Soil Properties and Laboratory Tests

Properties Tests

Particle size Sieve and Hydrometer Analysis

Consistency Limits Liquid, Plastic and Shrinkage Limit

Capacity to absorb and hold moisture Capillary and Permeability Tests

Cohesion and internal friction Triaxial, Direct Shear and Bearing tests

Density Field Density

Settlement Under load Consolidation test

Volume change Swell and Shrinkage tests

Unit Weight Weighing and Calculation of Specific Gravity

Strength California Bearing Ration (CBR)

Laboratory Tests
The preparation of a soil sample for the different tests is covered in detail in the Standard AASHTO
Methods T-87 and T-146.

1. Grading Test
Standard sieves or screens are used in the test. The sieves are made up of wire-mesh which
have square openings. The coarse sieves are designated by the width of openings as 75, 63,
50 and 19 millimeter sieves. The finer sieves are designated as 4.75, 0.425, 0.200, 0.150, or
0.075 millimeter sieves. The widths of opening which corresponds to the sieves commonly
used in soil testing are as follows:

Width of Opening (Std) Alternate U.S. Standard Sieve No.

4.25 4
2.36 8
1.18 16
0.600 30
0.300 50
0.150 100
0.075 200
The 2.00 mm sieve is the dividing line between gravel and sand, and the dividing line
between sand and silt is 0.05 mm. Material which passes the 0.075 mm sieve is the finest
that is used in the sieve analysis, the[ proportion of silt and clay cannot be determined by
the test alone.

The grading or mechanical analysis has its objective the determination of the proportion of
different grain sizes which are present in a soil particles which is finer than a stated sieve
or diameter. Two methods of determining the grain size distribution in a soil are in common
use: the combined sieve analysis, with a wash test to determine the percentage passing the
0.075 mm sieve.

In the first method, a representative sample of soil is selected and divided by passing it over
a 2.00 mm. The portion retained is tested by the sieve analysis. A portion of the material
passing the 2.00 mm sieve is dispersed and put into suspension in water. Changes in the
specific gravity of the suspension with time are noted by use of a hydrometer. The
hydrometer analysis is based upon Stoke’s Law which states that the rate of settlement of
a particle out from a suspension is function of its size. Since the larger particles settle out
of suspension more rapidly than do smaller particles, the time rate of settlement provides a
measure of the relative size of the fine soil grains. As the particles settle, the density or
specific gravity of the suspension decreases; this change is the information supplied by the
hydrometer reading. Known relationship may then be employed to calculate the percentage
of grains of various average remaining in suspension or which have settled out. For each of
the time intervals specified in the test procedures there may be determined the percentage
of the dispersed sample which is finer or coarser than a certain grain size. The standard
procedure for mechanical analysis of soils is AASHTO T88.

The results of sieve analysis and the hydrometer analysis are combined and the results are
presented graphically by means of a particle size distribution curve. The curve is drawn on
semi-logarithmic graph sheet with the particle sizes plotted as abscissa on the logarithmic
scale and the percentages smaller than the various sizes as ordinates on the arithmetic scale
as shown in figure I-1. The meaning of this form of presentation is shown by examination
of the curve. In this particular soil, 4% is gravel since 96% is finer than 2 mm sieve. The
soil contains about 36% of sand, since 60% is finer than 0.05 mm. About 34% of the
material is of the clay size, less than 0.005 mm. Thus, 26% of the soil is silt. The make-up
of this soil then is gravel 4%, sand 36%, silt 26% and clay 34%.

For soil classification purposes as in AASHTO M45, the combined sieve and mechanical
analysis is not required. The sieve analysis and the wash test will be sufficient. For detailed
standard procedures, see AASHTO Test methods T-11 and T-27, over a nest of sieves, as
well as that which passes the 0.075 mm frequently valled “combined silt and clay”. The
test report is illustrated in Appendix I-1.

Significance of Grading Test

This test gives the particle size distribution of a given soil. The shape of the curve drawn
will show a glance the general grading characteristics. The gradation test is widely used
in the classification and identification of soils. The classification of soils is covered in
detail in AASHTO M45, see Appendix I-2. The test results are also used in measuring
permeability, notably in setting up criteria for drainage filters. It has also been shown that
soil capillarity, which is the attraction of water from a water table, is related to an
effective diameter. The rise of water in a capillary opening is proportional to the square of
an effective diameter.
Liquid Limit; Plastic Limit; Plasticity Index
The sample for liquid and plastic limit determinations is taken from a thoroughly mixed portion
of the sample passing the 0.425mm sieve.

Liquid Limit
The liquid limit maybe defined as the lowest moisture content at which the soil will flow upon the
application of a very small shearing force. The liquid limit gives a certain measure of the shearing
resistance of a soil when mixed with water. It is a measure of the potential cohesion which in turn
depends upon the total size of the contact areas, or the fineness and shape of the grains. The finer
and flatter the grains, the greater will the total contact area between the grains, and the higher the
amount of water needed to make the soil flow will also be greater. The liquid limit of the soil is
determined in the laboratory by the Standard AASHTO Test Method T-89 (Appendix II-7). A
sample of the soil being tested is mixed with water to a paste consistency. It is then placed in the
semi-spherical-shaped brass cup of the mechanical liquid limit device (Figure VI-17A), and the
surface is leveled-off with a spatula so that the maximum thickness is 1 cm. The soil pat is then
divided into two segments by means of the standard grooving tool (Figure VI-17B). The brass
cup is mounted such that it can be raised and allowed to drop sharply into the base through a
height of 1 cm by rotating the crank at the rate of two rotations per second. The number of blows
to close the groove 12.7 mm and corresponding moisture content are determined. The procedure
is repeated varying the moisture content such that the number of blows is from 10 to 40. The
results are plotted with moisture content on the vertical arithmetic scale and the number of blows
on the horizontal logarithmic scale. The plot or “flow curve” is a straight line and the moisture
content at which the plotted line crosses the 25-blow line is the liquid limit (See illustration in
Figure I-2). A rapid method for determining the liquid limit is by the use of nomograph shown in
Figure I-2A. By this chart, only one moisture needs to be determined to obtain the liquid limit
provided the number of blows to cause closure in the liquid limit test is within the range of 15-41.
This procedure will result in considerable time-saving in field testing. Use of the chart is self-
explanatory. In cases involving rejection of any material due to non-conformance with the liquid
limit or plasticity index specifications. The liquid limit shall be checked by the standard method.

Plastic Limit
The plastic limit may be defined as the minimum moisture content at which the soil remains in a
plastic state. The determination of the plastic limit shall be in accordance with AASHTO Method
T-90, Appendix VI-18. In terms with this procedure, the plastic limit is the lowest moisture
content at which the soil can be rolled into threads 3 mm (1/8 inch) in diameter without breaking
or crumbling. If the soil is wetter than the plastic limit, a thread may be rolled to a diameter less
than 3 mm (1/8 inch) before crumbling; if drier, the soil will crumble before this diameter is
reached. When the moisture content is just equal to the plastic limit, a thread can be rolled by
hand to 3 mm (1/8 inch) diameter and then will break or crumble into pieces, see Figure VI-18A.

Plasticity Index
The plasticity index of the soil is the numerical difference between the liquid and plastic limits.
Calculation shall be in accordance with AASHTO Method T-91 (Figure VI-19). It indicates the
range of moisture content over which the soil can exhibit plastic properties. The plasticity index
is one of the most important of the properties of soil which is revealed by changes in water
content. It is the best single property to reflect plastic characteristics. Also, it is a measure of
cohesive properties of the soil and indicates the degree of surface chemical activity and bonding
properties of fine clay and colloidal fraction of the material. Plasticity in soil is due to the
presence of a certain amount of water and of scale-like particles. Since clay contains a
considerable percentage of scale-like particles, they are plastic; whereas, coarser, materials with
round grains such as sandy soils and most silts have characteristically low P.I. values. Appendix
I-3 is the laboratory form of liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index determinations.

Significance of Consistency Tests

If the time-consuming hydrometer test is not performed on the fine fractions of a soil, reliance is
placed upon the limit tests to tell whether the materials passing the 0.075 mm sieve has the
characteristic of a clay or a silt. Plasticity index indicates compressibility; high P.I. means high
degree of compressibility of a soil. Plasticity index is also related to permeability; the higher P.I.,
the lower the permeability; and vice versa. The limit test are widely used in the soil classification
system such as in AASHTO M 145. The limit tests and plasticity index are widely used to control
the characteristics of soil which are to be incorporated in roadways. Specifications for base
courses, sub-bases and stabilized mixtures which are to be used as bases or surface courses,
usually contain requirements relative to the liquid limit and plasticity index. Experience has
shown that strict compliance with Plasticity Index requirements is particularly important. The
plasticity index is an empirical indicator of the clay fraction of a binder material in a stabilized
soil mixture.

Experience has indicated that a sand-clay mixture or clay-gravel mixture where the plasticity
index of the binder fraction is too high tends to soften in wet weather. A pavement constructed of
such material develops ruts under traffic and may shift and shove to develop a washboard surface
and other evidences of instability. When a pavement of this type is used without bituminous
wearing course, a high plasticity index will undoubtly produce a slipping surface when wet, or
especially if saturated. However, if the plasticity index is too low or the mixture is non-plastic, it
will become friable in dry weather, ravel at the edges and abrade severely under traffic. Such a
pavement becomes very dusty in service, and much of the binder soil is simply blown away
during the dry season. It is in view of the foregoing that soil stabilized mixtures are limited by
specifications to a plasticity index not greater than 10 but less than 4.

Compaction Test
Compaction Test
The test shall be performed in accordance with the Standard AASHTO T 99/T 180 (Appendix VI-
20). In the test, the soil is compacted at a number of moisture content ranging from slightly dry to
very wet, by a specified amount of energy applied in a specific manner. The dry density and
moisture content are determined in each determination. Then a plot is made of dry densities
against the corresponding moisture contents, and a smooth curve called the Moisture-Density
curve or compaction curve, is drawn though the points. The highest point on the curve indicates
Maximum Dry Density and the corresponding moisture content is called the “Optimum Moisture
Content” (Illustration on Appendix I-4). It is obvious that numerical values of maximum density
and optimum moisture have significance only where a particular amount of applied compaction
energy is specified.

There is a definite relationship between the maximum density to which the soil can be
compacted, the amount of compacting energy and the moisture content of the soil during
compaction. The purpose of the laboratory compaction test is to determine the proper amount of
mixing water to use when compacting the soil in the field in order to obtain maximum density
under the specified compactive effort.

In the field, compaction is obtained by the use of rollers, usually of the sheepsfoot type and other
tamping rollers applied to thin layers of soil during the construction process. Proper compaction
of the fill material is very important as it will increase the shear strength, decrease permeability
and minimize compressibility, thus largely eliminating damage which may result from uneven
settlement. Compaction also reduces, the tendency of some soils to absorb water after the
construction is finished.

The behavior of the soil mass under compaction is of interest and great importance and is
discussed here as it may be of assistance in clarifying some of the questions arising during
construction. Soils are composed of particles ranging from gravel to clay and colloids. In a dry
condition, the resistance to granular rearrangement of the fine grains into the voids of the larger
grains is high due to frictional resistance between the grains. Water is absorbed by the grains,
coats the surface first in thin films and as successive increments of water are added , the friction
between the grains is reduced and gradually overcome, permitting the compacting force to be
more effective in arranging the fine grains into the voids between the larger grains.

There are four distinct stages in the compaction test, two on each side of the peak of the curve,
which are in ascending order of moisture content: wetting, lubrication, swell and saturation. In the
first stage or when the soil particles are relatively dry, the water added is absorbed ad absorbed by
the soil particles. The water films surrounding the particles are still minutely thin and very
coherent. Thus the frictional resistance to granular rearrangement is high.

After the absorption and absorption capacities of the soil are satisfied, further addition of water
causes the soil to pass into lubrication stage. The additional water replaces some of the entrapped
air; the soil flows more readily under the “lubricating” effect of the added water, and the soil
particles move closer together, with a resulting increase in density. This effect is continued until
the optimum water content is reached, at which point maximum density is attained. At optimum
moisture, the “lubricating limit” is reached. At this point, the pressure of the compaction
equipment has overcome the resistance offered by the cohesive water films and the friction
between the soil particles. Consequently, for any given compactive effort, the maximum
movement of the particles into voids is accomplished and the density cannot increase further
unless the compacting effort is increased.

After the lubrication limit is passed, addition of water results in increased film thickness and
dispersion of particles. This is the swelling stage. Since further lubrication is not possible, the soil
grains are forced apart by water added, thus the density is reduced.

The last stage is saturation, during which all free air is expelled and replaced by water. If further
pressure is applied to the soil mass, the tendency is to reduce the volume. This, however, is
impossible in saturated system, since the free air has been replaced by incompressible water. The
water takes the load since the soil has completely lost its stability. Under similar conditions an
unconfined soil mass will readily deform and flow.

As previously mentioned, the basic aim of compactiton is to produce a soil mass that will satisfy
three criteria: Settlement, Permeability and Stability. Maximum stability is dependent upon
reduction of voids to a minimum water when saturated. Accurate determination of optimum water
content and precise control of compactive effort and water content during construction are the
most practical methods of arriving at that end. If the soil is compacted at the optimum water
content, practically all settlement occurs during construction reason of the lubricating moisture
and adequate compactive effort. Permeability is lowered because the voids are reduced.

Density
Density
The density of the soils may be determined by field and laboratory tests. In either way, the weight
of the soils means and its volume in the undisturbed state are measured. The ratio is the wet or in-
place density undisturbed samples are necessary in the laboratory method. In the field test, a hole
is dug in the soil and the in-place volume of soil excavated is determined by back-filling with a
substance of known specific gravity. One size of dry sand is commonly used in highway
engineering work, especially when the soil is dry and pervious.
Values of dry and wet density are used in connection with gravimetric-volumetric relationships in
soils, such as determination of void ration, porosity and degree of saturation.

The field density test is widely used as a control test in embankment construction to ensure
adequate compaction. Highway specifications usually require that embankments should be
compacted to not less than 95 mass percent of a maximum density as obtained from a specified
laboratory compaction test. Another application of the test in highway of borrow materials, with
the determination of ‘pay quantity” of borrow materials, when the borrow pit is not amenable to
direct volumetric measurement.

The density of a compacted material is determined by the standard testing procedures and in
accordance with AASHTO T191 or T205 (Appendix I-5). The test report is illustrated in Figure I-
5A.

Construction of Control Strips and Determination of Target Density

To determine target density, a control strip shall be constructed at the beginning of work on each
course of material to be compacted. Each control strip, constructed to acceptable density and
surface tolerances shall remain in place and become a section of the completed roadway. A
control strip shall have an area of approximately 335 square meters and shall be of the same depth
specified for the construction of the course which it represents.

The materials used in the construction of the control strip shall conform to the specification
requirements. They shall be furnished from the same source and shall be of the same type to be
used in the remainder of the course represented by the control strip. Upon the completion of the
compaction, the mean density of the control strip will be determined by averaging the results of
ten-in-place density tests at randomly selected sites within the control strip. The mean density of
the control strip shall be the target density for the remainder of the course which it represents.

A new control strip may be ordered or requested to construct when:

1. If the mean density of the control strip is less than 98 percent of the density of the
laboratory compacted specimen.
2. A charge in the material or job-mix formula is made.
3. Ten (10) days of production have been accepted without construction of a new control
strip.
4. There is a reason to believe that a control strip density is not representative of the material
being placed.

Shear Strength Tests

Shear Strength Tests
Shearing strength is one of the most important engineering properties of soil. It is defined as its
ability to resist sliding along internal surfaces within the mass. It is this strength in a soil which
enables it to maintain equilibrium on road embankment, earth dam, hillside and river bank slopes.
The shear strength of most natural soils is derived from both friction and cohesion. These strength
components exist in wide variation, as clean dry sand may have zero cohesion, while saturated
plastic clay may have practically zero friction. The shear strength of a soil is expressed by the
empirical Coulomb formula:

S = C + N tan Ø
Where:

S = Shearing Strength

C = Cohesion

N = Pressure normal to shear plane

Ø = Frictional angle

tan Ø = Coefficient of friction

At present, two general tests methods are used for determination of the shear strength of a soil
namely, the direct shear and triaxial compression tests. The stress applications in these tests are
illustrated in Figure I-3.

Direct Shear Test

In this test, the soil is sheared to failure by moving one part of the soil sample relative to the other
part along a pre-determined plane. If several tests are made on a soil under different normal loads
and the results are plotted in arithmetic scales with the shear strength, S as the ordinate and the
normal load, N as the abscissa, a straight line will be obtained. The intercept of this line with the
ordinate is cohesion, and its slope with the horizontal is the angle of internal friction.

Trixial Compression test

In this test, the soil specimen is acted upon by three compressive stresses at right angles to one
another. The cylindrical specimen is subject to a fluid pressure around the cylindrical surface.
Then the axial load is applied until the specimen fails in shear. At least two tests are run on
duplicate samples with varying lateral pressures and the normal load is applied until failure
occurs. Then the Mohr circle may be drawn with diameter equal to the difference of the axial and
lateral pressures. Thus for each trial, a mohr circle is drawn. The common tangent to the circles is
the Mohr ruptue envelope for the soil shear strength.

The intercept of the tangent line on the vertical axis is the cohesion, and the angle that it makes
with the horizontal is the friction angle. Theoretically only two tests are necessary to determine
the cohesion and friction for the soil since two points establish a line. However, the greater the
number of points, the greater willl be the accuracy and it is advisable to conduct as many tests as
practicable on duplicate samples.

The unconfined compression test is a special case of the triaxial test in which the only stress
applied is the axial compression; there is no lateral pressure. Test have shown that the shear
strength of a clay is one half the unconfined compression strength.

General Application of Shear Tests:

1. Determination of earth pressure on retaining walls and sub-surface structures.
2. Determination of the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil for the design of footings and
other foundations.
3. Stability of slopes in embankments and cuts.