Highway components, cross

sectional elements and types

Dr Rawid
 Road cross section elements
• The features of the cross-section of the
pavement influences the life of the pavement
as well as the riding comfort and safety.
• Pavement surface characteristics affect both
life of road and riding comfort.
• Camber, kerbs, and geometry of various cross-
sectional elements are important aspects to
be considered in this regard.
 Types of highway cross section
Geometric classification
• Fill
• Cut
• Half cut and half fill
Typical cross section (Fill)
Cross section in cut
Cross section in cut
Half cut
Cross section in half cut
 Types of highway cross section
• Classification based on top slope/camber
• 1 Parabolic
• 2 Straight line
• 3 Combination of parabolic and straight line
Types of highway cross section
 Camber (Cross slope)
• Surface protection especially for gravel and
bituminous roads
• Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
• Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases
safety
• Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the
surface. Camber is measured in 1 in n or n% and the
value depends on the type of pavement surface.
• The values suggested by GUIDELINES for various
categories of pavement is given in Table 1. The
common types of camber are parabolic, straight, or
combination of them
Camber
 Width of carriageway
• Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement
depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of
lanes.
• Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle
and the clearance. Side clearance improves operating
speed and safety.
• The maximum permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 and
the desirable side clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68 m.
This require minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a single
lane road. However, the side clearance required is about
0.53 m, on either side and 1.06 m in the center. Therefore,
a two lane road require minimum of 3.5 meter for each
lane.
Width of carriageway
Lane width for single and 2 lane roads
 Kerbs
• Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way
and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
• Low or mountable kerbs : This type of kerbs are
provided such that they encourage the traffic to remain
in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to
enter the shoulder area with little difficulty. The height
of this kerb is about 10 cm above the pavement edge
with a slope which allows the vehicle to climb easily.
This is usually provided at medians and channelization
schemes and also helps in longitudinal drainage.
 Kerbs
• Semi-barrier type kerbs : When the pedestrian
traffic is high, these kerbs are provided. Their
height is 15 cm above the pavement edge.
This type of kerb prevents encroachment of
parking vehicles, but at emergency it is
possible to drive over this kerb with some
difficulty.
 Kerbs
• Barrier type kerbs : They are designed to
discourage vehicles from leaving the pavement.
• They are provided when there is considerable
amount of pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a
height of 20 cm above the pavement edge with a
steep slope.
• Submerged kerbs : They are used in rural roads.
The kerbs are provided at pavement edges
between the pavement edge and shoulders. They
provide lateral confinement and stability to the
pavement.
Different types of kerbs
 Road margins , Shoulders
• The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the
roadway can be generally called road margin. Various
elements that form the road margins are :
Shoulders:
• Shoulders are provided along the road edge and is intended
for accommodation of stopped vehicles, serve as an
emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for
base and surface courses.
• The shoulder should be strong enough to bear the weight
of a fully loaded truck even in wet conditions.
• The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working
space around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a
width of 2.0 m for the shoulders.
 Parking lanes
• Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for
side parking.
• Parallel parking is preferred because it is safe
for the vehicles moving on the road.
• The parking lane should have a minimum of
3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.
 Bus-bays , Service roads
• Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops.
They are provided so that they do not obstruct the movement
of vehicles in the carriage way. They should be at least 75
meters away from the intersection so that the traffic near the
intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.
• Service roads or frontage roads give access to access
controlled highways like freeways and expressways. They run
parallel to the highway and will be usually isolated by a
separator and access to the highway will be provided only at
selected points. These roads are provided to avoid congestion
in the expressways and also the speed of the traffic in those
lanes is not reduced.
 Cycle track, Footpath
• Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the
volume of cycle traffic is high Minimum width of 2
meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter
for every additional track.
• Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians,
especially in urban areas. They are provided for the
safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian
traffic and vehicular traffic is high.
• Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased
based on the traffic. The footpath should be either as
smooth as the pavement or more smoother than that
to induce the pedestrian to use the footpath.
 Guard rails , Width of formation
• Guard rails are provided at the edge of the shoulder
usually when the road is on an embankment. They
serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the
embankment, especially when the height of the fill
exceeds 3 m. Various designs of guard rails are there.
Guard stones painted in alternate black and white are
usually used. They also give better visibility of curves at
night under headlights of vehicles.
• Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the
widths of pavements or carriage way including
separators and shoulders. This does not include the
extra land in formation/cutting.
 Right of way
• Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land
acquired for the road, along its alignment. It should be
adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional
elements of the highway and may reasonably provide
for future development. To prevent ribbon
development along highways, control lines and
building lines may be provided.
• Control line is a line which represents the nearest limits
of future uncontrolled building activity in relation to a
road. Building line represents a line on either side of
the road, between which and the road no building
activity is permitted at all. The right of way width is
governed by:
 Right of way
• Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed
by the topography and the vertical alignment.
• Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the
height of the slope, soil type etc.
• Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall,
topography etc.
• Sight distance considerations : On curves etc. there is
restriction to the visibility on the inner side of the curve
due to the presence of some obstructions like building
structures etc.
• Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be
acquired in advance anticipating future developments
like widening of the road.
A typical Right of way (ROW)
 ROW
The importance of reserved land is emphasized
by the following.
• Extra width of land is available for the
construction of roadside facilities.
• Land acquisition is not possible later, because
the land may be occupied for various other
purposes (buildings, business etc.).
 Pavement surface characteristics
• For safe and comfortable driving some aspects
of the pavement surface are important;
• the friction between the wheels and the
pavement surface,
• smoothness of the road surface, and
• drainage to water.
 Friction
• Friction between the wheel and the pavement
surface is a crucial factor in the design of
horizontal curve. Further, it also affect the
acceleration and deceleration ability of vehicles.
Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or
slipping of vehicles.
• Skidding happens when the path traveled along
the road surface is more than the circumferential
movement of the wheels due to friction
• Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than
the corresponding longitudinal movement along
the road.
 Friction
• Guidelines suggests the coefficient of
longitudinal friction as 0.35-0.4 depending on
the speed and coefficient of lateral friction as
0.15. The former is useful in sight distance
calculation and the latter in horizontal curve
design.
 Unevenness
• It is always desirable to have an even surface,
but it is seldom possible to have such a one.
Even if a road is constructed with high quality
pavers, it is possible to develop unevenness
due to pavement failures.
• Unevenness affect the vehicle operating cost,
speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel
consumption and wear and tear of tyres.
 Unevenness
• Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness
which is the cumulative measure of vertical
undulations of the pavement surface recorded
per unit horizontal length of the road.
• An unevenness index value less than 1500
mm/km is considered as good, a value less than
2500 mm/km is satisfactory up to speed of 100
kmph and values greater than 3200 mm/km is
considered as uncomfortable even for 55 kmph.
 Light reflection
• White roads have good visibility at night, but
caused glare during day time.
• Black roads has no glare during day, but has
poor visibility at night
• Concrete roads has better visibility and less
glare
 Other design considerations
• A range of specialized areas of design are often
required for the development of a final set of
construction plans. These include the design of
• traffic control features,
• roundabouts,
• intersection channelization,
• railroad crossings, and
• roadway lighting, among many others.
 Other design considerations
• More specialized design principles are also
required when attempting to modify existing
designs: to accommodate new development
and/or reduce the occurrence or lessen the
impact of cut-through traffic and high
operating speeds.
Intersection/Roundabout
Interchanges (3 legs)
Diamond interchange
Full clover leaf
Clover leaf (partial)
 CUT / FILL SLOPES
• Fill sections on steep side slopes can be used, if
the toe of the fill is secured through a rock wall
which allows a fill slope angle of 33.6 degree
(1:1.5).
• Slope or fill failure is caused when forces causing
failure exceed forces resisting failure (cohesion,
friction, etc.). The risk of failure is expressed
through the factor of safety:
• F.S = Shear strength / Shear stress
• where shear strength is defined as
• T = C * A + N (tan φ)
 CUT / FILL SLOPES
and shear stress, the force acting along the slope
surface, is defined as
D = W * sin β , where
C = Cohesive strength (ton/m²),
A = Contact area (m²)
W = Unit weight of soil (ton/m³)
β = Ground slope angle
φ = Coefficient of friction or friction angle
N = Normal force = W * cos β
 CUT / FILL SLOPES
• Road fills are usually built under dry conditions. Soil
strength, particularly, cohesive strength is high under
such conditions. If not controlled, side cast fills are
often built at the maximum slope angle the fill slope
will stand.
• The fill slope, has a factor of safety of one or just
slightly larger than one. Any change in conditions, such
as added weight on the fill or moisture increase, will
lower the factor of safety, and the fill slope will fail.
• It is clear that the factor of safety must be calculated
from worst case conditions and not from conditions
present at the time of construction.
 Cut/fill slope

Typical cross section with slop

Soil properties
Slope of cut
Guideline developed for cut section
(related to graph on previous slide)
• Detail of soil types :
• (1) Very stiff consistency; soil can be dented by strong pressure of
fingers; ripping may be necessary during construction; penetration
test blow count greater than 25 blows per decimeter.
• (2) Stiff consistency; soil can be dented by strong pressure of
fingers; might be removed by digging with shovel; penetration test
blow count approximately 20 blows per decimeter.
• (3) Firm consistency; soil can be molded by strong pressure of
fingers; penetration test blow count approximately 10 blows per
decimeter.
• (4) Soft consistency; soil can easily be molded by fingers;
penetration test blow count approximately 5 blows per decimeter.
• (5) Very soft consistency; soil squeezes between fingers when fist is
closed; penetration test blow count less than 2 blows per decimeter
 Road infrastructure Asset
• Highways components and design of features of the
roadway associated with safe, efficient, and comfortable
travel.
• The design process takes into account the range of different
driver and vehicle types that are likely to use the facility,
the topographic and land use characteristics of the area
that surrounds it, and the costs involved in constructing and
maintaining the highway.
• Highway design also requires a balance between many
overlapping and often competing functions and needs that
will affect the safety, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of
the roadway.
Roads infrastructure selection depends
on their use
 Classification of Roads
• Purpose of Road Classification
• A road network is composed of various types
of roads, each of which performs a particular
service in facilitating vehicular travel between
points of trip origin and destination, and in
providing access to property.
• Road classification is the orderly grouping of
roads into systems according to the type and
degree of service they provide to the public.
 Classification of Roads
• Factors affecting classification of roads
• Many different classification systems have been
introduced and used for particular purpose. The
basis for some of these classifications is:
• Legal control
• Surface type
• Function
• Geometric elements
• Location
• Traffic volume
 Classification of Roads
• Design classification system
• This system separates roads;
• On the basis of differences in traffic service
and land services.
• On the basis of geometric design features.
Classification of Roads
Classification of Roads
 Classification of Roads
• Rural and urban:
• It refers to predominant characteristic of the
adjacent land use and to control boundaries or
features of typical cross-section.
• Geometric design:
• For geometric design purposes it is essential to
divide each of these divisions. For a given road
geometric design elements are affected by traffic
volume. However it is significant for classification
only in determining the number of lanes and
whether road should be divided or undivided.
 Classification of Roads
• Other variables Affecting geometric design are;
• The type of terrain road passes through
• Financial resources available
• Population density
• Development characteristics of the land
surrounding, the road and the travel habits of the
local population.
• Design speed
Factors affecting highway classification
• Factors considered so that to identify a road
belongs to which classification system
• SERVICE FUNTION:- Most roads provide service
to traffic, access to land or both. Following road
type provide the service function given as;
• Freeways and Arterials: provide the movement of
through traffic.
• Local roads: are used almost exclusively for land
access.
• Collectors: provide a combined service.
Factors affecting road classification
• TRAFFIC VOLUME:- The low and high traffic
volumes are carried by different roads. However,
the volume range for each classification is wide
and overlaps that of other classification.
• Freeway and arterials carries high volume Local
and Collectors carries low volume
• FLOW CHARACTERSTICS:- The desire
characteristics of traffic flow determine the
classification of road, e.g.
Relation between functionality and
service
Parameters considered in geometric
design of Road
• Safety (reduce accidents)
• Capacity (accommodate traffic volume)
• Speed and delays (safe speed and less delays)
• Type of roads (urban, rural, freeways etc)
• Vehicle size (heavy, fast, large)
• Aesthete (good appearance, not necessary for
developing countries)
 Design speed
• Design speed is the Maximum speed at which
vehicle can safely travel under ideal weather and
traffic condition
• Directly effects: Vertical and horizontal curves,
sight distance , grade, super elevation
• Indirectly effects: Number / width of road, width
of shoulder , obstruction from shoulder
• Speed limits: Rural 70 mph, Flat 70 mph, rolling
60 mph, mountain 50 mph, urban 50 mph.
 Sight distance
• Sight distance is the maximum visible length
measured along the road surface at which a
driver with an eye level at 1.20 meter above the
ground has visibility of an object laying on the
road surface
• Stopping sight distance (SSD): The
minimum safe distance with in which a vehicle
can come to a dead stop before colliding with an
obstruction.
• SSD: Perception+ reaction+ braking
 Stopping sight distance (SSD)
• V is the design speed, t is the time (perception
+reaction+ brake), Usually 2.5 second in rural
area, 1.5 second in urban area
• For vehicle at zero grade , 1/2*m*v2=f*w*l or
1/2w/g*v2=f*w*l or l=v2/2g*f
• SSD= v*t+ v2/2gf (zero grade), f is the tyre
friction
• f: 0.36 (for 30 mph) to 0.29 (for 70 mph)
(AASHTO)
• If there is grade involved, then
1/2w/g*v2=f*w*l-(+)(w*n/100)*100
l*(f-n/100)=v2/2g
l=v2/2g*(f-(+)n/100)
SSD= v*t +v2/2g*(f+(-)n/100)
where + for uphill case, - for downhill case,
f depends on material of tyre and design of
treads on tyre
 Example 1
• Determine SSD,
• If design speed is 50kmph(13.89 m/sec)
• f:0.36
• Driver reaction time:2.5 sec
• Solution:
• SSD: vt+v^2/2*g*f
: 13.89*2.5+(13.89)^2/(2*9.81*0.36)
:61.5
Or 62meter
 Example 2
• Determine SSD
• If design speed is 60kmph(16.67)
• f:0.36
• t:2.5 sec
• Grade:4% (descending)
• Solution: vt+v^2/(2*g*(f-n/100))
:16.67*2.5+16.67^2/(2*9.81*(0.36-4/100)
• :41.67+44.24
• :85.90
• Or 86 meter
Stopping sight distance (AASHTO)
Stopping sight distance (Grade)
 Overtaking sight distance (OSD)
• It is the minimum safe distance open to the vision
of a driver intending to overtake a slow moving
vehicle within which he can safely complete the
overtaking manoeuvre
• OSD=d1+d2+d3, d1 is the distance travelled by
overtaking vehicle during perception, d2 is the
distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle
during the overtaking, d3 is the distance covered
by the opposing vehicle during the time spent in
overtaking
 OSD/passing sight distance
• d1= (V-m)*t1 , V is the design speed, m is the
difference between speed of overtaking vehicle
and slow moving vehicle, t1 is the perception
time; d2=2S+(V-m)*t2 , where S is the minimum
safe space between two vehicles and is equal to
(V-m)+20 in feet, & 0.19*(V-m)+6 in meters;
• t2 =((2.73*S)/a)^0.5; from
• (m-v)*t2+2S=(m-v)*t2+1/2*a*t2^2
• While selecting perception time, Transportation
Engineer has to consider elderly, middle age and
younger drivers
Passing sight distance
Passing sight distance
 Example
OSD=?, if V=65kmph,perception time=2.5 sec,
Solution: V-m=65-15=50kmph; t1=2.5 sec
S=0.19(V-m)+6=0.19*50+6=15.5m;
t2=((14.5*S)/a)^0.5 (for a is in km/hr/sec)
t2=((14.5*15.5)/3.28)^0.5=8.2 sec
OSD=((V-m)*t1+((V-m)*t2+2S)+V*t2)
={(50000/3600*2.5)+50000/3600*8.2+2*15.5+
(65000/3600*8.2)}
= 335meters (Approx.)
AASHTO values
Typical road alignment
Horizontal curve
Vertical curve
 Overtaking sight distance
• Also called passing sight distance, the
minimum safe distance open to the vision of
drivers intending to overtake a slow moving
vehicle within which he can safely complete
the over taking manoeuvre
• In case of vertical curve, SSD is the distance
over which a driver having an eye level of 1.2
m above the road surface has the visibility of
an object 6 inch above the ground
 Geometric design
• Road gradient: Rate of rise or fall of road
surface along the length, also known as
longitudinal slope. Ascending gradient is called
+ive grade and descending gradient is -ive grade.
• Limiting gradient:
• Plain area:1 in 20
• Hilly area :1in 12, steep gradient in hilly area is
allowed to reduce cutting cost,
 Vertical gradient
• Ideally
• 1: 150 if V is 30 mph
• 1:175 if V is 40 mph
• 1:200 if V is 50 mph
• This is taken with respect to the centre line of
road.
 Curve widening
• Why curve widening?
• In curve, the vehicle rear wheels do not follow the
path of front wheel
• Wm=R2-R1; Wm is off tracking, R1 is radius of outer
rear wheel, R2 is radius of outer front wheel;
• If L is the length of the vehicle, then from the triangle
, R2^2=L^2+R1^2, or R1=(R2^2-L^2)^0.5,
• also R1=R2-Wm or R2-Wm=(R2^2-L^2)^0.5
• or Wm=L^2/(2R2) ; and Wp= V/(9.5*R^0.5);
• W:Wm+Wp (Mechanical widening + psychological
widening)
 Example
• Calculate widening at curve, if number of
lanes=4, radius of curve=100meter, design
speed=60kmph, assume length of vehicle=6m
• Solution:
Widening=Wm+Wp=n*L^2/2R+V/(9.5*R^0.5)
• =(4*6^2/(2*100)+60/(9.5*100^0.5)
• =1.35meter
Horizontal curve
Radius of horizontal curve
Example
Vertical curve (crest)
Vertical curve (sag)
 Superelevation
• Elevation to the outer edge over the inner
edge of the road at a curved path such that to
prevent the skidding or overturning of a
vehicle due to de-stabilizing force is called
superelevation
• Forces on vehicle while in curve
• (1) Stabilizing force (weight of vehicle),
• (2) De-stabilizing force (centrifugal force)
 Superelevation
• Suppose B=distance between wheels of vehicle, h is
the height of C.G of vehicle from road, and W is the
weight of vehicle ;
• Centrifugal force=P=W*V^2/(g*R)
• Destabilizing force= W*V^2/(g*R)*h
• Stabilizing force=W*B/2
• To avoid overturning, W*B/2>=P*h
• To avoid skidding, f*W>=P
 Superelevation
• For f=P/W
2
V
f 
g*R
• To prevent skidding and overturning of vehicle at
horizontal curve, the outer edge of the road is
raised or the inner edge is lowered
• Rate of superelevatin =tanθ=e=E/D E
• It is expressed as vertical rise θ
Per foot of horizontal distance D
 Superelevation
F X 0
p cos   W sin   ( FA  FB )
 W sin   f ( RA  RB )

FA=fRA, FB=fRB
F y 0

RA  RB  P sin   W cos 
P cos   f ( P sin   W cos  )  W sin 
 Superelevation
P cos   fP sin   fW cos   W sin 
• Dividing both sides by Wcosθ
P cos  P sin  W cos  W sin 
f  f(  )
W cos  W cos  W cos  W cos 
P P
 fTan  f  Tan
W W
P
(1  fTan )  f  Tan
W
 Superelevation
P f  Tan

W 1  fTan
P e f V2 e f
  f=0.11 to 0.2
W 1 0 gr 1

2
tan θ is very
V small, so fTanθ
 e f
gr is negligible

V2 V is in m/sec
e f g is in m/sec2
gr
 Superelevation

V2
e f Km/hr
127r

Maximum e=7% in flat area

Maximum e=10% in hilly area

V2
e
R
 Example
• Max permissible speed=?
• e max.=0.07 (7%)
• R=125m
• V=65kmph
• f=0
• Solution: V=2/3(design speed)
• e=(2/3*65)^2/(127*125)=0.15
• Assume e=0.07
 Example
• 0.07+f=(65)^2/(127*125)
• f=(65)^2/(127*125)-0.07=0.196>0.15
• 0.07+0.15=V^2/(127*125)
• V=59.1 Km/hr
 Drainage of Highways
• Book: Highways (4th edition) by C A O’Flaherty
(Chapter 7 surface drainage for roads)
• Water effects the road in form of
• Reduction in load bearing capacity of sub grade
• Failure of slopes
• Moisture damage and aging
• Decrease adhesion between binder and
aggregate
 Drainage
• Source of water: Surface run off, stream rivers,
ground water table
• For surface run off: provision of camber,
provision of drains
• For stream: provision of culverts, causeway,
bridge
• Ground water table: NGL & Reduced level
 Drainage
• Surface drainage: hydraulics studies, design of
structures to accommodate the estimated
quantity of water
• Culverts 25 years, bridges 50 years
• Surface run off depends on kind and extent of
cultivation/vegetation, steepness of slope,
type and condition of soil w.r.t infiltration, size
and shape of catchment area
Rational method for surface run off
Q  60.5 * A * I * P
Lloyed Davies method

Where A is catchment area (acres), I is

the intensity of rainfall (in/hr) , P is
imperviousness factor=run off/rainfall
Rainfall intensities
GB data
 Example
• Q=? If A=100acres,slope=0.5%,
• Simple
 Hydraulic design
• Drainage structures: surface drainage (drains),
cross drainage (culverts, causeways, bridges)
• Drains may be V, U or trapezoidal shape
(In M-1, drains are of U shape)
For design: Q  A *V
1.486
V * R ( 2 / 3) S (1 / 2)
n R  A/ P
 Example
• Determine Q if S=4.0 percent, h=4 inch,
• Solution: Area=3*1/3
• P=3+2((1/3)^2+1^2)^2
• =5.1 ft h=4 inch
=1/3 ft
1

• R=A/P=3.33/5.1=0.26 3

• V=1.486/n*R^(2/3)*S^(1/2) B=3 ft
 Example
• V=1.486/0.5*(0.26)^(2/3)*(0.04)^(1/2)
• =0.24 ft/sec
• Q=AV=1.33*0.24=0.322 ft3/sec
• =19.3 ft3/min
• Drainage structure: box culverts (slab culvert,
box culvert), pipe culvert
• We should better not change the stream
direction