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UNIT-4
ACTIVE FILTERS
Topics to be covered:
 Active filters, Analog multipliers and modulators :
 Butter worth Filters-1st order, 2nd order LPF, HPF filters, Band pass filters,
Band Reject Filters and all pass filters.
 Four quadrant multiplier, balanced modulator, sample and hold circuits.
Q1. What is an Active filter?
Ans: An electric filter is often a frequency-selective circuit that passes a specified
band of frequencies and blocks or attenuates signals of frequencies outside this
band.
Q2. What are the advantages of active filters over the passive filters?
Ans: Active filters use amplifying elements, especially op amps, with resistors
and capacitors in their feedback loops, to synthesize the desired filter
characteristics. Active filters can have high input impedance, low output
impedance, and virtually any arbitrary gain. They are also usually easier to
design than passive filters. Possibly their most important attribute is that they
lack inductors, thereby reducing the problems associated with those
components.
Q3. What are the different types of Active filters?
Ans: The most commonly used filters are these:
1. Low-pass filter 2. High-pass filter 3. Band-pass filter
4. Band-reject filter 5. All-pass filter
Q4. Draw the frequency response of LPF & HPF?
Ans:

Q5. Write about classification of filters? and also write the advantages of
active filters?
Classification of filters:
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Filter circuits are used to eliminate or attenuate unwanted frequency signals. As
the meaning of the term ‘filter’ implies, electronic filter circuits after out
unwanted signals. Filter circuits are classified as: 1. Active filters 2. Passive filters
Active filters:
Filter circuits using active components like op-amps are called active filters. In
active filters circuits, active elements like BJTs, and ICs are used. In passive filter
circuits passive components like R, L, and C are used. Network synthesis is the
term applied to the systematic method of specifying components in a circuit so
that the circuit’s output is a prescribed function of its input function of
frequency.
Types of Active Filter Circuits:
1. Low-pass filter (LPF) Allows low-frequency signals only. Attenuates higher frequency
2. High-pass filter (HPF) Allows higher-frequency signals beyond cut-off frequency fc
3. Band-pass filter (BPF) Allows signals in a particular frequency range called bandwidth
4. Band reject filter (BRF) Attenuates in a particular frequency rage or notch filter
5. Resonant filters Allows any one particular frequency component (signal) 𝑓𝑜
6. Notch filter Alternates one particular frequency component 𝑓𝑡
The frequency response of these circuits are shown in figure

Advantages of Active Filter Circuits:

1. Loading effect can be reduced using op-amps.
Active filter circuits can be made to have higher input impedance and
lower output impedance, using op-amps, to prevent loading effect. Active
filter circuits can be made to have higher input Z and low output Z.
2. Voltage gain can be greater than 1, where as for passive circuits it is always
less than 1.
3. Cheaper circuits. Because with low values of R and C, we can realize the
same transfer functions.
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Op-amps is cheap. Hence, filter is less costly.
4. They eliminate the need of inductors that are bulky and costly.
1) AV ≥ 1 2) No loading effect of the signal source
3) Filter circuits in IC form 4) Large variety in standard configuration.
Q6. Draw the frequency response of Band pass filter, Band reject filter and all
pass filter.

Q7. What are the design steps for 1st order low pass filter?
Ans: A low-pass filter can be designed by implementing the foI1owing steps:
1) Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH.
2) Select a value of C less than or equal to 1μF. Mylar or tantalum capacitors
are recommended for better performance.
1
3) Calculate the value of R using R =
2πRC
4) Finally, select values ofR1 and RF dependent on the desired pass band gain
RF
AF using AF = 1 +
R1
Q8. What is frequency scaling?
Ans: Once a filter is designed there may be sometimes need to change its cutoff
frequency. The procedure used to convert an original cutoff frequency fH to a
new cutoff frequency fH is called frequency scaling. Frequency scaling is
accomplished as follows. To change a high cutoff frequency, multiple R or C. but

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not both, by the ratio of the original cutoff frequency to the new cutoff
frequency.
Q9. Explain about 1st order low pass butter worth filter?
Ans:

Figure shows a first-order low-pass Butterworth filter that uses an RC network

for filtering. Note that the op- amp is used in the non-inverting configuration;
hence it does not load down the RC network. Resistors R1 and RF determine the
gain of the filter. According to the voltage-divider rule,
The voltage at the non- inverting terminal (across capacitor C) in time domain is

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To determine the frequency response put S=jw

V in V in
H(jw) = = (Since w=2πf)
1+jwRC 1+j 2πfRC
1
fH = = Higher Cutoff frequency
2πfRC

RF Vin
H(jw) = 1 +
R1 1 + j2πfRC
Vo (jw) AF
H(jw) = =
Vi(jw ) 1 + j f/fH

Where Vo/Vin = gain of the filter as a function of frequency

RF
Ao = 1 + = pass band gain of the filter
R1
f = input frequency of the filter
The gain magnitude and phase angle equations of the low-pass filter can be
obtained by converting Equation of Vo into its equivalent polar form, as follows:

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Vo AF
=
Vin 1 + 𝑓/𝑓𝐻 2
𝑓
Φ = − tan−1
𝑓𝐻
Where φ is the phase angle in degrees. The operation of the low pass filter can
be verified from the gain magnitude equation:
Vo
1) At very low frequencies that is, 𝑓 < 𝑓𝐻 , = AF
V in
Vo AF
2) At 𝑓 = 𝑓𝐻 , =
V in 2
Vo
3) At 𝑓 > 𝑓𝐻 , decreasing at a rate of -20dB/decade.
V in
Q10. How a 1st order LPF is converted into a 2nd order low pass filter?
Ans: A stop-band response having a 40-dB/decade roll-off is obtained with the
second order low- Pass filter. A first-order low-pass filter can be converted into a
second order type simply by using an additional RC network
Q11. Explain about 2nd order low pass filter.
Ans: A stop-band response having a 40-dB/decade roll-off is obtained with the
second order low- Pass filter. A first-order low-pass filter can be converted into
a second order type simply by using an additional RC network, as shown
Second-order filters are important because higher-order filters can be designed
using them. The gain of the second-order filter is set by R1 and RF, while the
high cutoff frequency fH is determined by R2, C2, R3, and C3, as follows

Furthermore, for a second-order low-pass Butterworth response, the voltage

gain magnitude equation is

RF
Where Vo/Vin = gain of the filter as a function of frequency AF = 1 +
R1
1
f = input frequency of the filter fH =
2π R 2 R 3 C 2 C 3

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Q12. Design a 1st order Butterworth high pass filter?

High-pass filters are often formed simply by inter changing frequency-

determining resistors and capacitors in low-pass filters. That is, a first-order
high-pass filter is formed from a first-order low-pass type by interchanging
components R and C. Similarly, a second-order high-pass filter is obtained from a
second-order low-pass filter if R and C are interchanged, and so on. The above
Figure shows a first-order high-pass Butterworth filter with a low cutoff
frequency of fL. This is the frequency at which the magnitude of the gain
is0.707 times its pass band value. Obviously, all frequencies higher than fL are
pass band frequencies, with the highest frequency determined by the closed-
loop bandwidth of the op-amp.
For the first-order high-pass filter, the output voltage is

Hence the magnitude of the voltage gain is

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Where

f = input frequency of the filter

fL= = lower cut-off frequency of the filter.
Vo
1) At very low frequencies that is, 𝑓 < 𝑓𝐿 , increases at a rate of +
V in
20dB/decade
Vo AF
2) At 𝑓 = 𝑓𝐻 , =
V in 2
Vo
3) At 𝑓 > 𝑓𝐻 , = AF
V in

Q13. Design a 2nd order high pass filter.

Ans: As in the case of the first-order filter, a second-order high-pass filter can be
formed from a second-order low- pass filter simply by interchanging the
frequency-determining resistors and capacitors. Below Figure shows the second-
order high-pass filter.

The voltage gain magnitude equation of the second-order high-pass filter is as

Vo AF
follows: =
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 1+ 𝑓 𝐿 /𝑓 4
Where AF=1.586=pass band gain for the second-order Butterworth response
f=frequency of the input signal (Hz)
fL=low cut off frequency(Hz)
Since second-order low-pass and high-pass filters are the same circuits except
that the positions of resistors and capacitors are interchanged, the design and

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frequency scaling procedures for the high-pass filter are the same as those for
the low-pass filter
Q14. What is a band pass filter?
Ans: A band-pass filter has a pass band between two cutoff frequencies fH and
fL such that fH>fL. Any input frequency outside this pass band is attenuated.
Q15. What are different types of band pass filters?
Ans: Basically, there are two types of band-pass filters:
1) Wide band pass, and 2) Narrow band pass
Q16.Design a band pass filter?.
Ans: A band-pass filter has a pass band between two cutoff frequencies fH and
fL such that fH>fL. Any input frequency outside this pass band is attenuated.
Basically, there are two types of band-pass filters:
1) Wide band pass, and 2) Narrow band pass
There is no set dividing line between the two. However, we will define a filter as
wideband pass if its figure of merit or quality factor Q<10.On the other hand, if
we will call the filter a narrow band-pass filter. Thus Q is a measure of selectivity,
meaning the higher the value Q, the more selective is the filter or the narrower
its bandwidth (BW). For the wideband-pass filter the center frequency fc can be
defined as where fH =high cutoff frequency (Hz). fL=low cutoff frequency of the
wide band-pass filter (Hz).In a narrow band-pass filter, the output voltage peaks
at the center frequency.
Wide-band pass filter:

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A wide band-pass filter can be formed by simply c as casding high-pass and low-
pass sections and is generally the choice for simplicity of design and
performance. To obtain ±20dB/decade band-pass, first-order high pass and first
order low-pass sections are cascaded;fora±40-dB/decade band-pass filter,
second-order high- pass and second- order low-pass sections are connected in
series.
Since the band-pass gain is 4, the gain of the high-pass as well as low-pass
sections could be set equal to 2. That is, input and feedback resistors must be
equal in value, say10 kΩ each. The voltage gain magnitude of the band-pass
filter is equal to the product of the voltage gain magnitudes of the high-pass and
low-pass filters

Narrow Band-Pass Filter: The narrow band-pass filter using multiple feedback is
shown below .As shown in this figure, the filter uses only one op-amp.
Compared to all the filters discussed so far, this filter is unique in the following
respects:
(a) It has two feedback paths, hence the name multiple-feedback filter.
(b) The op-amp is used in the inverting mode.

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Generally, the narrow band-pass filter is designed for specific values of center
frequency fc and Q or fc and bandwidth. The circuit components are determined
from the following relationships. To simplify the design calculations, chooseC1
=C2 =C.
Q Q Q
R1 = R2 = R 3 =
2πfc CAF 2πfc C 2Q2 − AF πfc C
R3
AF = = 2𝑄 2
2𝑅1
Q17. What is a band reject filter?
Ans: The band-reject filter is also called a band-stop or band-elimination filter. In
this filter, frequencies are attenuated in the stop band while they are passed out
side this band.
Q18. What is the classification of band reject filter?
Ans: The band-reject filters can also be classified as
(1) wideband-reject (2) narrow band-reject
Q19. Explain about Band reject Filters?
Ans: The band-reject filter is also called a band-stop or band-elimination filter. In
this filter, frequencies are attenuated in the stop band while they are passed out
side this band. As with band-pass filters, the band-reject filters can also be
classified as (1) wideband-reject or (2) narrow band-reject. The narrow band-
reject filter is commonly called the notch filter. Because of its higher Q (>10), the
band width of the narrow band-reject filter is much smaller than that of the
wide band- reject filter.
(a) Wide Band-Reject Filter:

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Above Figure shows a wide band-reject filter using a low-pass filter a high-pass
filter, and a summing amplifier. To realize a band-reject response, the low cut
off frequency fL of the high- pass filter must be larger than the high cutoff
frequency fH of the low-pass filter. In addition, the pass band gain of both the
high-pass and low-pass sections must be equal. The frequency response of the
wide band-reject filter is shown above.
b) Narrow Band-Reject Filter: The narrow band-reject filter, often called the
notch filter, is commonly used for the rejection of a single frequency such as the
60-Hz power line frequency. The most commonly used notch filter is the twin- T
network shown in Figure. This is a passive filter composed of two T- shaped
networks. One T network is made up of two resistors and a capacitor, while the
other uses two capacitors and a resistor. The notch-out frequency is the
1
frequency at which maximum attenuation occurs; it is given by FN =
2πRC

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Twin T notch filter.

The active notch filter using op-amp is shown as

Q20. What is an all pass filter?

Ans: An all-pass filter passes all frequency components of the input signal
without attenuation, while providing predictable phase shifts for different
frequencies of the input signal.
Q21. What is a sample and hold circuit?
Ans: The sample and hold circuit , as its name implies samples an i/p signal and
holds on to it last sampled value until the i/p is sampled again. Below fig shows a
sample and hold circuit using an op-amp with an E- MOSFET. In this circuit the E-
MOSFET works as a switch that is controlled by the sample and control voltage
Vs, and the capacitor C serves as a storage element.
Q22. Explain about All pass filter?
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Ans: As the name suggests, an all-pass filter passes all frequency components of
the input signal without attenuation, while providing predictable phase shifts for
different frequencies of the input signal.
When signals are transmitted over transmission lines, such as telephone wires,
they undergo change in phase. To compensate for these phase changes, all-pass
filters are required. The all- pass filters are also called delay equalizers or phase
correctors. all-pass filter wherein RF =R1. The output voltage Vo of the filter can
be obtained by using the superposition theorem:But -j =1/j and XC =1/2ΠfC.
Therefore, substituting for XC and simplifying, we get

Where f is the frequency of the input signal in hertz. Equation indicates that the
amplitude of Vo/Vin is unity; that is, |Vo|=|Vin| throughout the useful
frequency range, and the phase shift between Vo and Vin is a function of input
2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶
frequency f. The phase angle φ is given by Φ = −2 tan−1 Where φ is in
1
degrees, in hertz, R in ohms, and C in farads. Equation is used to find the phase
angle φ if f, R, and C are known. Above Figure shows a phase shift of 90°
between the input Vin and output Vo. That is, Voltage Vin by 90°. For fixed
values of R and C, the phase angle φ changes from 0 to 180° as the frequency f is
varied from 0 to ∞.if the positions of R and C are interchanged, the phase shift
between input and output becomes positive. That is, output Vo leads input Vin.

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Q23. Explain about Sample and hold circuits.

Ans: The sample and hold circuit, as its name implies samples an i/p signal and
holds on to it last sampled value until the i/p is sampled again. Below fig shows a
sample and hold circuit using an op-amp with an E- MOSFET. In this circuit the E-
MOSFET works as a switch that is controlled by the sample and control voltage
Vs, and the capacitor C serves as a storage element.

The analog signal Vin to be sampled is applied to the drain, and sample and hold
control voltage Vs is applied to the gate of the E-MOSFET. During the positive
portion of the Vs, the EMOSFET conducts and acts as a closed switch. This allows
i/p voltage to charge capacitor C. In other words input voltage appears across C
and in turn at the o/p as shown in below figure. On the other hand, when Vs is
zero, the EMOSFET is off and acts as open switch. The only discharge path for C
is, through the op-amp. However the i/p resistance of the op-amp voltage
follower is also very high; hence the voltage across C is retained.The time
periods Ts of the sample-and-hold control voltage Vs during which the voltage
across the capacitor is equal to the i/p voltage are called sample periods. The
time periods TH of Vs during which the voltage across the capacitor is constant
are called hold periods. The o/p of the op-amp is usually processed/observed
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during hold periods. To obtain the close approximation of the i/p waveform, the
frequency of the sample-and-hold control voltage must be significantly higher
than that of the i/p.

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