Chapter 2

Descriptive Statistics
 Chapter Outline

• 2.1 Frequency Distributions and Their Graphs

• 2.2 More Graphs and Displays

• 2.3 Measures of Central Tendency

• 2.4 Measures of Variation

 Section 2.1

Frequency Distributions
and Their Graphs
 Frequency Distribution

Frequency Distribution Class Frequency, f

• A table that shows Class width
1–5 5
classes or intervals of 6 – 1 = 5
6 – 10 8
data with a count of the
number of entries in each 11 – 15 6
class. 16 – 20 8
• The frequency, f, of a 21 – 25 5
class is the number of 26 – 30 4
data entries in the class. Lower class Upper class
limits limits
 Constructing a Frequency Distribution

1. Decide on the number of classes.

 Usually between 5 and 20; otherwise, it may be
difficult to detect any patterns.
2. Find the class width.
 Determine the range of the data.
 Divide the range by the number of classes.
 Round up to the next convenient number.
 Constructing a Frequency Distribution
3. Find the class limits.
 You can use the minimum data entry as the lower
limit of the first class.
 Find the remaining lower limits (add the class
width to the lower limit of the preceding class).
 Find the upper limit of the first class. Remember
that classes cannot overlap.
 Find the remaining upper class limits.
 Constructing a Frequency Distribution

4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the row of

the appropriate class.
5. Count the tally marks to find the total frequency f
for each class.
 Example: Constructing a Frequency
Distribution
The following sample data set lists the prices (in
dollars) of 30 portable global positioning system (GPS)
navigators. Construct a frequency distribution that has
seven classes.
90 130 400 200 350 70 325 250 150 250
275 270 150 130 59 200 160 450 300 130
220 100 200 400 200 250 95 180 170 150
 Solution: Constructing a Frequency
Distribution
90 130 400 200 350 70 325 250 150 250
275 270 150 130 59 200 160 450 300 130
220 100 200 400 200 250 95 180 170 150
1. Number of classes = 7 (given)
2. Find the class width
max  min 450  59 391
   55.86
#classes 7 7
Round up to 56
 Solution: Constructing a Frequency
Distribution

3. Use 59 (minimum value) Lower Upper

as first lower limit. Add limit limit
the class width of 56 to Class 59
get the lower limit of the width = 56 115
next class. 171
59 + 56 = 115 227
Find the remaining 283
lower limits. 339
395
 Solution: Constructing a Frequency
Distribution
The upper limit of the Lower Upper
first class is 114 (one less limit limit
than the lower limit of the 59 114 Class
second class). 115 170 width = 56
Add the class width of 56 171 226
to get the upper limit of 227 282
the next class. 283 338
114 + 56 = 170 339 394
Find the remaining upper 395 450
limits.
 Solution: Constructing a Frequency
Distribution
4. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the row of
the appropriate class.
5. Count the tally marks to find the total frequency f
for each class.
Class Tally Frequency, f
59 – 114 IIII 5
115 – 170 IIII III 8
171 – 226 IIII I 6
227 – 282 IIII 5
283 – 338 II 2
339 – 394 I 1
395 – 450 III 3
 Determining the Midpoint

Midpoint of a class
(Lower class limit)  (Upper class limit)
2

Class Midpoint Frequency, f

59  114
59 – 114  86.5 5
2
115  170
Class width = 56
115 – 170  142.5 8
2
171  226
171 – 226  198.5 6
2
 Determining the Relative Frequency
Relative Frequency of a class
• Portion or percentage of the data that falls in a
particular class.
class frequency f
• relative frequency  
Sample size n

Class Frequency, f Relative Frequency

5
59 – 114 5  0.17
30
8
115 – 170 8  0.27
30
6
171 – 226 6  0.2
30
 Determining the Cumulative Frequency

Cumulative frequency of a class

• The sum of the frequency for that class and all
previous classes.
Class Frequency, f Cumulative frequency

59 – 114 5 5

115 – 170 + 8 13

171 – 226 + 6 19
 Expanded Frequency Distribution

Relative Cumulative
Class Frequency, f Midpoint frequency frequency
59 – 114 5 86.5 0.17 5
115 – 170 8 142.5 0.27 13
171 – 226 6 198.5 0.2 19
227 – 282 5 254.5 0.17 24
283 – 338 2 310.5 0.07 26
339 – 394 1 366.5 0.03 27
395 – 450 3 422.5 0.1 30
Σf = 30 f
 1
n
 Graphs of Frequency Distributions

Frequency Histogram
• A bar graph that represents the frequency distribution.
• The horizontal scale is quantitative and measures the
data values.
• The vertical scale measures the frequencies of the
classes.
• Consecutive bars must touch.

frequency data values

 Class Boundaries
Class boundaries
• The numbers that separate classes without forming
gaps between them.
• The distance from the upper
Class Frequency,
limit of the first class to the Class Boundaries f
lower limit of the second 59 – 114 58.5 – 114.5 5
class is 115 – 114 = 1. 115 – 170 8
• Half this distance is 0.5. 171 – 226 6

• First class lower boundary = 59 – 0.5 = 58.5

• First class upper boundary = 114 + 0.5 = 114.5
 Class Boundaries

Class Frequency,
Class boundaries f
59 – 114 58.5 – 114.5 5
115 – 170 114.5 – 170.5 8
171 – 226 170.5 – 226.5 6
227 – 282 226.5 – 282.5 5
283 – 338 282.5 – 338.5 2
339 – 394 338.5 – 394.5 1
395 – 450 394.5 – 450.5 3
 Example: Frequency Histogram

Construct a frequency histogram for the global

positioning system (GPS) navigators.

Class Frequency,
Class boundaries Midpoint f
59 – 114 58.5 – 114.5 86.5 5
115 – 170 114.5 – 170.5 142.5 8
171 – 226 170.5 – 226.5 198.5 6
227 – 282 226.5 – 282.5 254.5 5
283 – 338 282.5 – 338.5 310.5 2
339 – 394 338.5 – 394.5 366.5 1
395 – 450 394.5 – 450.5 422.5 3
Solution: Frequency Histogram
(using Midpoints)
 Solution: Frequency Histogram
(using class boundaries)

You can see that more than half of the GPS navigators are
priced below $226.50.
 Section 2.2

More Graphs and Displays

 Graphing Quantitative Data Sets

Stem-and-leaf plot
• Each number is separated into a stem and a leaf.
• Similar to a histogram.
• Still contains original data values. 26

Data: 21, 25, 25, 26, 27, 28, 2 1 5 5 6 7 8

30, 36, 36, 45 3 0 6 6
4 5

.
 Example: Constructing a Stem-and-Leaf
Plot
The following are the numbers of text messages sent
last month by the cellular phone users on one floor of a
college dormitory. Display the data in a stem-and-leaf
plot.
155 159 144 129 105 145 126 116 130 114 122 112 112 142 126
118 118 108 122 121 109 140 126 119 113 117 118 109 109 119
139 139 122 78 133 126 123 145 121 134 124 119 132 133 124
129 112 126 148 147
 Solution: Constructing a Stem-and-Leaf
Plot
155 159 144 129 105 145 126 116 130 114 122 112 112 142 126
118 118 108 122 121 109 140 126 119 113 117 118 109 109 119
139 139 122 78 133 126 123 145 121 134 124 119 132 133 124
129 112 126 148 147

• The data entries go from a low of 78 to a high of 159.

• Use the rightmost digit as the leaf.
 For instance,
78 = 7 | 8 and 159 = 15 | 9
• List the stems, 7 to 15, to the left of a vertical line.
• For each data entry, list a leaf to the right of its stem.
Solution: Constructing a Stem-and-Leaf
Plot

Include a key to identify

the values of the data.

From the display, you can conclude that more than 50% of the
cellular phone users sent between 110 and 130 text messages.
 Graphing Paired Data Sets

Paired Data Sets

• Each entry in one data set corresponds to one entry in
a second data set.
• Graph using a scatter plot.
 The ordered pairs are graphed as y
points in a coordinate plane.
 Used to show the relationship
between two quantitative variables.
x

.
 Example: Interpreting a Scatter Plot

The British statistician Ronald Fisher introduced a

famous data set called Fisher's Iris data set. This data set
describes various physical characteristics, such as petal
length and petal width (in millimeters), for three species
of iris. The petal lengths form the first data set and the
petal widths form the second data set. (Source: Fisher, R.
A., 1936)

.
 Example: Interpreting a Scatter Plot

As the petal length increases, what tends to happen to

the petal width?

Each point in the

scatter plot
represents the
petal length and
petal width of one
flower.

.
 Solution: Interpreting a Scatter Plot

Interpretation
From the scatter plot, you can see that as the petal
length increases, the petal width also tends to
increase.

.
 Graphing Qualitative Data Sets

Pie Chart
• A circle is divided into sectors that represent
categories.
• The area of each sector is proportional to the
frequency of each category.
 Example: Constructing a Pie Chart

The numbers of earned degrees conferred (in thousands)

in 2007 are shown in the table. Use a pie chart to
organize the data. (Source: U.S. National Center for
Educational Statistics)
Type of degree Number
(thousands)
Associate’s 728
Bachelor’s 1525
Master’s 604
First professional 90
Doctoral 60
.
 Solution: Constructing a Pie Chart
• Find the relative frequency (percent) of each category.
Type of degree Frequency, f Relative frequency

Associate’s 728
728  0.24
3007
Bachelor’s 1525
1525  0.51
3007
Master’s 604
604  0.20
3007
First professional 90 90
 0.03
3007
Doctoral 60 60
 0.02
3007
∑ f = 3007
.
 Solution: Constructing a Pie Chart

• Construct the pie chart using the central angle that

corresponds to each category.

 To find the central angle, multiply 360º by the

category's relative frequency.

 For example, the central angle for cars is

360(0.24) ≈ 86º

.
 Solution: Constructing a Pie Chart

Relative
Type of degree Frequency, f frequency Central angle
Associate’s 728 0.24 360º(0.24)≈86º

Bachelor’s 1525 0.51 360º(0.51)≈184º

Master’s 604 0.20 360º(0.20)≈72º

First professional 90 0.03 360º(0.03)≈11º

Doctoral 60 0.02 360º(0.02)≈7º

.
 Solution: Constructing a Pie Chart

Relative Central
Type of degree frequency angle
Associate’s 0.24 86º
Bachelor’s 0.51 184º
Master’s 0.20 72º
First professional 0.03 11º
Doctoral 0.02 7º

From the pie chart, you can see that most fatalities in motor
vehicle crashes were those involving the occupants of cars.

.
Thank You…