. a. b ,t; - l
Given : V a, b E G, (ab)-l = a-I b- 1 ... (1)
l (ii) Associative property :

',
To prove : G is abelian. l

i.e., To prove : ab = ba, 'r/ a, b E G

!
j
Let a,b,c EA
;
To pr-::>ve : a . (b . c) (a . b) .c
We know that, [" ." G is a group] a . (b . c) a . (b + c + be)
C
a + (b + e + be) + a (b + c + be)
["." G is a group]
a + b + c + be + ab + ac + abc ... ( 1)
C
From (1) & (2), we get (,
(a.b).c = (a+b+ab).c
(ab)- 1 by (3) & (2) = (a + b + ab) + c + (a + b + ab) c
"',;
 1 . 14
Algebra and Number Theory Groups and Rings
a + b + ab + e + ae + be + abe Note : Let G = {q E Q, q :;it; -1}. Define the binary ope rati on
a + b + e + ab + be + ae + abc ... (2) o on r; by x o y = x + y + xy

From (1) & (2) we get a. (b . c) = (a. b) . c Prove that (G, o) is an abelian group.
( iii ) Existence of identity

Va EA, 3eEA
\\Example 1.1.9\\
Define the binary operation o on Z by x o y =x +y + 1.
= a.e = a Verify that (Z, o) is an abelian group.
= a+e+ae = a Solution :
⇒ e (1 + a) = 0 (i) Closure property
⇒ e = 0 as the identity. Since a :;c -1 Let x,yE Z,
(iv) Existence of inverse : X oy = X; y + 1 E Z -
\I a E A, 3 b ( the inverse of a) E A :. (Z, o) is closed under o
a.b = e (ii) Associative property

⇒ a+ b + ab 0 ["." e = O] Let x,y,z E Z

To prove : x o (y oz) = (x oy) oz
b + ab -a
xo(yoz) X o (y + Z + 1)
b (1 + a) = -a
X + (y + Z + 1) + 1
-a
b = l+a x+y+z+2 ... (1)
(x oy) oz (x +y + 1) oz
.·. The inverse of a = (-a) (1 + a)- 1
=x+y+l+z+l
(v) Abelian property : = x+y+z+2 ... (2)
To prove : V a, b EA ⇒ a . b = b .a From (1) & (2), we get
a. b = a+ b + ab ... (1) xo(yoz) (x oy) oz
b.a b +a+ ba (iii) Existence of identity :

a+ b + ab ... (2) Let x E Z

From (1) & (2), we get a. b = b . a Let e E Z, be the identity of Z

.·. (A, .) is an abelian group. x oe = x
 1.16 Algebra and Number l heory
Groups and Rings
1 . 17
=> x+e+ I X
From (1) & (2), we get (a, b) - l(c, d) . (e,j) j
e = -1 E Z [(a , b). (c , d ) I (c , f)
(ii) Existence of ide ntity :
(iv) Exi!i lcnce of inverse :
V (a,b) EA, 3 (ei,ez) EA
V x E Z, 3 y (the inverse of x) E Z

xoy = e =:> (a, b). (e 1, e 2 ) = (a , b)

=> x+y+l= e =:> (aei, be 1 + e 2) = (a, b)

,. x+y+I -1 a, be 1 + e2 = b
y - (x + 2) E Z b + e2 = b
HL:ncc, Z is a group.
(v) Ab l'lian Prope rty :
Hence identity is (1, 0)
To prove : V x,y E Z => xoy =yox (iii) Existence -:-if inverse :
xoy = x +y + l .. . (1) V (a, b) EA, 3 (c,d) EA
y o X = y + X +1 = X +y + 1 (2) =:> (a, b) . (e, d) (e1,e2)
From (1) & (2), we get x oy = y ox
=:> (ae, be+ d) = (1., 0)
.·. (Z, o) is an abelian g·roup.
=:> ae = 1, be+ d = 0
{/Example 1.1. 101/ c = a -1 , d -be
Prove that (A,.) 1s a non-abelian group where A = R* x R
and (a, b). (c, d) = (ac, be+ d)
Hence the inverse of (a, b) is (a - 1, -ha -1)
Solution :
Hence, (A, .) is a group.
(i) Associative property :
(iv) Non-abelian property :
Let (a, b), (c, d), (e,f) = A
V (a,b),(c,d) E.,1
I . To ~rove : (a, b). [(c, d). (e,f)J [(a, b). (e, d)J. (e,f)
To prove : (a, b) (c, d) ~ (c, d). (a, b)
(a, b) . [(c, d) . (e,f)] = (a, b). [ce, de + fl
(a, b). (c, d) (ac, be + d) ... (1)
(ace, bee + de + f) ... (1)
(c, d). (a, b) (ca, da + b) ... (2)
[(a, b). (e, d)J. (e,f) = (ae, be + d) . (e,f)
From (1) & (2), we get (a, b). (c, d) "#- (e, d) . (a, b)
(ace, bee + de + f) ... (2)
.·. (A, ..) is a non-abelian group.
)

~ '.
1_.1_8_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _...:.A..::.lg~e:::b:::r:..:a:......:::a::..:n~d_N~u.:.:m.:.::b:'...'.:e:.:..r_T:..:h..:.:e~o:'..'..ry!. '. Groups and Rings 1 .19
~
\\Example 1. 1 .11 \\ (ux, vx + y) = (1, O)
~ u.x = 1, vx + y = 0
Let S = R* X R. Define the binary operation o on S
~ by (u, v) o (x,y) = (ux, vx + y). Prove that (S, o) is a X =
l
~ ,y = -VX
non-abelian group.
~ V
Solution : ~ y = --;;
~ (i) Associative Property :
Let u, v,x,y, a, b ER
the inverse of (u, v) is (~. -: ~
~
To prove: ((u,v)o(x,y)lo(a,b) = (u,v)o((x,y)o(a,b)1 (iv) N on-abelian property :

,
~ [(u, v) o (x,y)l o (a, b) (ux, vx + y) o (a, b)
(uxa, (vx + y) a + b)
Let (u, v) ES and (x,y) ES
To prove that (u, v) o (x,y) "# (x,y) o (u, v)

, (u, v) o [(x,y) o (a, b)l

(uxa, vxa +ya+ b)
= - (u, v) o [xa,ya + bl
... (1) (u, v) o (x, y)
(x,y) o (u, v) = (xu,yu
= (ux, vx + y)
+ v)
... (1)
... (2)
) = (uxa, vxa +ya+ b) ... (2) From (1) & (2), we get (u, v) o (x,y) "# (x,y) o (u, v)

From (1) & (2), we get a!>sociative property holds good. :. (S, o) is a non-abelian group.
l
(ii) Existence of identity : Definition : Sub-group G
l Let G be a group and cp = H C G. If H is a group under the
\;/ (u, v) ES, 3 (e 1 , e2) ES
binary operat;on of G, then H a subgroup of G.
)
(u, v) o (ei, e2) = (u, v) (OR)
) (ue 1, ve 1 + e2) ·- (u, v) A non-empty subset H of a group G is called .a s~b-group of
G whenever H itself a group under the binary operation m G.
=> ue 1 u, ve 1 + e2 = V
) Note : l. Every group G has {e} and G as sub-groups. These
=> e1 = 1, V + e1 = V
are tr\vial sub-groups of G. All others are termed
)
=> e2 = 0 non-trivial, or proper•
) In addition to H = {0, 2, 4}' the sub-set K {0, 3}
Hence the identity is (1, O) 2.
is also a (proper) sub-group of G = (26, + ).
) (iii) Existence of inverse : The group (Z, +) is a sub-group of (Q, ~ )_, v.~1i·.:.h_ is a
3.
V (u, v) ES, 3 (x,y) ES R +) Yet z• under multtphcatton 1s not
) sub-gr0up of ( , ·
Let (x,y) be the inverse of (u, v) a sub-group of (Q*, .)
) (u, v) o (x,y) = (e1, e2)

J
I ■ 1.2 1
Groups and Rings
So I-I is a group,
Algebr<' and Number Theory
1.20 Hence, H is a subgroup of G.
4. Each of the non-empty subsets { 1, 8} and {1, 4, 7} is
a sub-group is (U9, .)
(CT"HEOREM a]
~THEOREM 1.11 If G is a group <P ~ H C G, with H finite, then H is a subgroup of
If H is a non-empty subset of a group G, then H is a subgroup G if and only if H is closed under the binary operation of G.
of G if and only if
(a) for all a, b EH, ab EH, and
Proof : I If Part : I
Given : H is a subgroup of G
(b) for all a E H, a - l E H.
⇒ His a group
Proof : If Part : I To prove : H is closed under the binary operation of G.
Given : H is a subgroup of G ⇒ H is a group under the same
binary operation. Proof: V a,b EH
(a) for all a, b EH, ab EH ⇒ ab EH [·. · H rs a subgroup of G)
To prove :
(b) for all a E H, a - l E H
Only if .part : I w
Proof : V a, b E H Given : H is closed under the binary operation of G
⇒ (a) for all a, b EH ⇒ ab E P

---
i.e., V a, b E H ⇒ ab E H
(b) for all a EH ⇒ a- 1 EH ["." by the definition of subgroup.

I j I
Here, H is a subgroup of G)
To prove : H is a subgroup of G.
Proof : (i) Closure property :
-
---
Only if part :
V a, b E H ⇒ ab E H
Given : (a) For all a, b EH, ab EH
(b) For all a E H, a - l E fJ

To prove : H is a subgroup of G
(ii) Associative law :
Associative law holds in G it holds in H as well. -
Proof : V a, b, c EH. Since H s;;; G (iii) Existence identity :
⇒ a,b,c E G If a EI-/, then aH = {ah I h EH} ~ .H because of the closur e C
a (be) = (ab) c [Associative law holds in Hl condition. By ldt-cancellation in G,
C
Va EH, a- 1 EH ah 1 = ah 2
⇒ aa- 1 EH by (a)
⇒ eEH

I.
1.22 Algebra and Number Theory 1.23
Groups and Rings
so I ali I = I H \ . With a H ~ H and I a H I = I H \ , it follows
from H being finite that aH = H. As a EH, there exists b EH \Q"HEOREM 10.\\
with ab = a. But (in G) ab = a = ae, so b = e and H contains If G is a group, let H = {a E Glag = ga for all g E G} then H is a
the identity. subgroup of G. (The sub group H is called the centre of G).
(iv) Existence of inverse : Proof : Given : G is a group.
Since e EH= aH, there is an element c EH such that ac = e. H = {a E Glag = ga for all g E Gt
Then (ca) 2 = (ca) (ca) c (ac) a = (ce) a = ca (ca)e, so To prove : H is a sub group of G.

ca= e, and c = a- 1 EH. Consequently, by Theorem 7, H is a ·i.e., To prove : V a, b E H => ab E H and a - l E H.

subgroup of G. Proof : Since e E G and eg = ge for all g E G
=> eEH
II THEOREM 9. 11
H is not empty.
If H, K are subgroups of a group G, then H nK is also a V a,b EH
subgrm,p of G.
=> ag = ga ... (1) and bg = :;b ... (2) for all g E G
Proof : Given : H, K be two subgroups of G .

To prove : H nK is a subgrouos (i) To Prove: ab EH

1 (ab)g a (bg)
Proof :
i.e ., To prove : HnK~¢ and a,bEHnK => aob- EHnK
a (gb) by (2)
Proof : Since H and K are subgroups of G •.
(ag) b
=> the identity element e E H and K by (1)
(ga) b
: . HnK ~ ¢ g (ab)
Let a, b EH n K => ab EH

=> a, b E H and a, b E K 1P,

\
1 d b-1 EK since H and K are subgroups ·, (ii) To prove a - 1 EH
=> a o b- E lj an a o ,
·
1.e., T o prove : a - l g = g a - l for all g E G
=> aob- 1 EHnK
a - l (ga) a -1 = a- 1 (ag)a- 1
Proof :
a b E fl II K => a o b-l E fl II K
' (a-lg) (aa- 1) = (a- 1 a) (ga -l)
Hence, H n K is a sub group of G. -1
e ga
1.24
Algebra and Number Theory,\'
(

Groups and Rfngs 1.25 "

r_
Hence, all su· groups of (2 12 , +) are {O}, {O, 6}, {O, 4, 8},
a- 1 g = ga
-1
{O, 3, 6, 9'., {O, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, Z 12
t
Hence, H i·s a sub group of G . it,
j@xample 1.1.1311
![example 1.1.1211 Find all th~ subgroups of (Zii, .) group.
t
Find all sub groups of (Z12, +) group.
Solution : t
Slilution : To determine all subgroups of the group (Zi 1 , .) C
To determine all subgroups of the group (Z12, +) Since {e} and G are the trivial subgroups of the group G.
t
Since {e} and G are the trivial subgroups of the group G. {1} and z: 1 are the trivial subgroups of {Zi 1 } .
{O} and Z 12 are the trivial subgroups of (Z12, + ). If G is a gruup and ¢ .t:- H k G , with H is finite, then H is a ~
If G is a group and </> .t:- H k G, with H is finite, then H :.s a
subgroup of G if and only if H is closed under the binary operation C
subgroup of G if and only if H is closed under the binary operation . of G .

of G.
Clearly {i, 10}, {1, 3, 4, 5,. 9} ace proper subsets of group C
Clearly {O, 6}, {O, 4, 8}, {O, 3, 6, 9} , {O, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10} are proper ; (Zi1, +) C
subsets of group (Z 12 , + ). fl . 1 10 1 3 4 5 9
<
~+ : ~ : : : ~ ! : :I
1 1 3 4 5 9
1 1 10

10 10 1 3 3 9 1 4 5 C

;1~ 0
: : ~: ! ! : ~ ~I i
4

5
4

5 4
1 5
9
9

3
3

1
C
9 9 0 3 6 ~
~ 4
t
9 9 5 3 1

4 6 8 10 From the tables we observe

f t
+ 0 2

I'
l0 that {0, 6 }, {O, 4, 8}, From the table we opserve that {1, 10}, { 1, 3, 4, 5, 9} are close d
0 0 2 4 6 8 C
{O, 3, 6, 9}, {O, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10} under the ':>inary operation.
2 2 4 6 8 10 0 are closed under the binary I Hence, all sub groups of (Zi 1, .) are {l}, {1, 10}, {l, 3, 4, 5, 9}, C
4 4 6 8 10 0 2 operation +.
!
6 6 8 10 0 2 4

'
I_

8 8 10 0 2 4 6

10 10 0 2 4 6 8
 . -;:,
I
1.2 6 Algebra and Number Theory Groups and Rings 1 .27
~
Uefinition : Order of G. The symmetries (rigid motion) of a square
~ ~
I
For e ve ry group G the number of elements in G is called the Rigid Motion
\
-~ o rder o f G and this is denoted hy I G I . When the number of elements

-~
in a group 1s not finite we say that G has infinite order. SI. Name Before After
Permutation of
Vertices
\
Note : (l). z+, cz;, .) = No.
For all II E \(Zn,+)\ = 11, while \ p - 1
- 1 2 1

!J
2
Ji
~ for each prime p. identity
(~ 2 3

□□
1
Not e (2) . 2 3
The symmetric group S 4 consists of the 24 permutations
~
I
4 3 4

~
3

of {1 , 2, 3, 4}. Here n 0 = (~ ; :) 1s the -

'1'
i ~ ~), /3 = (~ i ~ :) ,
2 h rotate 90° '~ 4 I

(~ 2 3
~)
□□
l 2
.__ identity. lf a (~ clockwise

th e n a/3 = 0; ! ~) but /3 a= (~ ; ~ ~).

4 3 3 2

~
so 5 4 is non -abelian . Also, 13- 1
= (~ ; ~ :)
3 h rotate 180°
clockwise
t:bP. (1 2
4
3
l ~)
~
a nd a: 2 = n0 = {3 3 . \Vithin S 4 there is a subgroup of
o,der 8 that represents the group of rigid motions for 4 f 4 rotate 90° 1 2 LJ (; 2 3
·- - -

~)
~.)
a s quare .
I
l
counter-clockwise (0 3 4
3 4

~
-
-~
~
!\Example 1.1.14\I
Show that the set of rigid motions (symmetries) of a square with
'~
I,.
i\'.
5 fs reflect

m□
,~2

4 3
2

3
1

4
(1 2
l
3
4
4\
3)
. .....
~
~

J
th e binary operation of comp0sition is a non abelian group .
Solution : '
6 f6 reflect
1

8 0
2

9
4 3

(~ 2
3
3
2 ~)
"" The set of all symmetries (rigid mctions) of a square
\' 4 3 I 2

~ t i
•
•'.'Jlil,
is F = {h,hh,hfs.f6,hfs }· ~ 7 h reflect 1

..
2 3 2
(; 2 3
:)
i
~ □
• j 2 1

~t Let • be the binary operation of F (which is a set of 8 functions)

4 3 4 1

... -
defined a s composition (fog) (x) = f (g (x)) '' 8 fs rd"lect I 2 I 4

(~ L 3 4\
2)
-I
'I
t I I Gl □ 2 3
I
4 3

~1 \
I

-~
►•
1
\
IU
"
G,
Algebra and Number Theory 1.2 9
1.28 Groups und Rings
C,
f
r,·. T o compos iti o n ta ble 1s ·- Hence, (F, .) 1s a group. But it is not a n abe lian group s in ce fo r C
! i
h fs
i . fi h h /4 fs !6
·- example
C,
iI 'l. , -·
h f4 fs f6 h fs ls .h = ls ;t; h = h .fs
/1 !1 h
d·1 -
h h fs 16 fs C
i
l h h h f4
[Example 1.1.15 JI
tt -·--- fs h C,
f4 Ii h !6 fs
l h h Find all the subgroups of S 3 group.
h h fs h fs !6 C
/4 f4 Ji
/4 h Solution :
ls fs Is 16 h !1 h C
To de•.ermine all subgroups of the g~oup .5 3 = { 1, 2, 3 }
[ <, h fs fs h Ji h 14
f6
Since {e} and G are the trivial subgro ups of th e g roup G , C
fz f4 Ii h
h h Is fs !6
h Ji
no = U ; ;) and S3 arc the trivial subgroups of S 3 = {1 , 2, 3} . C
Is fs !6 h Is f4 fz
[If G is a group and ¢ ;t; H s;;;; G , with H is finite, then H is a
subgroup of G if and only if H is closed under the bina ry o pc r a tiPn
E xample f 3 of.4 = (13 4
2 1
324) (12 3 3 14) = (14 1
2 4 2 2
3 34) =z
f
of G]
Hence the composition o binary is a closure operation and is The group S is symmetric group with thre e symbo ls { L 2, 3}
3

--
associativ:::. and the group of all permutations of the set under the binary operation
for cxampic function ·composition. The clements of S 3 are
.fs <13 <-'/6)
O = fg o (/5) = f4 and
2 2 2
1 ~),nz = (; 3
2
(Jg 0 h) 0 f6 = h- 0 /6 ·= f4.

Hence,
2 3)
3 ' rz = (11
2
3
;) and r 3 = G 2
2
3)1 ' C
1
V3 °/6)
fR O == (Jg 0 /J) f6 0 C
Clearly {no, n1, nz}, {no, ri}, {n- 0 , r 2 }, {n 0, r 3 } are the proper s ubse ts
To id e ntity e is Ji as is ·evident from the elements of the first row of group s3 . C
:ind fir:,;t column o r the composition table .

il C
.2 2
Im·crsc Table is
no r1
r1 r1 1 1 ;)
r no no TI 2
h fs fs ~~no
J I

r1 r1 no
ft 2
r fg
J4 h h fs C
Similarly

l
I '~
:I ,,~1~
I .!_._30 Algebra and Number Theory Groups and Rings
1.31

In{ rz
rz
reflection m the horizontal
from lower left to upper right
.
is the reflection in the diagonal
• r3

and r4 is th e re fl ect1on
· 1n the
f I;~ diagonal from upper left to lower right.
~,: (b) To make a group table for all
rigid motions of a square.
~

~
·--7 - - -_
n1

:n:z
nz
__ __ _Jn1n1
.nz
:n:o
=
=
I; i
?1
)
2
3 1 2
~1 (~ i
3 112
1
2 3
3 1
3
2
I
= 11 2 3
}
2 3
= 1 2 3
1 2 3
1 = :n: 2
(

=no
no
Jt2

n3
Jt3

no
r1
r3
r2

r4
r3

r2
r4

r1
2 3 = \
~ nz
1 2 3 \
2
2
1 2
3<
3 =no no n1 r2 r1 r4 r3

~ ~< )~ ~
nz }
2
( ) (
n1 n2 r4 r3 r1 r
~ 1 31_ 1 2 3 2
2 3 1) l\2 3 1 , - I\ 3 1 2 =n 1
, r2 r3 no n2 n1 n1
rz rz r1 r4 nz no n3 Jt3
From the composition table r4 r2 n1 n3 no nz

{no}, {no, n1, nz}, {n 0 , r 1}, {n 0 , r 2}, {.n: 0, r 3 }, and S 3 are the proper r3 r1 n3 n1 n2 no
sub-groups of s3 . Here, no 1s the group identity. The inverse of each reflection is
the same reflection. The inverse of rotation of n 1 is n 3 , and conversely.
I/Example 1.1.1611 Also, the inverse of no and n 2 , is itself n 0 and n 2 .
(a) How many rigid motions (in two or three dimensions) are there
for a square? II Example 1. 1. 17)\
(b) Make a group table for these rigid motions m one table given
below.
For the equilateral triangle. What is the identity for this group? i,
Describe the inverse of each element geometrically.
I
I,
t
(a)

(b)

Solution
How many rigid motions (in two or three dimensions) are there
for a regular pentagon? Describe them geometrically.

Answer part (a) for a regular n-gon, n ?: 3

(a) To determine the number of rigid motions m two and three

Solution :
dimension of a regular pentagon, and describe them geometrically .
(a) To determine all rigid motions, m two or three dimensions, for a

square. Since a regular pentagonal has five vertex, thus five rotation through
(i x 72°), where O :5 i :5 4 and .:ve reflections about lines containing
There are eight rigid motions no, .n:1, nz, TC3, where ni is the counter
a vertex and the midp0int of the opposite side.
clockwise rotation,
· r-
i 1·s
-
the reflection in the vertical, r 2 is the
 1 .33
Groups and Rings
Algebra and Number Theory
1 .32 2 3
(ii) /3 a 1 4
Hence, there arc IO number of motions .
· 1·n two and thr ee
(b) T o dete rmine th e number of rig id moti o ns
d im e nsio n o f a regular n-gon, where (n 2: 3)
2
1
3
5
4
3
5
4 ~)
For a regular n -gon (n 2: 3) there are 01 rigid motions. (iii) a
3
=a c a
1
1 2 3 4 5
= I,3 1 4 6 2 6) (1 3 4 5
2 4 6 2 ~) (~ 2 3 4 5
1 4 6 2
6)
5
5 3 1

There are the n rotations through i (360°/n), 0 :5 i :5

11
- I.
(! ~ ~ ~
5
3 ~)
There are n refle ctions . Route map 1-+ 3-+ 4 .... 6, 2-+ I-+ 3-+ 4, 3-+4-+ 6 -+5
For n odd, each reflection is about a line through a vertex and 4-+ 6-+ 5-+ 2 , 5 -> 2-+ 1-+ 3, 6 -+5-+2 -+ l
the midpoint of the opposite sid e .

For n e ve n, ther e are n / 2 reflections a bout lines through opposite

(iv) /J4 =/3 /3 ,B /3 (! 2
2
3
6
4
1
5
3 ~) (! 2
2
3
6
4 5
1 3 ~)
vertices a nd n /2 re fle --:tions about lines through te midpoint of
oppos ite sid es.
(! 2
2
3
6
4
1
s
3 ~)-(! 2
2
3 4 5
6 1 3 ~)
Hence, there are oz number of motions. (i 2
2
3
6
4
4
5
3 ~)
//Example 1.1.1s// (v) a-1 = (1 2 3 4
3 1 4 6 2
5 ~)-1 (~ 2
5
3
1
4_ 5
3 6 ~)
In the g roup s 6 , let
Route map

~)
ff ~
2 3 4 5
a
G 6 2
and
2 3 4 5

0
] 4 2 3 4 5

/3 = (~ 2
2
,..
J

0
4
1
5
3
6\
s)
t
1
t
4 6 t t
2
1 (:
5 1 3 6 :J
Determine a /3, /3 a , 3
a, p4 , a - 1, / r l , (a /3 ) -1 , (/3 a)- 1 and /r 1 a- 1
(vi) /r 1 (! 2
2 6
3 4
1
5
3
~)-1 = (! 2
2
3
5
4
1 6 ~)
5

Solution

2 3 4 5
1) (~ 2 3 4 5
~) ( vii) ( a /3) - l (~ 2 3 4 5 6)-1 - (~ 2
64
3 .)
~)
(i) a /3
G 1 4 6 2 2 6 1 3 4 1 5 2 3 - 5 2 4

= (~ 2
4
1 4
5
5
2 ~) ( viii) (/3 a ) - l
/1
16
2
1
3
5
4
3
~r-1
5
4 (~ 2
6
3
4
4
5
5
3 ~)
'
Route map 1 -+ 3-+ 6, 2-+ 1-+ 4, 3 -+4 -c> l
4-+ 6-+ 5, 5-+ 2-+ 2, 6 - 5 ·➔ 3 (ix) /3--1 a-1
(! 2
2
3
5
4
1
.6) (1
5
6 3 2
2
5
3
1
4
3
5
6 ~)
 Algebra and Number Theory
.:,G_ro_u...:.p_s_a_n_d_R_in-"g_s_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 .3::
= (; 2 3 4 5
~)
5 6 2 4
(vii) (a {3)- 1 = (11 25 32 43 5)-l
4
= (1 2 3 4 5')
1 3 4 5 2
[/Example 1.1. 19/l
1 2 3 4
In the group s5 , let
(viii) ({:Ja)- 1
(3 2 5 l = (t,4 2 3 4 53)
2 1 5

·~ a (~ ; i : ~) and
1 2 3 4
(2 1 4 5 2 3 4 5)
1 2 4 5
(11 23452)
3 4 5
"

l /J = ui ; ; ~) liTheorem 11. II
t· Determine afJ, /:Ja, a 3,
and p-l a - I
(34, a- 1, p-1, (a/3)-1, (/3a)-I
Let (G, o) and (H, *) be groups. Define the bin,-_ry opera~ion • on
G X H by (gI, h1) • (gz, h7.) = (gl 0&2, h 1 * h 2). Then (G x H, •) 1s a
( Solution :
group and is called the direct product of G and H .
Proof :

f (i) a fJ
0 2 3 4
3 1 4 55) (12 2 3 4
1 5 3 4
5) -= (1 2 3 4
1 5
2 3 4
5) To prove that (G x H, •) is a group, where (G, o) and (H, *) are
two groups and binary operation • define as
~
_:,
(ii) fJ a
u 2 3 4
l 5 3 4
5) (12 2 3 4
3 1 4 5
5) =
(~ 2 3 4
2 5 1
5)
4
(i) Closure property :
(gi, h 1) • (gz, h2) = (gl O gz, h I * h2)

~
(iii) a.3 aaa
u 2 3 4
3 I 4 ~) (~ 2 3 4
3 1 4 5
5) (12 3 1
2 3 4
4 ~) Let gi,g2 E G and hi,hz EH

.:., u 2 3 4
2 3 4 ~) Then (g1, h1) • (g2, h2) = (g1 og2, h 1 * h 2)
(gl og2, h1 * h2) E G X H. Since G and H arc groups.
~

~
(iv) p4 /3 /3 /3 /3
u5 2 3 4
1 3 ~) (~ 2 3 4
1 5 3 4
5) (gl, h1) • (gz, h2) E G X H

4 5) (1
(ii) · Associative property :
(1 2 3 2 3 4 5)
2 1 5 3 4 2 1 5 3 4 Let g1, g2, g3 E G and h1, h 2, h 3 E H
~

~
(1 2 3 4
I 2 5 3 4
5) (g1,h1) • [ (gz,h2) •(g3,h3)] (g1,h1) • [ (g2og3,hz ••lt3)1
5) (1
(gt og2 og3, h1 • h2 • h3)
~
, (v) a -I
0 2 3 4
3 1 4 5
-I
2 3 4
3 1 2 4 5
5) [ (gl °K2, h1 * h2)] • (g3, li3)

(vi) /3- I
u 2 3 4
1 5 3 4
5)-1 - (; -
2 3 4
;)
[ V::1, h1) • (gz, h2)] • {R3, h3)

'
1 4 5 Hence, (G x H, •) satisfy the associate property.

~·-
 Groups and Rings .3,
1.36 Algebra and Number Theory

(iii) Existence o f identity : The group Z 6 has 6 elements and the gr oup Z~ re pr ese nt s th,
Let 8! E G , h 1 EH and e 1 E G, e 2 EH such that 81 o e1 = gl and direct product of three groups Z 6 . H e n ce the numbe r o f tht
'1 1 * ez = h 1 where e I and e 2 identities of groups G and H elements in the group z: = 6 3 = 216 c..
respectively.
(ii) To find the subgroup of z! of order 6, one of order 12 and C.
one of order 36.
(g1, h1) If G is a group and ¢ ~ H <;;;;; G, with H is finite, then H is a
Therefore, (G x ff, •) has the identity (e 1 , e 2 ) subgroup of G if and only if His closed under the bina ry operation
of G.
(iv) Existence of inverse :
(a) Let H 1 = { (x, 0, 0) Ix E Z 6 } l:>e a subset of the group Z7, .

1.
(g 1 ogz,h 1 *h2) = (ei,e 2 ) Since 0; x E Z 6 , then H 1 is closed under binary operation.
⇒g 1 og2 = e 1 and h 1 •hz =e 2 . Here, 6 choices for x, therefore, the clements in H 1 arc 6.

Th ere fore, g 2 is the inverse of g 1 and h 2 is the inverse of It 1 . · Hence, H 1 = {(x, 0, 0) Ix E Z 6 } is a subgroup of order 6.
.·. (G x H, •) has the inverse (g 2 , h 2 ) (b) Let H 2 := {(x,y,O) \xEZ 6 ,y=0,3} be a subset of the group

Therefore, ( G x H, •) is a group and 1s called the direct product

of G and H .
1
1

z~.
fi Since 0, x,y E Z 6 and y = 0, 3 then H2 1s closed under bi.nar y
I/Example 1.1.2011
In the group Z6 X Z6 X Z6 = Z~
l ~
operation.

Here 6 choices for x and 2 choices for y, ther efore, the clem e nt s

(i) in H 2 are 12.

What is the order of this group ? t.
(ii) Find a subgroup of Z~ of order 6, one of order 12 and one of ~ Hence, H 2 = {(x,y, 0) Ix E Z 6 ,y = 0, 3} is a subgroup of order i2.
order 36. ~-
(iii) Determine the inverse of each of the elements ·
~ (c) Let H 3 = {(x, y, 0) I x, y E Z 6 } be a subset of the group zt
(2, 3, 4 ), ( 4, 0, 2), (5,. 1, 2) t(
Since 0, x,y E Z 6 , then H 3 is dosed under binary operation.
Solution : I-
Here 6 choices for x and 6 choices for y, therefore, the e lements
t in H 2 are 36.
(i) = Z~
I~
To find the order of the group Z 6 x Z 6 x Z 6

Hence, H 3 = {(x,y, 0) \ x,y E Z 6 } 1s a subgroup o( order 36 .

I·
1:
 ........
, 1· '
Groups and Ri ngs
t , Algebra and Number Theory
To find the e lements m the groups U 20 a nd U 24 whi c h a r c \h -::
&
nd 2
( ~u) ·1 u finJ lh u i n vi:r , c .,,- 1he: c:km c: nts ( 2, 3, 4 ), ( 4 , 0 , .2) a
•I J
,, I
r ,'i'J.,
in the group
.
zJ.
(S, l , ) groups of units for the rings (Z20, + , • ) arod (Z 24 , +, • ),res pectively .

f T h e g ruup l ..ib l c for z(, unJcr aJdition operation is s hown be low :

Since units of th e rings (Zn, + , •) are defined a s

Un {a E Z I gcd (a, n) = 1 and 1 :Sa :Sn - 1 }, therefore , we h av ,

+ 0 2 3 4 5
t '
I 0 2 3 4 5 Uzo {a E Z I gcd (a, 20) = 1 and l :S a :s 19}

::
0

2 3 4 5 0 { 1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19}

2 2 3 4 5 0 1 Also,
3 3 4 5 0 2 U 24 {a E Z I gcd(a,24) = 1 and l :Sa :s 23}
I f( 4 4 5 0 1 2 3 {l, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23}

I ~,t 5 .5 0 2 3 4
l[Example 1.1.221!
1 -·q S in ce l~ .c id e ntity of Z 6 is 0, then the iQverse of c lem ents on z6 arc
Let w be the complex number (1/fl) (1 + i).
I ' Inverse of 0
Inverse of 1
O;
5;
(a) Show that w 8
= 1 but w" :;z!: 1 for fl E Z +, 1 :S ,1 -s 7

Inverse of 2 4; (b) Verify that {w 0

In E z+, 1 :5 n :5 s} is an abclian grn up und e r
I
' ~J Inve rse of 3 3;
multiplication .

I
,, Inverse of 4 2; So lution
4'
Inverse of 5 1; 1 + i
:.iiven
1 w
../2
Inverse of the c lement (2, 3, 4) 10 z~ IS (4, 3, 2)

,' Inve rs e of the clement (4, 0, 2) JO z~ IS (2, 0, 4)

(JJ2
(1~i) (\;i) IUsc yuur ,·;.dc:ul ator f, 'J9l '.\.1S\

.., Inverse of th e dr.::ment (5, 1, 2) IO zl IS (I, 5, 4) w 3

w w :i)
2
(
1
i
-l+i
../2-

:)
[/Example 1.1.21 /J w2w2 i .i = -1

~
Fi nd I he c leme nts
f o r !h t: rin gs ( Z20, +, •)
in

and
the groups Uzo and U24 - the groups of un ils
( 224, +, •) respective ly.
ws w .w4 -(l~i)
~ S oluti o n : (V6 (U4 . wz ( - I) (i) -i
 ii!
1,
' .'
1.40 Algebra and Number Theory Groups and Rings 1.41

w7 ww
6
(1 ~i) (-i) = - ( - ~ i) [[Example 1.1.23 i
w8 ;4 = 1 Let v = 1 + ,.,,.,v'3 i and let A 6 = {1, v, v , v , v , v
2 3 4 5}
.

Hence, w 8 = 1 but wn :;c 1 for n E z+ , 1~ 11 ~ 7 (a) Show tr.at (A 6 , •) is a group.

~
(b) Given, w
1 +i
II
(b) ror each x in A 6 , list the elements of the carrier lx) of the
C,-
I
cyclic subgroup (lx], •) and give the order of x. ]
We form the table under multiplication. (c) Is (A 6 , •) cyclic. If so name each generator of G. C,
w w2 w3 w4 ws w7 WB
1
( d) Is (A 6 , •) abelian . C.
1
(J) -l+i -i 1 - i 1 l +i
II II -12
Solution C
l+v'3i
w2 -l+i -1 -1 - i -1 1- i 1 1 +i Given : V
2 C.
II II ../2 -12
w3 -1 -1-i -i 1 1 +i -l+i V
2
(1+2v'3i) (1 + 2v'3 i) -1(1 -
-

4
3 + 2 ../3
_, z') C-
-12 -12 -12
-l+v'3i ~
w4 -1 - i -z 1 - i 1 1 +i -l+i -1 - 2
-12 vTJ. -12 -12 t """._
ws -i 1- i 1 1 +i -l+i -1 -1-i
~ \.'3 v2 V = (-l~v'3i) (1+2v'3i) --4 -1

Ii
4
-12 -12

---..
../2 -12
(,
V v3 v3 = (-1) (-1) 1
1- i 1 1 +i -l+i -1 -1-i -i
-12 -12 -12 ,/2
Multiplication table for A
6
~

.
w7

w8
1

1+i
1+i
-12
-l+i
-l+i

-1
-12
-1

-1 - i
-1 - i
,/2

-i 1-i
1- i
,/2

1
I
~
1
I 1
1
V

V
v2
?
v-
v3
v3
v4
v4
V

vs
s

l
'

-12 -12 -12 ,/2 ·; V v2 v3 v4 vs

t:I
1· v2 v-? v3 v4 vs 1 V

We observe that every properties of group 1s satisfying and the

I: v3 V
3 V
4 vs 1 V V
2
table is symmetric about diagonal axis. Hence group 1s a belian I

group under multiplication. ii 1,·4 v4 vs l V v-

')
v3
~ vs l v2 v3 v4
1-·s V
. . Z + is an abelian group.
I
t,,
I:
1 ,12 Groups and Ri n g s
, ., -,,
Al g ebra and Number Theory

Fn,m 1hi~ 1a ble 1 is t h e id e nti ty. 2 } 4 2 } --l ~.) =)

T.iblc o l inve rses
3 4 2. } --l I
x : vs
[ For 11 = 3. \

X
- I
l V

vs
v2

V
4 v3
v4

v2 V
a = (~ ~ ~ 1 ;J h as o rder 3 a nd g.c n cr..11'-·~ 1h -: '-\' '' '-
s ubg rou p o f Ss given by
Th e hi n ary operat io n • w h ich 1s rrult ip\ica t ion of com p lex number s
is close d and associat ive.
2
}
3 4
4 ;) <I
:!.
= ~~
2 3
2
4
--l :1-
H cncc (A 6 ,

( h)
•)

11 l =
is a gro up .

{ 1 }, Ivl = A6 =
5
Iv l
a3 = (1
,1
2
2
}
:,
4
4 ;) = e\
_F_o_r_ 11_
= _4"J
l [ \'4 J, [v3l
{ 1, v 2 ' v4}
;J
'--
[ v2 = =

I a ~ (~ ~ ~ ~ h as or du 4 a nd g.c n cra1c-., 1h , , , .
X l V v-7 v3 \,'4 vs
---,- .
... s ub gro u p o f S 5 give n by
O r de r o f X : 1 6 3 2 3 6

(c) Y cs, (A 6 , •) is cyclic gro up a nd each of v a nd vs is a generat o r.

la= (~ 2
3
3
4
4
1 ;; ' a = (1 2
3
2
4
:,
1
4
2 ~)-
(d) Yes, abc \i a n gro u p si n c e x • y = y • X for a n y x,y E A6 a3 =
(~ s 2 3
1
4
2 ;) , u
4
= (~
2
2
3
l,
--l
--l
:, = l

!\ Example 1.1.24\\ For n = S, \

For a ll 2 :5 n. ::: 5, fin d a n clem e nt of orde r 11 in S5 . a =

2
3 (1 3
4
4
s ;) h as o n.kr S a nd g l:n c r <1tcs I h '-· ' ' ' II..:

A lso d e te rmirie the (cyclic) subgroup of S 5 that each of these subgr uup uf S 5 given by
cleme n ts g e n e r a t e s.
So lution : For a n a E a cyclic group G.
\a= (; 2
3
3
4
4
5
~-) • a2 = (~
2.
4
3
5
4
i )·
< a > = {a,a 2 ,
ge nerate d b y a.
.. . ,a"-
1
, a" = e (ide ntity)} 1s cyclic sub-group a
3
= (~
2
s
3
1
4
2
;) , a 4 =
(~ 2 3
2
4
:,, :1
2 3 4
Now I 11 Ss, F o r n= ?-, as = (~ 2 3 4 ~) = e ~
a =
(~ 2
1
3
3
4
4 ;) \\Theorem 12.\\
h as o rde r 2 a nd ge nerate s cyclic subgroup of S 5 give n b y the se t Co mmutat ive pro paty 1s invari a nt unde r homomorphis m .
IA

1.44 Algebra and Number Theory Groups and Rings 1 4~)

"
(,

Proof : Let f:A...., B be a group h 111 nc, mor11hi ~m ont,:> B.

Suppose A is ahclian .
Therefor e, x

Hence, x =1
=1 (mod
and x =
5) or x
4
=4 (mod S)
'
t,
Since f i~ o nto, for any a 1, a2 EA, 3 b1, /J 2 EB
~Example 1.1.2s\\ ~
'if bi,b 2 =J(a 1 )=b 1 andf(a2)=i>2,
Find all x in (Zi 1, •) such that x = x- 1 C,
Now, b 1 b-,_ = f(a1)f (a2) = f (a1 a2)
Solution :
Since _r is homomorphism .
To determine the value of an element x in (Z'i:1, •)
· · A is abelian.
such that x = x -1 •
·_· f is homomorphism Let x E Zi 1 such that x = x- 1
Since Zi 1 is a group unde r multiplicatio n module, 11, th e n

B is abelian. x2 =1 (mod 11) .

j!Example 1.1.2slj ⇒ x2 - 1 =0 (mod 11)

Factorizing, we get
Find all X in cz;, ·) such that X = X -I
(x - 1) (x + 1) =0 (mod 11)
Solution :
•
x - I· = 0 (mod 11) or x +1 =0 (mod 11)
Let x E Z 5 such that x = x' -1 .
x =1 (mod 11) or x = -1 \,_mod 11.)
Since z; is a group under multiplication modulo 5, then
Since Z~ 1 is group under multiplicatio n modulo 11, th en 11 =0
2
x =1 (mod 5)
= -1.
which gives 10 , C
⇒ 2
x - 1 = 0 (mod 5)
\ Therefore, x =1 (mod 11) or x = 10 (mod 11) C

I
Factorizing, we get
Hence, x =1 and x = 10 C
(x - 1) (x + 1) = 0 (mod 5)

(x - 1) = 0 (mod 5) or (x + 1) = 0 (mod 5), \!Example 1.1.2111 C

x = l (mod 5) or X= -1 (mod .5) Let p be a prime. Find all x m (Z~, •) such that x = x -- 1
Since Z 5 is group under multiplication modulo 5, then 5
gives 4 = -1.
=0 which

I
'I
Solution :

To dete rmine the value of an ele m e nt

I'
 Algebra and Number Theory Groups and Rings \ .47
.){1: : ' ·"
1
x in (z;,•) such thatx=:x- , wherep is a prime. Thcrefo· -., with the exception of ± 1, the factor of (p - l )\ c a n
be arranged in unequal pairs, where the product of each pair i:-
Let x E z; such lhal x = x- 1 . == -1 (mod p) .
Since z; is a group under multiplication module p , then Thus, (p - 1) ! = -1 (mod p).
2
~t" = 1 (mod p) . This proves the Wilson's Theorem.

= x2 - I =0 (mod p) \\Example 1.1.29\\

Factorizing, we get
Fincl x in ( Us, •) where x ~ 1 and x ~ 7 but x = x- 1

(x - 1) (x + 1) =0 (mod p)
Solution :
x - l =0 (mod p) or x + 1 =0 (mod p)
To um.: x m ( Us, •) where x ~ 1 and x ~ 7 but x = x - 1.
x =1 (mod p) or x = -1 (mod p)
We knew thal, (Us,•) is a group under the closed binar y operation
Since z; is a group under multiplication module p, then p =O of multiplic<1tion modulo 8.
which gives _n - 1 =- I Since (is = {1, 3, 5, 7}, To find the inverse of each the clcm c n b .

Hence, x = l and x =p - 1 3 5 7

'
J
} jlExample 1.1.2sll
Prove that (p - l) ! = -1 (mod p), for p a prime
1
3
5
3

5
3

7
.)

7
1
7

s
3
(or) State and prove Wilson's theorem.
7 7 s 3 1
Solution :

To prove that (p - 1) ! = - l (mod p), for p a prime . We observe that 5 2 = 1 and 3 2 = 1, therefor<!, S = 5-l and 3 = _, - l .
The result is true for p = 2. Assume that result is true for Hence, x =5 and 3.
p ~ 3.
\\EYample 1.1.Jo\\
Since
multiplication say a - l.
cz;' . ) is group, every non-zero eleme.nt ' a' has a unique
I Find x in (U 16 , •) where x ~ l, x .e 15 but x = x- \

'
Solution :

I
Lagrange's Theorem says that the only values of 'a' for which
To find x m (U 16, •) where x ~ 1, x ~ 15 but x =x - 1
a = a- 1 (mod p) arc a = ± 1 (mod p) because the congruence
a 2 = 1 can h~vc al most two roots (mod p).

\
 ......

l 48 Algebra and Number Theory

\V e kmiw th;Jt , (U l(,, • ) is a group under th e closed binary operation

Groups and Rings
:::..::'..::!:..:=-=_.:_--~--------
'vVe need lo find x .
2
49
-- - - - -1-
~
(. •l
f
of rn ultipli ca lio n m odul o 16. The n usi ng the definiti o n o f •, we ge l

S111 ce U 16 = Z {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15}. x2 (2k - l - 1) (2k.-l - 1)

I
T o find lh c in verse of each the clement s. 22k- 2 _ 2 _z1, - 1 + 1 ll
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 ffl
.::;::.!

I 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 Sinceu2 is group
k unde r th e bin ary oper ati on rnull ipli catio n
0
3

5
3
5
9
15
15
9
5
3
11

13
1
7
7
1 11
13 module 2\ then

x2 = 0 (2k- 2) - 0 + 1
m
7 7 5 3 1 15 13 11 9
Therefore, x 2 = 1, wh.1ch gives
. x = x+
9 9 11 13 15 1 3 5 7
Hence, x = (2k-l - 1) for k 2:: 3 and k- E z+ 00
11 11 1 7 13 3 9 15 5 c. I
13 13 7 1 11 5 15 9 3 II EXERCISE 1.1 ii
15 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1
1. Show that (Z, +) is an abelian group. "-
I
We observe that 7 2 = 1 and 9 2 = 1, therefore, 7 = 7-l and 9 = 9-I_ 2. Show that (Q•, •) is a group, where Q" is the set of all no n -?c ro C I
H e nce, x =7 and 9.
r ational numbers.
u
- I,
3. · Show that the set of all non-zero complex numbe rs und e r th e:
//Example 1.1.31 ii operation of multiplicatio~1.

4. Show that the set of all cube roots of unity forms a n abel ia n
Let k E z+, k ~ 3, find x in ( Ul , •) where x ~ 1, x ~ 2k - I group with respect to the binary operation of multipli c ati o n .
but x = x- 1
5. Show that (Z, *) is a group, when * is d e fin ed by
Solution
a * b=a+b+l
To find x in (Ul, •) for k 2:: 3 and k E z+, where x ~ 1, Prove that the set Q of a ll r ationa l numbers o tn c r th a n l w ith
6.
t ~ i· - 1 but x = x- l respect to the operation * d efined by a * b =a + b - ab con st it utes
We know that, ( Ui , •) is a group under the closed binary upcration an abelian group.

o f multiplication modulo 2k, where k 2:: 3 and k E z ➔. 7. Prove that, if every eleme nt o f a group G has its own inverse,
Let x =_? k-1 · 1n (U 2t, •) then G is abelian.