Sources of Error

Classification of errors

1. Based upon source of error

a) Observational error
b) Operational error
c) Instrumental error
d) Environmental error
e) Random error

2. Based upon control on error

a) Partially controllable or Gross error

b) Controllable error or Systematic error
c) Non controllable error or Random error

3. Based upon manner in which the error affects the result of measurement

a) Independent error
b) Dependent error
c) Correlated error

Significance of error in measurement

Error is the deviation of measured value from the true value.

Mathematically,
Error = Measured value - True value

Whereas accuracy is the closeness of measured value with the true

value. Less is the error, more is the accuracy of measurement in other word
error is the function of accuracy.
No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy. Due to errors
accuracy of measurement reduces. To increase accuracy of measurement, errors
should be reduced. To reduce errors in measurement, study of various sources
of errors is essential.
Study of various errors enables -
1) To know causes or sources of errors & methods to reduce such errors.
2) To know behaviour i.e. characteristics of instrument under different
operating conditions.
3) To determine error correction factor so as to minimize errors in
measurement.

Source of errors or Causes of error

A. Gross Error (i.e. Human Error)

There are certain errors that cannot be strictly classified as either systematic
error or random error. Such errors come under the category of gross errors.
Gross errors cannot be treated mathematically. Such errors cannot be
completely eliminated but it can be minimized.
Such errors are caused due to limitation in human senses and poor operational
techniques followed by operator while measurement.
Gross errors or human errors are of following types -
1. Observational errors
2. Operational errors

1. Observational Errors
Such errors are due to limitation in human senses. Such errors are introduced
by the observer.

Causes of observational errors

Following are the causes of observational errors -

 Misreading due to incorrect interpolation

 Misreading due to non perpendicular eye rays with scale & pointer
( i e. Misreading due to parallax errors )
 Incorrect scale selection
 Incorrect recording of readings
 Computational mistakes
 Personal bias like - Tendency of operator to read high or low
- Tendency of operator to read too soon
Methods to reduce observational errors
Following methods are used to minimize the observational errors -
 Keep mirror in between pointer & scale to eliminate error due to parallax
 Use of digital instrument
 Take more than one reading and if possible take reading by different
people

2. Operational Errors
Such errors are introduced due to poor operational techniques followed by
operator.

Causes of operational errors

Following are the causes of operational errors -

 Improper setting and adjustments of instrument
 Improper installation of instrument
 Improper application of instrument
 Operator not following guide lines given in instrument manual
 Operator having insufficient knowledge of process parameters & design
conditions of instrument

Examples of operational errors

Following are the examples of operational errors -
 If Grub screw is rotated more, it will give error in measurement.
 If Rotameter is placed immediately after pipe fitting, it will give error in
measurement.
 If Rotameter is not installed vertically, it will give error in measurement.
 If spindle of Dial indicator is not perfectly vertical, it will give error in
measurement.
 If Manometer limb and scale are not placed vertically, it will give error in
measurement.
 If air is not removed from impulse pipe of bourdon’s tube, it will give
error in measurement.
 A pressure gauge will correctly indicate pressure only when it is exposed
to the pressure to be measured.
  If sensing element of thermometer is not sufficiently immersed in
thermometric well, it will give error in measurement.
 If the correct sample of steam is not drawn, a steam calorimeter will not
give true indication of the dryness fraction of steam
 If voltmeter is connected across a high resistance circuit , it will give
error in measurement

Methods to reduce operational errors

Following methods are used tominimize the Operational errors -
 Do correct setting and adjustments of instrument
 Do correct installation of instrument
 Use correct instrument for given application
 Before use of instrument,follow guidelines given in instrument’s
manual

B. Systematic Error ( i.e. Cumulative error or Fixed error)

Systematic errors in measurement are repetitive in nature. Causes of such errors

can be determined and therefore such errors can be controlled.
Such errors are due to shortcomings of instrument and effect of surrounding
environment on the instrument.
Systematic errors are of the following types:
1. Instrumental error
2. Environmental error

1. Instrumental Error
Instrumental errors are due to poor design and constructional arrangement of
instrument.
Such errors are inherent in the instrument because of limitations in the design
and constructional arrangement of instrument.
Such errors can be easily detected by comparing given instrument with another
instrument having same characteristics or superior characteristics.
Causes of instrumental errors
Following are the causes of instrumental errors -
 Friction in moving components.
 Backlash in moving components.
 Poor assembly.
 Incorrect marking on scale (i e. Incorrect calibration of instrument)
 Faulty mechanical structure like -Yielding of support.
- Irregular spring tension.
- Reduction in spring tension.
- Excessive stretching of spring.

Methods to reduce instrumental errors

Following methodsare used to reduce instrumental errors -
 Regular maintenance of instrument
 Periodic calibration of instrument
 Select suitable instrument for given application
 Determine the amount of instrumental error and use suitable error
correction to instrument reading.

2. Environmental errors
Environmental errors are produced due to presence of unfavourable error
correction condition while measurement.
Causes of environmental errors
Change in environmental conditions like humidity, pressure, temperature,
electrostatic field, and vibration etc. influences result of measurement.

Such errors are introduced when instrument is operated under environmental

conditions which differ from specified environmental conditions at
which Instrument is calibrated.

Methods to reduce environmental errors

Following are the various methods of reducing environmental errors -

 Use of magnetic shields
 Use of air conditioner to control conditions
 Hermitically sealing of various components of instruments
  Calibration of instruments under existing environmental conditions
 Use of vibration damper or absorber
 Measure deviation of local conditions from specified conditions.
Determine the amount of environmental error and use suitable error
correction to instrument reading

C. Random error ( i.e. Accidental error or Chance error or

Compensating error)

 Such errors are due to unknown causes and are inherent in measuring
instrument.

 Such errors are non consistent.

 Such errors are caused randomly and are accidental in nature.

 It is difficult to control or eliminate random errors. Such errors occurs

even after gross errors and systematic errors are accounted.

 Such errors are due to random variation in the parameters of system of

measurement. If such errors are acting in opposite directions, it may lead
to compensate one another therefore random errors are also called as
chance or compensating errors.

 To detect random error, instrument is used to measure repeatedly the

same quantity. If variation in reading exists then such variation in
readings are considered due to random errors.

Methods to reduce random error

 Random error is small and follows law of probability. Such errors can be
treated mathematically
 The only way to reduce such error is by taking more no of reading and
use of statistical means to obtain best appropriate value of quantity to
be measured
Causes of random error
Following are the causes of random errors
 Friction in moving components of instrument
 Backlash in moving components of instrument
 Hysteresis in elastic member
 Mechanical vibration
 Finite dimension of the pointer and scale division
 Parallax error between pointer and scale
 Variation in power supply

D. System Interaction Errors

Act of measurement may affect the condition of the measurand and introduces
system interaction errors.
Following are examples of system interaction errors:

 Introduction of a thermometer alters thermal capacity of the system &

provides an extra path for heat leakage.
 Reading shown by a hand tachometer would vary with pressure with
which it is pressed against the shaft.
 A receiver passed against a body result in a deformation of the body
relative to ruler.
 Variation in the contact pressure between the anvils of the instrument &
the body being measured produces considerable difference in reading.
 An obstruction type flow meter may partially block or disturb the flow
conditions. Consequently the flow rate shown by the meter may not be
the same as before the flowmeter installation.
 A milliammeter would introduce additional resistance in the circuit &
thereby alter the flow current significantly.

E. Translation Error and Signal Transmission Error

Translation Error

Such errors are due to inability of various functional elements to translate

input signal into output signal with complete fidelity.
Signal Transmission Error

Such errors are introduced while transmission of signal from one functional
element to another functional element.
In ideal condition, it is desired that original signal is not distorted in any form
due to introduction of any element in the measurement system. But in actual
condition original signal is distorted.

Following are the various causes of translation and signal transmission error:

 Resonance
 Attenuation
 Loss or leakage of signal
 Signal absorbed or consumed within communication channels
 Presence of undesired signals like noise , line pickup etc.

Such errors affects original signal in the following form:

 Reduction in magnitude.
 Waveform distortion.
 Phase shift.