EE-336: Electrical Measurement &

Instrumentation (3-3-4)
 Dr. Amjad Ullah, Professor,
 Engr. Numan Khurshid, Lecturer,
 Grading:
 50 % Final
 25 % Mid Term
 25 % Sessionals

 Recommended Books:
 Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements
Techniques by A.D.Helfrick, W.D. Cooper
 Electrical Instrumentation and Measurement techniques ,By
A.K.Sawhney
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Course Out lines
 Please note them now
 You will not be provided with any soft copy of
syllabus or lectures; you have to read the book
thoroughly
 Definitions and classification of errors,
 instrument errors,
 environmental errors, temperature effect,
 Method of avoiding and correction errors.
 Engineering units and Standards,

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Course Out lines…….
 Principle, Operation, working and Construction of
Different Analog and Digital Meters,
 Oscilloscope and its Measurements,
 Recording Instruments and signal generators.
 Transducers,
 Different types of Bridges for Measurements of
 Resistance,
 Inductance,
 Capacitance. High Voltage Measurements,

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Course Out lines…….
 Precision Measurements Terminologies Including
 Resolution,
 Sensitivity,
 Accuracy,
 Uncertainty.

 Mechanical Measurements:
 Length,
 Force,
 Displacement,
 Stress and Strain.

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Course Out lines…….
 Thermodynamic Measurements
 temp and
 pressure,

 Measurements in fluid Flows:

 velocity,
 Flow rate,

 Data Manipulation and presentation

 Basic data Manipulation skills using personal
Computers.
 Spread sheets and graphs,
 Static and Dynamic Measurements:
 Time Series and Sampling Requirements.
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 Data Acquisition System. Software Simulation.
 Electronics
 deals with motion of electrons

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 Measurement :
man uses his imaginative skills
 to identify a physical
phenomena
 Developed & utilized a means to
understand this.

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 To measure = to determine the
magnitude or extent or degree of the
condition of system in terms of some
standard.

 All measuring systems- based on laws

of nature.
 E.g. Venturimeter- flow measurement –
Bernoulli's theorem

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 Meter :
 instrument used to indicate or record
measured value
 Measurand :
 variable under measurement
 Metrology :
 science dealing with precise and accurate
measurements

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Instrument : A device for determining the value or
magnitude of or variable.
 The instrument serves as an extension of human
faculties
 and in many cases enables a person to determine the
value of an unknown quantity which his unaided
human faculties could not measure
 The electronic instrument, as its name implies, is
based on electrical or electronic principles for its
measurement function
 A device of simple construction such as a basic dc
current meter

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 Instrument :
tool or equipment for
 Sensing
 Detecting
 Measuring
 Recording
 Controlling
 Communicating
 Measurand Can be manual or automatic

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 Definitions & Terms
 Instrument: a device for determining the value or magnitude of
a quantity or variable.
 Accuracy: closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the variable being measured.
 Precision: a measure of the reproducibility of the
measurements; i.e., given a fixed value of a variable, precision
is a measure of the degree to which successive measurements
differ from another.
 Sensitivity: the ratio of output signal or response of the
instrument to a change of input or measured variable.
 Resolution: the smallest change in measured value to which
the instrument will respond.
 Error: deviation from the true value of the measured variable.

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 Error Minimization Techniques
 Several techniques may be used to minimize the effects of
errors
 For example, in making precision measurements, it is advisable
to record a series of observations rather than rely on one
observation.
 Alternate methods of measurement, as well as the use of
different instruments to perform the same experiment, provide a
good technique for increasing accuracy.
 These techniques tend to increase the precision of
measurement by reducing error, they cannot account for
instrumental error

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 Accuracy And Precision
 Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness or conformity to the
true value of the quantity under measurement.
 Precision refers to the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements or instruments.
 But what is the difference?
 Lets have two voltmeters of the same make and model may be
compared.
 Both meters have knife-edged pointers and mirror-backed
scales to avoid parallax and they have carefully calibrated
scales.
 They may therefore be read to the same precision.
 But If the value of the series resistance in one meter changes
considerably,
 its readings may be in error by a fairly large amount.
 Therefore the accuracy of the two meters may be quite different.
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 Precision
 Precision is composed of two characteristics:
 Conformity and
 the number of significant figures to which a measurement maybe made

 Example
 A resistor, whose true resistance is 1,384,572 Ω, is measured
by an ohmmeter which consistently and repeatedly indicates 1.4
MΩ.
 estimates from the scale reading consistently yield a value of
1.4 MΩ i.e. close to the true value
 But the “error” created by the limitation of the scale reading is a
precision error
 Precision is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for
accuracy.
 the accuracy of a reading is not necessarily guaranteed by its
precision.
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 Significant Figures
 An indication of the precision of the measurement is obtained
from the number of significant figures in which the result is
expressed
 Significant figures convey actual information regarding the
magnitude and the measurement precision of a quantity the
more significant figures,
 the greater the precision of measurement.
 For example,
 if a resistor is specified as having a resistance of 68Ω, its
resistance should be closer to 68Ω than to 67Ω or 69Ω.
 If the value of the resistor is described as 68.0Ω,
 it means that its resistance is closer to 68.0Ω than it is to 67.9Ω or 68.1Ω.
 more significant figures, expresses a measurement of greater precision

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 Significant Figures……
 Another example,
 the population of a city is reported in six figures as 380,000.
 This may imply that the true value of the population lies between
379,999 and 380,001
 Means the population is closer to 380,000 than to 370,000 or
390,000.
 A more technically correct notation uses powers of ten, 38 x 104
or 3.8 x l05.
 Means no confusion for a technical person
 Another way of expressing result indicates the range of possible
error.
 The voltage may e.g. be expressed 117.1 ± 0.05 V, indicating
that the value of the voltage lies between 117.15 V and 117.15
V.
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 EXAMPLE: 1-1
A set of independent voltage measurements taken by four
observers was recorded as 117.02 V, 117.11 V, 117.08 V, and
117.03 V. Calculate (a) the average voltage; (b) the range of
error
E E E E
 Solution: a. E  av
1 2 3 4

117.02  117.11  117.08  117.03

  117.06V
4

b. Rang = Emax – Eav = 117.11 – 117.06 = 0.05V

But also
Eav – Emin = 117.06 – 117.02 = 0.04 V
0.05  0.04
 0.045  0.05V
The average range of error therefore equals 2
 When two or more measurements with different degrees of
accuracy are added, the result is only as accurate as the least
accurate measurement

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 Example: 1-2 (See Examples 1-3,1-4 & 1-5)
 Two resistors, R1 and R2, are connected in series. Individual
resistance measurements, using a digital multimeter, give R1 =
18.7Ω and R2 3.624Ω. Calculate the total resistance to the
appropriate number of significant figures.
 Solution

R1 = 18.7Ω (three significant figures)

R2 = 3.624Ω (four significant figures)
RT = R1 + R2 = 22.324 Ω (five significant figures) = 22.3Ω
 The doubtful figures are written in italics to indicate that in the addition
of R1 and R2 the last three digits of the sum are doubtful figures.
 There is no value whatsoever in retaining the last two digits (the 2 and
the 4) because one of the resistance is accurate only to three
significant figures or tenths of an ohm.
 The result should therefore also be reduced to three significant figures
or the nearest tenth, i.e., 22.3 Ω.
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 Types Of Errors
 No measurement can be made with perfect accuracy,
 but it is important to find out
 what the accuracy actually is ? and
 how different errors have entered into the measurement ?

 A study of errors is a first step in finding ways to reduce them

 Such a study also allows us to determine the accuracy of the
final test result.

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 Sources of Errors
 Errors come from different sources and are usually classified
under three main headings
1. Gross errors: largely human errors, among them misreading
of instruments incorrect adjustment and improper application of
instruments, and computational mistakes.
2. Systematic errors: shortcomings of the instruments, such
as defective or worn parts, and effects of the environment on
the equipment or the user.
3. Random errors: those due to causes that cannot be directly
established because of random variations in the parameter or
the system of measurement.

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 Gross Errors
 This class mainly covers human mistakes in reading or using
instruments and in recording and calculating measurement
results.
 Inevitable if human factor is involved
 Although complete elimination of gross errors is probably
impossible,
 Try to anticipate and
 Correct them

 One common gross error, involves the improper use of an

instrument
 In general, indicating instruments change conditions when
connected into a complete circuit
 the measured quantity is altered by the method employed
 For example, a well-calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading reading
when connected across two points in a high-resistance circuit

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 Example: 1-7 (see example 1-8)
 A voltmeter, having a sensitivity of 1,000 Ω/V, reads 100 V on its 150-V
scale when connected across an unknown resistor in series with a
milliammeter. When the milliammeter reads 5 mA, calculate (a) the
apparent resistance of the unknown resistor; (b) the actual resistance
of the unknown resistor; (c) the error due to the loading effect of the
voltmeter.
 Solution:
V 100V
a. The total circuit resistance equals R    20kΩ
T
T

I 5mA T

Neglecting the resistance of the milliammeter, the value of the unknown

resistor is Rx 20 kΩ,

Ω
b. The voltmeter equals RV  1,000  150V  150kΩ
V
Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the unknown resistance, we can write
RTR V 20  150
RX    23.05kΩ
RV  RT 130

c. % Error = actual  apparent 23.05 = 13.23%

100%  100%
actual 23.05
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 Gross Errors
 Errors caused by the loading effect of the voltmeter can be
avoided by using it intelligently.
 For example, a low-resistance voltmeter should not be used to measure
voltages in a vacuum tube amplifier. In this particular measurement, a high-
input impedance voltmeter (such as a VTVM or TVM) is required.
 A large number of gross errors can be attributed to carelessness
or bad habits
 improper reading of an instrument,
 recording the result differently from actual reading taken,
 or adjusting the instrument incorrectly
 e.g. multirange voltmeter errors in range selection scale

 Errors like these cannot be treated mathematically.

 They can be avoided only by taking care in reading and
recording the measurement data.

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Systematic Errors
 This type of error, is usually divided into two different categories:
 1. instrumental error, defined as shortcomings of the
instruments;
 2. environmental errors, due to extern conditions affecting the
measurement.
 Instrumental errors are errors inherent in measuring
instruments because of their mechanical structure.
 For example the d‟Arsonval movement friction in bearings of
various moving components may cause incorrect readings
 Irregular spring tension, stretching of the spring, or reduction
in tension due to improper handling or overloading of the
instrument will result in errors.
 calibration errors, causing the instrument to read high or low
along its entire scale
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Systematic Errors……
 There are many kinds of instrumental errors, depending on the
type of instrument used.
 The experimenter should always take precautions to insure that
the instrument he is using is operating properly and does not
contribute excessive errors for the purpose at hand.
 Faults in instruments may be detected by checking for erratic
behavior, and stability and reproducibility of results.
 A quick and easy way to check an instrument is to compare it to
another with the same characteristics or to one that is known to
be more accurate.

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 Systematic Errors……Avoid?
 Instrumental errors may be avoided by:
 selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement application;
 applying correction factors after determining the amount of instrumental
error;
 calibrating the instrument against a standard.

 Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the

measuring device, including
 conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, such as
 the effects of changes in temperature,
 humidity,
 barometric pressure,
 or of magnetic or electrostatic fields.

 Change in ambient temperature at which the instrument causes

a change in the elastic properties of the spring in a moving-coil
mechanism and so affects the reading of the instrument.
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Systematic Errors……
 Corrective measures to reduce these effects include
 air conditioning,
 hermetically sealing certain components in the instrument,
 use of magnetic shields, and the like.

 Systematic errors can also be subdivide into

 Static Errors
 Static errors caused by limitations of the measuring device or the physical
laws governing its behavior.
 A static error is introduced in a micrometer when excessive pressure is
applied in turning the shaft.
 Dynamic errors
 Dynamic errors are caused by fast enough to follow the changes in a
measured variable.

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Random Errors
 These errors are due to unknown causes and occur even when
a1l systematic errors have been accounted for.
 In well-design experiments, few random errors usually occur,
but they become important in high-accuracy work.
 Suppose a voltage is being monitored by a voltmeter which is read at half-
hour intervals.
 Though the instrument is operated under ideal environmental conditions
and has been accurately calibrated
 But the readings vary slightly over the observation.

 This variation cannot be corrected by any method „or other

known method of control and
 it cannot be explained till investigation.
 The only way to offset these errors is by increasing the number
of readings and using statistical means to obtain the best
approximation
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Instrumentation
 Deals with Science and technology of
measurement of large no. of variables
 Uses principles in physics , chemistry & Appld.
Science(Engg),Electrical. Electronics,
Mech,computer, commn. etc.
 i.e., parameters measured need to be txd,
stored, may be processed (for control applns.)

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 General Measurement Systems

Signal
sensor conditioner Signal processor Data presentation

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Sensor :
 detecting element
 Use to locate the presence of matter or
energy
 (energy in the form of heat, light, sound, electrical, pressure,
velocity)

 Contacts with the process

 Sensitive to either light or temp. or
impedance or capacitance etc.

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 Signal conditioner:
 o/p of sensor is converted to required form by conditioner
 Signal processor :
 filtering, shaping, adding, subtracting , multiplying,
linearization etc.
 Data o/p :
 display, recording etc.

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Measuring System

transducer Sig.cond display

control

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Instrumentation Engg. is:
 Multi disciplinary branch of Engg.
 Deals with design , manufacture, &
utilization of instruments
“When you can measure, what you are
speaking and express it in numbers, you
know something about it.”
Lord Kelvin

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Units
 Standard measure of each kind of
a Physical quantity
 Two types:
 Fundamental - LMT
 Derived – area, volume etc

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Without units , the number
obtained by measuring has no
physical meaning.

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Systems of Units
 French system - Universal system of standard
 FPS – Foot Pound Second – The British
 CGS – Centimeter Gram Second-designed for
practical engg. applications
 MTS-Meter Ton Second in France designed for
engg. purpose
 SI –Meter Kilogram Second Ampere

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Standard Organizations to maintain
International System of Units (SI)
1. International Bureau of Weights & Measures
2. General Conference on Weights & Measures
3. International Committee for Weight & Measures
European systems
Institute for Reference Materials &
measurements-Geel, Belgium + 7 other
American systems (National Institute for stds.&
tech +2 others NIST)

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Standards
 Physical representation of unit of measurement
 Unit is realized by reference to a standard e.g.
1.kg = mass of one cubic deci meter of as its
temp of max density of 4c

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Categories

1. International Standards
2. Primary standard
3. Secondary Standard
4. Working standards

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International Standards

 Defined by international agreement maintained at

International Bureau of Weights and Measures
(one organization for SI unit)
 Not available to ordinary uses

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Primary or Basic Standards

 Maintained by National standard labs of each country

 India –National Physical Lab in New Delhi
 Not available outside National Labs

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Secondary standards
 Basic reference standards for industrial
measurement labs
 Maintained by particular industry
 Checked locally
 Occasionally sent to primary lab for
calibration, then primary labs will give
certificate

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Working standard
 Primary tool of measuring labs

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General Instrumentation systems

Characteristics

Static Dynamic

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Static Characteristics
 Features which does not vary or vary very slowly with
respect to time.
 Or they are features which considered when a
system or instrument ,when a condition does not
vary with time.
 Some are :Accuracy, Sensitivity, Reproducibility, Drift, Static
error, Dead zone etc.

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True value :
 Ideal case ( impossible to measure)
 Measured by “Examplar” method (method agreed by
experts as being sufficiently accurate).
 Defined as average of infinite no. of measured
values when the average deviation due to various
factors tend to zero.
 take it as best measured quality

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 Accuracy
 nearness to the true value

Or
 closeness with which an instrument approaches the
true value of quantity being measured
 Accuracy is measured in terms of error.

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Static error
 defined as the difference b/w the measured
value and true value of quantity.

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i.e.,
 A = Am – A t
Where ,
 A = error
Am = measured value
A t = true value
 A – static error of quantity A under
measurement

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 Quantity of measurement is provided
by relative static error
Relative static error r
r =  A / A t
= o / A t
% r = r X 100

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 At =Am -A
= A m - o
= A m - r .At
A m = A t / (1+ r )
So, At = Am /(1- r )

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Static correction ( C )

 C = At –Am

At = true value
Am = measured value

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Problems :
A meter reads 127.50 V and the true value of the
voltage is 127.43 V . Determine the static error and
static correction .
( Ans : error : 0.07, correction = -0.07)

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Problem 2
A thermometer reads 95.45 C & static correction
in correction curve is - 0.08 C. Find the true
value
Ans : 95.37 C.

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Quiz No 1
A voltage has a true value of 1.5 V on an
analogindicating meter with a range 0 to 2.5 V
shows a voltage of 1.46 V. Determine the value of
absolute error and correction.Express the error as
a fraction of true value & full scale defection

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