A Brief Guide

to Microphones
 A Word about Audio-Technica
For over 30 years Audio-Technica has been
dedicated to advancing the art and technology
of electro-acoustic design and manufacturing.
From a beginning in state-of-the-art phono
cartridges, A-T has expanded over the years
into high-performance headphones, micro-
phones, speakers and electronic products
for home and professional use. In each new
area the goal has been to create innovative,
problem-solving products.
The results of these engineering and pro-
duction efforts can be seen in the effective
use of A-T products in a broad spectrum of
applications.
Audio-Technica microphones, for example,
are found in daily use in major broadcast and
recording studios, and relied upon by top
touring musicians. A-T mics are chosen for
important installations and major events,
such as the U.S. House of Representatives,
the Super Bowl, World Cup Soccer and the
Olympics.
Whether in the home, on stage, or in schools
and universities, boardrooms, council chambers
or places of worship, Audio-Technica products
are providing superior performance and
exceptional value worldwide.
 A Brief Guide
to Microphones
If microphones seem a mystery, a few minutes reading this
guide may help clear up some misconceptions and assist
you in understanding the differences between various micro-
phone types and the advantages of important microphone
features.
The fact is, microphones are really rather simple devices.
And if you know the meaning of just nine key terms, you are
well on your way to becoming a microphone expert. With this
basic knowledge under your belt, it will be easier to select
the right model for almost any application. The nine basic
terms are:
1. Dynamic
2. Condenser
3. Omnidirectional
4. Directional
5. Proximity Effect
6. Feedback
7. Impedance
8. Sensitivity
9. Acoustic Phase Interference

Although there are many kinds of microphones for many

uses, we intend to concentrate on those models most suited
for high-quality recording, broadcasting and sound reinforce-
ment. We’ll skip over the most common microphone of them
all (the one in your telephone) and the many specialized
types used for CB radio, industry and other similar areas.

2
What a Microphone Does
Like phono cartridges, headphones and loudspeakers,
the microphone is a transducer – in other words, an energy
converter. It senses acoustic energy (sound) and trans-
lates it into equivalent electrical energy. Amplified and
sent to a loudspeaker or headphone, the sound picked up
by the microphone transducer should emerge from the
speaker transducer with no significant changes.
How It Does It
While there are many ways to convert sound into electri-
cal energy, we’ll concentrate on the two most popular
methods: dynamic and condenser. These are the types of
microphones most often found in recording studios,
broadcast and motion picture production, home stereo and
video recording, and on stages for live sound reinforcement.
And Why It’s Important
The microphone is, by its nature, at the very beginning
of most sound systems and recording applications. If the
mic can’t capture the sound clearly and accurately, and
with low noise, even the best electronics and speakers
following it won’t produce the optimum sound. So it’s
important to invest in good microphones, to maximize
sound-system performance potential.

3
 Basic Term #1
Dynamic
Comparison of microphone types to loudspeakers may
help you to more readily understand their operation.
Dynamic microphones can be considered as similar to con-
ventional loudspeakers in most respects. Both have a
diaphragm (or cone) with a voice coil (a long coil of wire)
attached near the apex. Both have a magnetic system with
the coil in its gap. The difference is in how they are used.
With a speaker, current from the amplifier flows through
the coil. The magnetic field created by current flowing
through the voice coil interacts with the magnetic field of the
speaker’s magnet, forcing coil and attached cone to move
back and forth, producing sound output.

Figure 1
Dynamic
Microphone Output
Element Voltage

Magnet
Diaphragm
Voice Coil

Magnetic
Structure

A dynamic microphone operates “in reverse.” The

diaphragm is moved by changing sound pressure. This
moves the coil, which causes current to flow as lines of flux
from the magnet are cut. So, instead of putting electrical
energy into the coil (as in a speaker) you get energy out of
it. In fact, many intercom systems use small speakers with
lightweight cones as both speaker and microphone, by simply
switching the same transducer from one end of the amplifier
to the other! A speaker doesn’t make a great microphone,
but it’s good enough for that application.

4
 Dynamic microphones are renowned for their ruggedness
and reliability. They need no batteries or external power sup-
plies. They are capable of smooth, extended response, or
are available with “tailored” response for special applications.
Output level is high enough to work directly into most micro-
phone inputs with an excellent signal-to-noise ratio. They
need little or no regular maintenance, and with reasonable
care will maintain their performance for many years.

Basic Term #2
Condenser
Condenser (or capacitor) microphones use a lightweight
membrane and a fixed plate that act as opposite sides of a
capacitor. Sound pressure against this thin polymer film
causes it to move. This movement changes the capacitance
of the circuit, creating a changing electrical output. (In many
respects a condenser microphone functions in the same man-
ner as an electrostatic tweeter, although on a much smaller
scale and “in reverse.”)

Figure 2
Electret Condenser Element
Polymer Diaphragm

Output
Voltage

Spacer Back Plate FET Impedance Converter

(Battery or Phantom Powered)

Condenser microphones are preferred for their very uniform

frequency response, and ability to respond with clarity to
transient sounds. The low mass of the diaphragm permits
extended high-frequency response, while the nature of the
design also ensures outstanding low-frequency pickup. The
resulting sound is natural, clean and clear, with excellent
transparency and detail.

5
 Two basic types of condenser microphones are currently
available. One uses an external power supply to provide the
polarizing voltage needed for the capacitive circuit. These
externally-polarized microphones are intended primarily for
professional studio use or other extremely critical applications.
A more recent development is the electret condenser
microphone (Fig. 2). In these models, the polarizing voltage
is impressed on either the diaphragm or the back plate dur-
ing manufacture, and this charge remains for the life of the
microphone.
The best electret condenser microphones are capable of
very high-quality performance, and are used extensively in
broadcast, recording and sound reinforcement.
Due in part to their low-mass diaphragms, condenser
microphones are inherently lower in handling or mechanical
noise than dynamic microphones. For all of its electret con-
denser designs, Audio-Technica has elected to apply the
polarizing voltage, or fixed-charge, to the back plate rather
than the diaphragm. By doing this, a thinner material may be
used for the diaphragm, providing a considerable performance
advantage over electret microphones of conventional design.
Many Audio-Technica microphone diaphragms, for example,
are only 2 microns thick (less than 1/10,000th of an inch)!
Condenser microphones have two other design advantages
that make them the ideal (or the only) choice for many appli-
cations: they weigh much less than dynamic elements, and
they can be much smaller. These characteristics make them
the logical choice for line – or “shotgun” – microphones, lava-
liers and miniature microphones of all types.
Attempts at miniaturizing dynamic microphones result in
greatly reduced low-frequency response, overall loss in
acoustic sensitivity, and higher mechanical or handling noise.

6
Phantom Power
While the electret condenser microphone doesn’t need a
power supply to provide polarizing voltage, an FET imped-
ance matching circuit inside the microphone does require
some power. This may be supplied by a small low-voltage
internal battery or by an external “phantom” supply.
Phantom powering is a technique which delivers a DC
voltage to the microphone through the same shielded
two-conductor cable that carries the audio. The phantom
power may be supplied either by the mic mixer or from an
external supply that is “inserted” into the line between the
microphone and mixer input. For phantom power to function,
the line between the power supply and the microphone must
be balanced to ground, and uninterrupted by such devices
as filters or transformers which might pass the audio signal
but block DC (more about balanced lines later). Phantom
power also requires a continuous ground connection (Pin 1
in the XLR-type connector) from the power supply to the
microphone. The supply delivers positive DC voltage equally
to both signal-conducting leads, and uses the shield as a
return path, or negative. Balanced-output dynamic micro-
phones are not affected by phantom power, since there is no
connection between the shield and either signal lead and,
therefore, no circuit for the DC voltage.
Phantom power supplies are available in various output
voltages ranging from as low as 9 volts up to 48 volts. They
may be designed to operate from AC line voltages or from
internal batteries.
Externally polarized or “discrete” condenser microphones
seldom have internal battery power. Instead, a phantom power
source is used to provide both the polarizing voltage for the
element and to power the impedance converter.

7
 Other Types of Microphones
There are a number of ways to translate sound into
electrical energy. Carbon granules are used as elements
in telephones and communications microphones. And some
low-cost microphones use crystal or ceramic elements
that are generally OK for speech, but are not seriously
considered for music or critical sound reproduction.
One other type sometimes found in recording studios is
the ribbon microphone. It is a form of dynamic mic, with a
thin metallic ribbon (which serves as both voice coil and
diaphragm) suspended between the poles of a magnetic
circuit. While it is capable of excellent performance, the
ribbon element must be protected against high acoustic
pressures or wind, since it is relatively fragile. For this
reason, ribbon microphones are rarely seen in sound
reinforcement applications or non-studio recording.
Ribbon microphones are often designed to respond to
sound from both the front and back, and are sometimes
used when a bidirectional pickup pattern is required –
which brings us to the next major microphone classification.
What’s the Pattern?
In addition to classifying microphones by their generating
elements, they can also be identified by their directional
properties, that is, how well they pick up sound from vari-
ous directions. Most microphones can be placed in one
of two main groups: omnidirectional and directional.
Omnidirectional microphones are the simplest to design,
build and understand. They also serve as a reference
against which each of the others may be compared.
The basic directional types include cardioid, subcardioid,
hypercardioid and bidirectional. Also included under the
general heading of directional microphones is the line – or
“shotgun” – microphone, a more complex design that can
provide considerably higher directionality than the four
basic directional types.
Let’s examine the differences among the various types.

8
 Basic Term #3
Omnidirectional
Omnidirectional microphones pick up sound from just
about every direction equally. They’ll work about as well
pointed away from the subject as pointed toward it, if the
distances are equal. However, even the best omni models
tend to become directional at higher frequencies, so sound
arriving from the back may seem a bit “duller” than sound
from the front, although apparently equally “loud.”

Figure 3
Omnidirectional
Microphone

The physical size of the omnidirectional microphone has

a direct bearing on how well the microphone maintains
its omnidirectional characteristics at very high frequencies.
The body of the microphone simply blocks the shorter
high-frequency wavelengths that arrive from the rear. The
smaller the microphone body diameter, therefore, the closer
the microphone can come to being truly omnidirectional.

9
 Basic Term #4
Directional
Directional microphones are specially designed to respond
best to sound from the front (and rear in the case of bidirec-
tionals), while tending to reject sound that arrives from other
directions. This effect also varies with frequency, and only
the better microphones are able to provide uniform rejection
over a wide range of frequencies. This directional ability is
usually the result of external openings and internal passages
in the microphone that allow sound to reach both sides of the
diaphragm in a carefully controlled way. Sound arriving from
the front of the microphone will aid diaphragm motion, while
sound arriving from the side or rear will cancel diaphragm
motion.

Figure 4
Directional
(Cardioid)
Microphone

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Polar Patterns
To help you visualize how a directional microphone works,
you will find polar patterns in our literature and spec sheets.
These round plots show the relative sensitivity of the micro-
phone (in dB) as it rotates in front of a fixed sound source.
You can also think of them as a horizontal “slice” through the
pickup patterns illustrated in Figures 3 and 4.
Plots of the microphone polar response are usually shown
at various frequencies. The most common directional micro-
phones exhibit a heart-shaped polar pattern, and, as a result,
are called “cardioid” microphones.

Figure 5
Polar Patterns 0

30
330

300 60

Typical
Omnidirectional 270 90

Pattern
240 120

210 150

180

SCALE IS 5 DECIBELS PER DIVISION

LEGEND

200 Hz Same as 1 kHz

1 kHz
5 kHz
8 kHz

330 30

300 60

Typical
Directional 270 90

(Cardioid)
Pattern
240 120

210 150

180

SCALE IS 5 DECIBELS PER DIVISION

LEGEND

200 Hz
1 kHz
5 kHz
8 kHz

11
 Polar patterns should not be taken literally as a “floor plan”
of a microphone’s response. For instance, in the cardioid pat-
tern illustrated, response is down about 6 dB at 90° off-axis.
It may not look like much in the pattern, but if two persons
were speaking equidistant from the microphone, one directly
on-axis and the other at 90°, the person off-axis would sound
as if he were twice as far from the microphone as the person
at the front. To get equal volume, he would have to move to
half the distance from the mic.
A word of caution: these polar patterns are run in an
anechoic chamber, which simulates an ideal acoustic
environment – one with no walls, ceiling or floor. In the real
world, walls and other surfaces will reflect sound quite readily,
so that off-axis sound can bounce off a nearby surface and
right into the front of the microphone. As a result, you’ll rarely
enjoy all of the directional capability built into the micro-
phone. Even if cardioid microphones were completely “dead”
at the back (which they never are), sounds from the rear,
also reflected from nearby surfaces, would still arrive partially
from the sides or front. So cardioid microphones can help
reduce unwanted sound, but rarely can they eliminate it
entirely. Even so, a cardioid microphone can reduce noise
from off-axis directions by about 67%.
The directional microphone illustrated in Fig. 5 is about
20 dB less sensitive at 180° degrees off-axis, compared to
on-axis. This means that by rotating the cardioid microphone
180°, so that it faces directly away from the sound source,
the sound will “look” to the microphone as if it had moved
TEN TIMES farther away!
The maximum angle within which the microphone may be
expected to offer uniform sensitivity is called its acceptance
angle. As can be seen in Fig. 6, each of the directional pat-
terns offers a different acceptance angle. This will often vary
with frequency. One of the characteristics of a high-quality
microphone is a polar pattern which changes very little when
plotted at different frequencies.

12
Figure 6
Basic Polar Patterns
0°

180°
Omni- Sub- Hyper-
directional cardioid Cardioid cardioid Line Bidirectional
Acceptance Angle — 170° 120° 100° 90° 90°
(3 dB down)
Null (angle of none 160° 180° 110° 120° 90°
minimum sensitivity)
Distance Factor (DF) 1.0 1.2 1.7 2.0 2.5 1.7

Distance Factor
A directional microphone’s ability to reject much of the
sound that arrives from off-axis provides a greater working
distance or “distance factor” than an omni. As Fig. 6 shows,
the distance factor (DF) for a cardioid is 1.7 while the omni
is 1.0. This means that if an omni is used in a uniformly noisy
environment to pick up a desired sound that is 10" away, a
cardioid used at 17" from the sound source should provide
the same results in terms of the ratio of desired signal to
ambient noise. Among other microphone types, the subcar-
dioid should do equally will at 12", the hypercardioid at 20"
and the bidirectional at 17".
If the unwanted noise is arriving from one direction only,
however, and the microphone can be positioned to place the
null of the pattern toward the noise, the directional micro-
phones will offer much greater working distances.

13
 Line Microphones
When miking must be done from even greater distances,
line or “shotgun” microphones are often the best choice.
Line microphones are excellent for use in video and film, in
order to pick up sound when the microphone must be located
outside the frame, that is, out of the viewing angle of the
camera.
The line microphone uses an interference tube in front of
the element to ensure much greater cancellation of sound
arriving from the sides. Audio-Technica line microphones
combine a directional (“gradient”) element with the interfer-
ence tube to increase cancellation at the rear as well.

Figure 7
Line + Gradient Microphone

Interference Tube

Directional Element

As a general design rule, the interference tube of a line

microphone must be lengthened to narrow the acceptance
angle and increase the working distance. While shorter line
microphones may not provide as great a working distance as
their longer counterparts, their wider acceptance angle is
preferred for some applications, because aiming does not
need to be so precise. (Some A-T shotgun mics employ an
exclusive design* that provides the same performance from
an interference tube one-third shorter than conventional
designs.)

*U.S. Patent No. 4,789,044

14
How Do They Sound?
From a distance of two feet or so, in an absolutely
“dead” room, a good omni and a good cardioid may sound
very similar. But put the pair side-by-side in a “live” room
(a large church or auditorium, for instance) and you’ll hear
an immediate difference. The omni will pick up all of the
reverberation and echoes – the sound will be very “live.”
The cardioid will also pick up some reverberation, but a
great deal less, so its sound will not change as much
compared to the “dead” room sound. (This is the “Distance
Factor” in action.)
If you are in a very noisy environment, and can point
the microphone away from the noise, a comparison will
show a better ratio of wanted to unwanted sound with the
cardioid than with the omni.
Now, let’s repeat the comparison, but this time with the
microphones very close to the source (a singer, perhaps).
As you get within about two inches, you’ll notice a rising
bass response in most cardioid microphones. This is
known as proximity effect, a characteristic that is not
shared with the omni microphone used for comparison.

15
 Basic Term #5
Proximity Effect
Proximity effect can either be a blessing or a curse,
depending on how it is used. A singer can get a deep, earthy
sound by singing very close, then change to a more pene-
trating sound by singing louder while moving the microphone
away. This kind of creative use takes some practice, but is
very effective. On the other hand, singing at the same volume
(with no special effects desired) and moving the microphone
in and out will create problems of tonal balance, apart from
changes in overall mic level. Some performers also like to work
very close at all times to “beef up” an ordinarily “light” voice.

Figure 8
Influence of Proximity Effect
on Directional Microphone Response
Response in dB

10 dB

50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10k 20k

Frequency in Hertz
LEGEND
1/4"

3"
12" or more on axis

Proximity effect can be used effectively to cut feedback

in a sound reinforcement situation. If the performer works
very close to the mic, and doesn’t need the extra bass, an
equalizer can be used to turn down that channel’s bass
response. This makes the microphone less sensitive to
feedback at low frequencies, since it is now less sensitive
to any low-frequency signal arriving from more than a foot
away. (This equalization technique also will help reduce the
effect of any handling noise.)

16
 Basic Term #6
Feedback
Feedback is simply a condition in a sound-reinforcement
application when the sound picked up by the microphone is
amplified, radiated by a speaker, then picked up again, only
to be re-amplified. Eventually the system starts to ring, and
keeps howling until the volume is reduced. Feedback occurs
when the sound from the loudspeaker arrives at the micro-
phone as loud or louder than the sound arriving directly from
the original sound source (talker, singer, etc.).
The right microphone will reduce the problem. A microphone
without peaks in its response is best, as feedback will occur
most easily at the frequencies where peaks exist. While a
good omni might work well in some situations, a cardioid is
almost always preferred where a high potential for feedback
exists. When the loudspeaker sound comes primarily from a
single direction (rather than mainly reflected from all the
walls, ceiling, etc.), the null of a cardioid (or other directional
pattern) microphone can be aimed to minimize pickup of the
speaker’s sound.
Distance is also a factor. Moving the microphone (or speaker)
to lengthen the acoustic path to the loudspeaker can often
reduce feedback. Bringing the microphone closer to the
desired sound source will also help. And in general, the
microphone should always be located behind the
speakers.

17
 Which Pattern is “Best”?
Whether you should select a directional or omnidirec-
tional microphone can depend on the application (record-
ing vs. sound-reinforcement), the acoustic conditions, the
working distance required and the kind of sound you wish
to achieve. Directional microphones can suppress
unwanted noise, reduce the effects of reverberation and
increase gain-before-feedback. But in good acoustic sur-
roundings, omnidirectional microphones, properly placed,
can preserve the “sound” of the recording location, and are
often preferred for their flatness of response and freedom
from proximity effect.
Omnidirectional microphones are normally better at
resisting wind noise and mechanical or handling noise than
directional microphones. Omnis are also less susceptible
to “popping” caused by certain explosive consonants in
speech, such as “p,” “b” and “ t.” Serious recordists will
undoubtedly want to have both types of microphones
available to be ready for every recording problem.

18
 Basic Term #7
Impedance
One important characteristic of a microphone is its output
impedance. This is a measurement of the AC resistance
looking back into the microphone. Generally, microphones
can be divided into low (50-1,000 ohms), medium (5,000-
15,000 ohms) and high (20,000+ ohms) impedance. Most
Audio-Technica microphones are rated low-impedance.
They’ll work directly into mixer inputs of 150 ohms on up to
approximately 4,000 ohms, so they should be ideal for most
of the tape recorders and mixers currently available. Of
course, some users may want to use a low-impedance
Audio-Technica microphone into a high-impedance (50,000
ohms) input, which is why we offer the CP8201 microphone
line matching transformer. It should be located as close to
the electronic input as possible, so most of the microphone
cable is low-impedance and balanced to ground. Here’s why.
There is a limit to how much cable should be used
between a high-impedance microphone and its input. Any
more than about 20 feet will result in loss of highs, and loss
of output level. But by using low-impedance microphones
and cable, microphone cables can be almost any practical
length, with no serious losses of any kind.
Balanced and Phased
Most Audio-Technica microphones offer balanced output.
A balanced output offers real advantages to the serious
recordist. Balanced lines are much less susceptible to RFI
(Radio Frequency Interference) and the pickup of other elec-
trical noise and hum. In a balanced line, the shield of the
cable is connected to ground, and the audio signal appears
across the two inner wires which are not connected to
ground. Because signal currents are flowing in opposite
directions at any given moment in the pair of signal wires,
noise which is common to both is effectively cancelled out
(“common mode rejection”). This cancellation can’t occur when
only one signal wire plus the shield is used. Of course, it is
possible to wire a low-impedance microphone directly to an
unbalanced low-impedance input, but the noise-cancelling

19
 benefit will be lost. This should not be a problem with short
cable runs, but if longer cables are used, a balanced input is
preferred.
Microphone phasing is most important when two (or more)
microphones are to be used close together, then mixed into
a single channel, or when recording in stereo. If they are
wired out-of-phase to each other, signal levels and tonal
balance will be adversely affected, and can change abruptly
with small movements of the sound source or the micro-
phones. In stereo there may be poor imaging, imprecise
location of instruments and reduction of bass. The term
“out-of-phase” is used to describe a microphone that is wired
with its polarity reversed with respect to another. While
“out-of-phase” is not a technically correct expression when
speaking of polarity reversal, it is in such common usage
that we include it here to help you understand the idioms
of audio.
Audio-Technica wires its microphones to conform to the
most popular industry convention: Positive acoustic pressure
on the diaphragm generates a positive voltage on Pin 2 of the
3-pin output connector or on the tip of a 1/4" plug. Of course,
consistent phasing (polarity) must be preserved in all of the
cables between the microphone(s) and the electronics.

Figure 9
Wiring of Typical Microphone Connectors

PINS
(–) 3
(+) 2
1 XLR-type Output Connector
Balanced Line Balanced Microphone Line

Sleeve

(+) Tip Tip

(–) Sleeve
Unbalanced Line 1/4" Phone Plug
Unbalanced Microphone Line

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 Basic Term #8
Sensitivity
Sensitivity ratings for microphones may not be exactly
comparable, since different manufacturers may use different
rating systems. Typically, the microphone output (in a sound
field of specified intensity) is stated in dB (decibels) com-
pared to a reference level. Most reference levels are well
above the output level of the microphone, so the resulting
number (in dB) will be negative. Thus a microphone with a
sensitivity rating of –55 dB will provide more signal to the
input terminals than one rated at –60 dB. (See Fig. 10.)
Audio-Technica typically rates a microphone’s sensitivity in
terms of its open circuit output voltage. Stated in dB-relative-
to-1-volt, or in actual millivolts (mV), this is the output the
microphone will deliver with a stated sound pressure level
(SPL) input. A-T uses a reference sound pressure of 1 Pa
(Pascal), which equals 94 dB SPL, or 10 dynes/cm2. (A ref-
erence of 0.1 Pa equals 74 dB SPL, or 1 dyne/cm2.) In most
modern audio equipment, microphone input impedances are
substantially greater than the output impedance of the micro-
phone, and thus may be regarded as an open circuit. That
makes the open circuit voltage measurement a useful tool in
comparing microphone sensitivities.
Although knowing how to read/compare microphone
sensitivity (output) is important, the actual sensitivity rating
usually is not a major consideration in mic selection. In fact,
mic output is one factor considered in the design of a micro-
phone for a particular application. For example, A-T shotgun
mics have higher-than-“normal” output levels because they
need to maintain useable output voltage with distant subjects.
It should be noted, however, that when someone says,
“The microphone is distorting,” most often it is the electronics
input (mixer/amplifier/recorder) which is overloading and

Figure 10
“dB re 1V”
–60 dB –40 dB –20 dB 0 dB

.001V .01V .1V 1 volt

(1 mV) (10 mV) (100 mV)

21
 distorting. (This is more likely to occur with A-T’s high-output
condenser mics and Hi-ENERGY ® neodymium-magnet
dynamic mics.) If high-level sound is creating distortion,
before blaming the microphone, try inserting an attenuator
between the microphone and its input. The Audio-Technica
AT8202, designed for use with balanced Lo-Z microphones,
offers a selector switch to drop the level 10, 20 or 30 dB, and
will usually solve the problem. (Some mixers have a switch-
able “input pad” to help prevent input overload.)

Basic Term #9
Acoustic Phase Interference
Multiple Microphones
Acoustic phase interference occurs when the same sound
arrives at two or more adjacent microphones at different
times. This happens, for example, when two microphones
are placed on a lectern as in Fig. 11. Because they are
spaced apart, sound from the subject will almost certainly
arrive at the two microphones at different times. The curves
in Fig. 12 show the effects of the destructive wave interfer-
ences this causes when the microphone outputs are mixed
together. These response degradations can result in not only
poor audio quality, but often feedback problems as well.

Figure 11
Unequal Microphone Distances

D1 D2

Distances D1 and D2
are never exactly equal.

22
Figure 12
Multiple Microphone Response Curves
1 2

24"

6"
18"

Position A Position B

Response of Microphone 1
with subject at Position A.
(Microphone 2 is off.)

Response curve of 1 and 2

summed, subject at Position A.

Response curve of 1 and 2

summed, subject at Position B.

20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10k 20k

Frequency in Hertz

An obvious solution to this lectern-mic problem would be to

use only one microphone. This not only improves the sound
quality, but cuts the lectern microphone budget by approxi-
mately 50%! (Sometimes a second microphone may be
desired as part of a backup or “redundancy” system, such as
for press conferences. The two microphones should then be
located directly in front of the subject, as close together as
practical, and only one should be on or “open” at a time.)

23
 Fig. 13 shows another approach to podium miking with two
microphones. Here the two mics are placed with their capsules
as close together as possible, and angled in a “crossfire.”
This provides a wider overall acceptance angle, allows stereo
miking with excellent mono compatibility, and largely avoids
the phase-interference problem.

Figure 13
Multi-mic Podium Setup

Whenever two spaced microphones must be used, the

“3:1 Ratio Rule” is a good guide for placement. Fig. 14 illus-
trates this rule of thumb. In the illustration, Microphone 1 is
one foot from the sound source. The next closest micro-
phone in the system, Microphone 2, should be located three
feet or more from Microphone 1. If the distance between the
sound source and Microphone 1 changes to two feet, then
the minimum distance between the two microphones should
be at least six feet, maintaining the 3:1 ratio.

Figure 14
The 3:1 Ratio Rule
1 2

3'

1'

Subject

24
Single Microphone Placement
Acoustic phase interference may also occur when only a
single microphone is in use. This happens when sound is
reflected off a nearby surface and arrives at the microphone
slightly after the direct sound. Adding the two signals together
may give problems similar to those encountered in improper
multi-microphone setups. (The phase interference will be
most noticeable when the reflected sound arrives at a sound
pressure level that is within 9 dB of the direct sound.)
There are several ways to eliminate this problem. First, try
putting the microphone closer to the sound source. Second,
move the microphone farther from the reflective surface.
Third, use a microphone specially configured to be placed
extremely close to the reflective plane (Fig. 15). When using
a low-profile directional Audio-Technica boundary or “plate”
microphone, for example, the microphone capsule is so
close to the surface that the direct sound and the reflected
sound arrive simultaneously and add together rather than
cancel. This technique can prove very helpful on the apron of
a stage, on a table or desk for conference use, or on the altar
of a church.

Figure 15
Effects of Reflections

Reflected sound arrives later

than direct sound, causing
phase cancellation.

A-T Boundary Microphone

Direct and reflected sounds

arrive at same time (“in phase”)
and add together. Result is
higher output and no
phase cancellation.

25
 Some Useful Accessories
Windscreens reduce problems of “popping” from close
vocal use. They also help control the wind noise often
encountered in outdoor applications and from heating/air
conditioning air movements. The windscreen simply slips
over the head of the microphone to completely cover all
acoustic openings.
Microphone shock mounts help reduce mechanical noise
transferred to a microphone through its mounting hardware.
This includes the sound of physical contact with the pulpit,
lectern or microphone stand, or even a foot tapping on a
wooden stage.
Audio-Technica offers two phantom power supplies for use
with most condenser microphones requiring phantom power:
the CP8506 four-channel 48V phantom supply that powers
up to four microphones, and the AT8801 single-channel 48V
phantom supply.
We have already mentioned the CP8201 line matching
transformer, which permits use of low-impedance micro-
phones with unbalanced high-impedance inputs, and the
AT8202 in-line attenuator, which prevents distortion caused
by the overloading of sensitive input stages.
Durable microphone cables from A-T combine the protec-
tive properties of conductive vinyl and a rugged braided
shield to ensure maximum rejection of AC hum and RF
interference. Their supple, “low memory” material lets them
lie flat without unsightly kinks and bends that can create
a tripping hazard.
A large selection of microphone stand clamps for use with
most A-T microphones is also available.

26
SmartMixer®
The Audio-Technica SmartMixer® is a four-channel automatic
microphone mixer. By automatically turning up only those
microphones that are in use and turning them down between
uses, it decreases excessive ambient noise and greatly
reduces the possibility of feedback in multi-mic applications.
The SmartMixer keeps the last microphone channel used
turned on until another channel is activated. This continuous
pickup of at least some ambient sound avoids disturbing
“holes” or total silences that would otherwise occur. A single
SmartMixer controls and provides phantom power to four
microphones. Setup is extremely simple and additional units
can easily be linked together to expand the number of
available inputs.
Wireless Microphones
Providing total freedom of movement, Audio-Technica pro-
fessional wireless microphone systems set high standards
for wireless microphone performance in the most difficult
environments. Choose a self-contained handheld micro-
phone/transmitter or one of our versatile UniPak™ systems
offered with headworn, lavalier, boundary, gooseneck and
instrument microphones.

A Final Word
This guide is necessarily brief and just barely touches
on the topic of microphone usage. Additional tips on how
to use A-T microphones are included in individual instruc-
tion sheets. If you have any questions about microphones
in general, or A-T microphones in particular, please call or
write us for the answers. Our technical support staff will be
happy to assist you.

27
 Index
Accessories 26
Acoustic phase interference 22
Balanced output 19
Boundary microphone 25
Condenser (capacitor) 5
Connectors 20
Directional 10
Distance factor 13
Dynamic 4
Feedback 17
Impedance 19
Line microphone 14
Multiple microphone applications 22
Omnidirectional 9
Phantom power 7
Phasing 20
Polar pattern 8-13, 18
Proximity effect 16
Sensitivity (output voltage) 21
3:1 (“three-to-one”) ratio rule 24

28
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