UNIT-I

Electrical Circuit Fundamentals

Topics: Basic definitions, Types of elements-active and passive, Ohm‘s Law, Kirchhoff‘s
Laws-Network reduction techniques- series, parallel, star to delta, delta to star
transformations, source transformations, Numerical problems.

INTRODUCTION:
Circuit analysis has long been a traditional introduction to the art of problem
solving from an engineering perspective, even for those whose interests lie outside
electrical engineering. There are many reasons for this, but one of the best is that in
today’s world it’s extremely unlikely for any engineer to encounter a system that does
not in some way include electrical circuitry. As circuits become smaller and require less
power, and power sources become smaller and cheaper, embedded circuits are
seemingly everywhere. Since most engineering situations require a team effort at some
stage, having a working knowledge of circuit analysis therefore helps to provide
everyone on a project with the background needed for effective communication.

BASIC DEFINITIONS

i) Charge: (Q or q)
An electric charge occurs when the atoms of matter contain unequal numbers of
electrons and protons. Protons are positively charged and electrons are negatively
charged. These charges, called elementary charge, are equal and opposite. If there are
fewer electrons, an item is positively charged. If there are more electrons, an object is
negatively charged. Objects with the same charge repel, but if one object has a negative
charge and the other a positive charge, they attract.
The net charge is equal to the sum of all the charges in an atom. Since it is so
difficult to count them all, an ideal number, known as the coulomb, is used to represent
a large numbers of elementary charges. This is approximately 6.25 x 1018 elementary
charges.
One Coulomb = 6.25 x 1018 electrons

Unit of charge(Q): Coulomb (C)

ii) Current: (I or i)
There are free electrons available in all semi-conductive and conductive
materials. These free electrons move at random in all directions within the structure in
the absence of external pressure or voltage.
If a certain amount of voltage is applied across the material, all the free electrons
move in one direction depending on the polarity of the applied voltage, as shown in Fig.
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 This movement of electrons from one end of the material to the other end
constitutes an electric current, denoted by either I or i. The conventional direction of
current flow is opposite to the flow of -ve charges, i.e. the electrons.
Current is defined as the rate of flow of electrons in a conductive or semi-
conductive material. It is measured by the number of electrons that flow past a point in
unit time. Expressed mathematically,
Q
I
t
Where I is the current, Q is the charge of electrons, and t is the time, or
dq
i
dt
Where dq is the small change in charge, and dt is the small change in time.

Unit of Current : Ampere(A)

iii) Voltage (or) Potential Difference (or) Potential (or) emf: (V)
According to the structure of an atom, we know that there are two types of
charges: positive and negative. A force of attraction exists between these positive and
negative charges. A certain amount of energy (work) is required to overcome the force
and move the charges through a specific distance. All opposite charges possess certain
amount of potential energy because of the separation between them. The difference in
potential energy of the charges is called the potential difference.
Potential difference in electrical terminology is known as voltage(pressure), and
is denoted either by V or v. It is expressed in terms of energy (W) per unit charge (Q);
i.e.
W dw
V or v
Q dq
where dw is the small change in energy, and dq is the small change in charge.

Unit of Voltage : Volt(V)

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iv) POWER(P) & ENERGY(W):
Energy is the capacity for doing work, i.e. energy is nothing but stored work.
Energy may exist in many forms such as mechanical, chemical, electrical and so on.
Power is the rate of change of energy (the rate at which work is done) and is
denoted by either P or p. If certain amount of energy is used over a certain length of
time, then

Energy W
Power   or
Time t

dW
p
dt
where ‘dw’ is the change in energy and ‘dt’ is the change in time.

dW dW dq
p  *
dt dq dt
p  vi
Unit of Energy : Joule( J)
Unit of Power : Watt(W)
V2
P = VI = I2R =
R
v) Electric Circuit:
Simply an electric circuit consists of three parts:
(1) Energy source, such as battery or generator, (2) the load or sink, such as lamp or
motor, and (3) connecting wires as shown in Fig. This arrangement represents a simple
circuit.

A battery is connected to a lamp with two wires. The purpose of the circuit is to
transfer energy from source (battery) to the load (lamp). And this is accomplished by
the passage of electrons through wires around the circuit.
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NOTE: MULTIPLES & SUB-MULTIPLES USED

TYPES OF ELEMENTS
The network elements may be classified into 4 groups.
1) Active or Passive elements
2) Unilateral or bilateral elements
3) Linear or Nonlinear elements
4) Lumped or distributed elements

1) Active or Passive elements:

The circuit elements which supply energy to the circuit (delivering power) are
called active element.
Examples: voltage sources, current sources, and generators such as alternators, DC
generators etc.
The circuit elements that receive energy (or absorb energy) and either convert it
into heat or store it in an electric field or a magnetic field are called passive elements.
Ex: Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor

2) Unilateral or bilateral elements:

Bilateral Element: A bilateral element is one whose properties or characteristics are
the same in either direction. The usual transmission line is bilateral; because it can be
made to perform its function equally well in either direction.
EX: Resistor, Capacitor, Inductor

Unilateral Element: It is that element whose properties or characteristics change with

the direction of its operation. A diode rectifier is a unilateral circuit, because it cannot
perform rectification in both directions. (EX: Silicon diodes/Vaccum diodes/transistor)
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3) Linear or Nonlinear elements:
An element is said to be linear, if its voltage-current characteristic is at all times a
straight line through the origin.
For example, the current passing through a resistor is proportional to the voltage
applied through it, and the relation is expressed as V ∝ I or V = IR. A linear element or
network is one which satisfies the principle of superposition, i.e. the principle of
homogeneity and additivity.
An element which does not satisfy the above principle is called a nonlinear
element. (EX: Diode)

4) Lumped or distributed elements:

Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size and in which
simultaneous actions takes place for any given cause at the same instant of time. Typical
lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors and transformers. Generally the
elements are considered as lumped when their size is very small compared to the wave
length of the applied signal.
Distributed elements, on the other hand, are those which are not electrically
separable for analytical purposes. For example, a transmission line which has
distributed resistance, inductance and capacitance along its length may extend for
hundreds of miles.

OHM’S LAW
Ohm's law deals with the relationship between current, voltage and ideal
resistance. This relationship was introduced by German physicist George Simon Ohm.
That is why the law is well known as Ohm's law.
Statement:
At constant temperature, the current through an ideal resistor is directly
proportional to the voltage applied across the resistor.

The constant of proportionality is written as R and this is the resistance value of

the resistor.

The main criteria for Ohm’s law are to keep the resistance constant because
proportionality constant in the relationship is resistance R. But we know that the
variation of temperature affects the value of resistance so to keep the resistance
constant during experiments of Ohm's law the temperature is considered constant.

Applications of Ohm's Law:

There are thousands of applications of this law in our daily life. We will show only a few
of them in this article.
 Conventional Domestic Fan Regulator is one very common device where the
current through the fan gets regulated by controlling the resistance of the
regulator circuit.
 In voltage divider circuit this law is used to divide source voltage across the
output resistance.
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  In electronic circuits, there are many purposes where intentional voltage drop is
required to supply specific voltage across different electronic elements. This is
done by applying Ohm's law.
 In mainly dc ammeter and other dc measuring instruments shunt is used to
divert current. Here also Ohm's law is used.

Limitation of Ohm's Law:

The limitations of Ohm's law are explained as follows:
 This law cannot be applied to unilateral networks. A unilateral network has
unilateral elements like diode, transistors, etc., which do not have same voltage
current relation for both directions of current.
 Ohm's law is also not applicable for non – linear elements. Non-linear elements
are those which do not have current exactly proportional to the applied voltage,
that means the resistance value of those elements changes for different values of
voltage and current. Examples of non – linear elements are thyristor, electric arc,
etc.

CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

1) RESISTANCE:
When a current flows in a material, the free electrons move through the material
and collide with other atoms. These collisions cause the electrons to lose some of
their energy. This loss of energy per unit charge is the drop in potential across the
material. The amount of energy lost by the electrons is related to the physical property
of the material. These collisions restrict the movement of electrons.
The property of a material to restrict the flow of electrons is called resistance,
denoted by R. The symbol for the resistor is shown in Fig.

The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). Ohm is defined as the resistance offered by
the material when a current of one ampere flows between two terminals with one volt
applied across it.
According to Ohm's law, the current is directly proportional to the voltage and
inversely proportional to the total resistance of the circuit, i.e.

where ‘G’ is the conductance of a conductor. The units of resistance and conductance are
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ohm (Ω) and mho (℧) respectively.

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 When current flows through any resistive material, heat is generated by the
collision of electrons with other atomic particles. The power absorbed by the
resistor is converted to heat. The power absorbed by the resistor is given by

where ‘i’ is the current in the resistor in amps, and ‘v’ is the voltage across the resistor in
volts. Energy lost in a resistance in time‘t’ is given by

where v is the volts, R is in ohms, t is in seconds and W is in joules.

2) INDUCATNCE:
A wire of certain length, when twisted into a coil becomes a basic inductor. If
current is made to pass through an inductor, an electromagnetic field is formed. A
change in the magnitude of the current changes the electromagnetic field.
Increase in current expands the fields, and decrease in current reduces it.
Therefore, a change in current produces change in the electromagnetic field, which
induces a voltage across the coil according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction.
The unit of inductance is Henry, denoted by H. By definition, the inductance is
one Henry when current through the coil, changing at the rate of one ampere per
second, induces one volt across the coil. The symbol for inductance is shown in Fig.

The current-voltage relation is given by

where ‘v’ is the voltage across inductor in volts, and ‘i’ is the current through inductor in
amps. We can rewrite the above equations as
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From the above discussion, we can conclude the following.
i) The induced voltage across an inductor is zero if the current through it is constant.
That means an inductor acts as short circuit to dc.
ii) A small change in current within zero time through an inductor gives an infinite
voltage across the inductor, which is physically impossible. In a fixed inductor the
current cannot change abruptly.
iii) The inductor can store finite amount of energy, even if the voltage across the
inductor is zero.
iv) A pure inductor never dissipates energy, only stores it. That is why it is also called a
non-dissipative passive element. However, physical inductors dissipate power due to
internal resistance.
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3) CAPACITANCE:
Any two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating medium exhibit the
property of a capacitor. The conducting surfaces are called electrodes, and the
insulating medium is called dielectric. A capacitor stores energy in the form of
an electric field that is established by the opposite charges on the two electrodes.
The electric field is represented by lines of force between the positive and
negative charges, and is concentrated within the dielectric. The amount of charge per
unit voltage that is capacitor can store is its capacitance, denoted by C.
The unit of capacitance is Farad, denoted by F. By definition, one Farad is the
amount of capacitance when one coulomb of charge is stored with one volt across the
plates. The symbol for capacitance is shown in Fig.

A capacitor is said to have greater capacitance if it can store more charge per unit
voltage and the capacitance is given by

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From the above discussion we can conclude the following
i) The current in a capacitor is zero if the voltage across it is constant; that means, the
capacitor acts as an open circuit to dc.
ii) A small change in voltage across a capacitance within zero time gives an infinite
current through the capacitor, which is physically impossible. In a fixed capacitance the
voltage cannot change abruptly.
iii) The capacitor can store a finite amount of energy, even if the current through it is
zero.
iv) A pure capacitor never dissipates energy, but only stores it; that is why it is called
non-dissipative passive element. However, physical capacitors dissipate power due to
internal resistance.

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ENERGY SOURCES

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SYMBOLS OF ENERGY SOURCES

INDEPENDENT ENERGY SOURCES

DEPENDENT ENERGY SOURCES

VOLTAGE DEPENDENT VOLTAGE SOURCE CURRENT DEPENDENT VOLTAGE SOURCE
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 VOLTAGE DEPENDENT CURRENT SOURCE CURRENT DEPENDENT CURRENT SOURCE

KIRCHHOFF‘S LAWS
There are some simple relationships between currents and voltages of different
branches of an electrical circuit. These relationships are determined by some basic laws
that are known as Kirchhoff laws or more specifically Kirchhoff Current and Voltage
laws. These laws are very helpful in determining the equivalent electrical resistance or
impedance (in case of AC) of a complex network and the currents flowing in the various
branches of the network. These laws are first derived by Guatov Robert Kirchhoff and
hence these laws are also referred as Kirchhoff Laws.

1) KIRCHHOFF‘S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

Statement:
Kirchhoff's voltage law states that the algebraic sum of all branch voltages
around any closed path in a circuit is always zero at all instants of time.
When the current passes through a resistor, there is a loss of energy and,
therefore, a voltage drop. In any element, the current always flows from higher potential
to lower potential. Consider the circuit in Fig. It is customary to take the direction of
current I as indicated in the figure, i.e. it leaves the positive terminal of the voltage
source and enters into the negative terminal. 14
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 As the current passes through the circuit, the sum of the voltage drop around the
loop is equal to the total voltage in that loop. Here the polarities are attributed to the
resistors to indicate that the voltages at points a, c and e are more than the voltages at b,
d and f, respectively, as the current passes from a to f.

Consider the problem of finding out the current supplied by the source V in the
circuit shown in Fig.
Our first step is to assume the reference current direction and to indicate the
polarities for different elements. (See Fig.).

i) VOLTAGE DIVISION:

The series circuit acts as a voltage divider. Since the same current flows through
each resistor, the voltage drops are proportional to the values of resistors. Using this
principle, different voltages can be obtained from a single source, called a voltage
divider.
In general, if the circuit consists of a number of series resistors, the total current
is given by the total voltage divided by equivalent resistance. This is shown in Fig.
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From the above equation, we can say that the voltage drop across any resistor or a
combination of resistors, in a series circuit is equal to the ratio of that resistance value
to the total resistance, multiplied by the source voltage, i.e.

ii) POWER IN SERIES CIRCUIT:

The total power supplied by the source in any series resistive circuit is equal to
the sum of the powers in each resistor in series, i.e.
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where ‘m’ is the number of resistors in series, Ps is the total power supplied by source
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and Pm is the power in the last resistor in series. The total power in the series circuit is
the total voltage applied to a circuit, multiplied by the total current. Expressed
mathematically,

2) KIRCHHOFF‘S CURRENT LAW (KVL)

Statement:
Kirchhoff's current law states that the sure of the currents entering into any node
is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that node.
The node may be an interconnection of two or more branches. In any parallel
circuit, the node is a junction point of two or more branches. The total current entering
into a node is equal to the current leaving that node.
For example, consider the circuit shown in Fig., which contains two nodes A and
B. The total current IT entering node A is divided into I1, I2 and I3. These currents flow
out of node A.
According to Kirchhoff's current law, the current into node A is equal to the total
current out of node A: that is, IT = I1 + I2 + I3. If we consider node B, all three currents I1,
I2 and I3 are entering B, and the total current IT is leaving node B, Kirchhoff's
current law formula at this node is therefore the same as at node A.

In general, sum of the currents entering any point or node or junction equal to
sum of the currents leaving from that point or node or junction as shown in Fig.

If all of the terms on the right side are brought over to the left side, their signs
change to negative and a zero is left on the right side, i.e.

This means that the algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a junction is equal to
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zero.
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i) Current Division:
In a parallel circuit, the current divides in all branches. Thus, a parallel circuit
acts as a current divider. The total current entering into the parallel branches is divided
into the branches currents according to the resistance values. The branch having higher
resistance allows lesser current, and the branch with lower resistance allows more
current. Let us find the current division in the parallel circuit shown in Fig.

The voltage applied across each resistor is Vs. The current passing through each
resistor is given by

From the above equations, we can conclude that the current in any branch is
equal to the ratio of the opposite branch resistance to the total resistance value,
multiplied by the total current in the circuit. In general, if the circuit consists of ‘m’
branches, the current in any branch can be determined by

ii) Power in Parallel Circuit :

The total power supplied by the source in any parallel resistive circuit is equal to
the sum of the powers in each resistor in parallel, i.e.
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where ‘m’ is the number of resistors in parallel, Ps is the total power and Pm is the
power in the last resistor.

NETWORK REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

Circuit reduction techniques are powerful methods to simplify the circuit as they
reduce the number of elements (and therefore, the number of equations to be solved
simultaneously). However, when several circuit elements are combined, the circuit
variables associated with those elements are lost in the process of transformation. In
principle, one should solve the simplified circuit and find the remaining circuit
variables. Then, one should go back to the original circuit to find the “lost” circuit
variables.

Types of Techniques:
1) SERIES & PARALLEL REDUCTION
2) STAR-DELTA / DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATIONS
3) SOURCE TRANSFORMATIONS

1) SERIES & PARALLEL REDUCTION TECHNIQUE:

i) ANALYSIS OF SERIES CIRCUITS:

a) Resistors in Series: [CURRENT SAME & VOLTAGE DIVISION]

Consider the resistances shown in the fig.

The resistances R1, R2 and R3 are said to be in series. This combination is

connected across a source of V volts. The current is flowing through all resistances and
it is same indicated as ‘I’.
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b) Inductors in Series:
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c) Capacitors in series:

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ii) ANALYSIS OF PARALLEL CIRCUITS:

a) Resistors in parallel: [VOLTAGE SAME & CURRENT DIVISION]

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b) Inductors in parallel:
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C) Capacitors in parallel:

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2) STAR-DELTA REDUCTION TECHNIQUE:

In the complicated networks involving large number of resistances, Kirchhoff's

laws give us complex set of simultaneous equations. It is time consuming to solve such
set of simultaneous equations involving large number of unknowns. In such a case
application of Star-Delta or Delta-Star transformation, considerably reduces the
complexity of the network and brings the network into a very simple form. This reduces
the number of unknowns and hence network can be analysed very quickly for the
required result. These transformations allow us to replace three star connected
resistances of the network, by equivalent delta connected resistances, without affecting
currents in other branches and vice-versa.

Star Connection:
If the three resistances are connected in such a manner that one end of each is
connected together to form a junction point called Star point, the resistances are said to
be connected in Star.

EX:

Delta Connection:
If the three resistances are connected in such a manner that one end of the first is
connected to first end of second, the second end of second to first end of third and so on
to complete a loop then the resistances are said to be connected in Delta. Delta
connection always forms a loop, closed path.
EX:
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i) DELTA-STAR TRANSFORMATION
Consider the three resistances R12, R23, R31 connected in Delta as shown in the
Fig. The terminals between which these are connected in Delta are named as 1, 2 and 3.
Now it is always possible to replace these Delta connected resistances by three
equivalent Star connected resistances R1, R2, R3 between the same terminals 1, 2, and 3.
Such a Star is shown inside the Delta in the Fig. which is called equivalent Star of Delta
connected resistances.

Now to call these two arrangements as equivalent, the resistance between any
two terminals must be same in both the types of connections.
Let us analyse Delta connection first, shown in the Fig.(a).
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 Now consider the terminals (1) and (2). Let us find equivalent resistance
between (1) and (2). We can redraw the network as viewed from the terminals (1) and
(2), without considering terminal (3). This is shown in the Fig.(b).
Now terminal '3' we are not considering, so between terminals (1) and (2) we get the
combination as,

Now consider the same two terminals of equivalent Star connection shown in the Fig.

Now as viewed from terminals (1) and (2) we can see that terminal (3) is not
getting connected anywhere and hence is not playing any role in deciding the resistance
as viewed from terminals (1) and (2). And hence we can redraw the network as viewed
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through the terminals (1) and (2) as shown in the Fig.

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 This is because, two of them found to be in series across the terminals 1 and 2
while 3 found to be open. Now to call this Star as equivalent of given Delta it is
necessary that the resistances calculated between terminals (1) and (2) in both the
cases should be equal and hence equating equations (a) and (b),

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ii) STAR- DELTA TRANSFORMATION

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 R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R23 
R1
Similarly
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 R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R31 
R2

R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
R12 
R3

3) SOURCE TRANSFORMATION TECHNIQUE

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 PROBLEMS
1) A person receives a severe shock when he is subjected to a current of 25mA for a
time duration of 30ms. How many electrons pass through the person?
SOL:

2) A resistor is rated for 10 kΩ, 1 watt. Determine its maximum voltage and current
ratings.
SOL:

3) Three resistances 100 Ω, 200 Ω and 300 Ω are connected in series to a 250 volt
supply. Determine the current in the circuit and the power dissipated in each resistor.

SOL:
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4) A 20 Ω resistance is connected in series with an unknown resistance R and the two
connected across a 220 volt d.c. supply. The power loss in R is 50 watts. Determine R.

SOL:

5) When a dc voltage is applied to a capacitor, the voltage across its terminals is found
to build up in accordance with VC= 50(1 – e–100t ). After a lapse of 0.01s, the current
flow is equal to 2 mA.
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(a) Find the value of capacitance in microfarads.

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(b) How much energy is stored in the electric field at this time?
SOL:

6) Find the total equivalent capacitance and total energy stored if the applied voltage is
100V for the circuit shown in the fig.

SOL:
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7) For the circuit shown in the fig, find the unknown voltage drop V1.

SOL:
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8) Determine the current in the given circuit as shown in the figure by using Kirchhoff’s
voltage law. Also find the voltage across each resistor.

SOL:

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9) Determine the voltage across A and B in the circuit given below.

SOL:

10) Determine the current in all resistors in the below circuit using Kirchhoff’s current
law.
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SOL:

11) Using KCL, find the currents i1 & i2 in the circuit shown below

SOL:
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12) Determine the parallel resistance between the points A & B of the circuit shown in
the fig.

SOL:

13) Determine the total current in the circuit given below:

SOL:

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14) Determine the current delivered by the source in the circuit shown in the fig.

SOL:

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15) Obtain the star connected equivalent for the delta connected circuit shown in the fig

SOL:

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16) Obtain the delta connected equivalent for the star connected circuit shown in the fig

SOL:

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17) Using star- delta transformation, determine the current drawn by the source in the
circuit shown in the fig.

SOL:

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18) Using star- delta transformation, determine the equivalent resistance in the circuit
shown in the fig.

SOL:
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19) Determine the equivalent voltage source for the current source shown in the fig.

SOL:
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20) Determine the equivalent current source for the voltage source shown in the fig.

SOL:

21) Using source transformation, find the power delivered by 50V voltage source in the
circuit shown in the fig.

SOL:
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22) Find the value of i1 in the circuit shown in the fig.

SOL:

50
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