Python 3| Raspberry Pi| Linux Coding for Pyt Master Python and expand your programming skills Packed with © LearnPython3 ® Code games, top tips and and apply it to real Teal ta (oeie Le) fav iKeyer) hy world programs TNtC@an nel)Discover more of our complete manuals on Readly today... The Complete © The Complete Ubuntu _Manual & TheCompkte MacBook Manuali Black Doc h Se Codin Pyt Unlock the Power of Python Python is a fluid, easy to learn, powerful and creative programming language that has fast become one of the most popular coding languages available. It’s used by students, experienced programmers, scientists, engineers, teachers and enthusiasts the world over. There's a huge community of Python users who are willing to help, share and create incredible code and projects, Now it's your chance to join them. Coding for Python has been expertly crafted to help you learn this amazing language. Within these pages you can discover how to get started, how to write Python code and how to create your own unique code For everyday use. Whether you're looking to learn Python for future career prospects or just have some fun and discover something new, our step-by-step tutorials and guides give you that much needed foothold to help you on your way. Let’s dive in then, and start learning Python. FD cvdmputs FJ 20m pusications: ontents Coding for Python ee lletaiatyy e 8 whyPython? 10 Equipment You Will Need 12 Getting to Know Python 14 Howto Set Up Python in Windows 16 Howto Set Up Pythen on a Mac 18 Howto Set Up Python inLinux 20 installing e Text Editor Pee he 24 Starting Python for the First Time 26 Your First Code 28 Saving and Executing Your Code Executing Code fromm the Command Line 32 Numbers and Expressions 34 Using Comments 36 Working with Variables 38 User input 40 Creating Functions 42° Conditionsand Loops 44 Python Modules 46 Python Errors 48. Combining What You Know So Far 50) Working with Data 52 Lists 54 Tuples 56 Dictionaries 58 Splitting and Joining Strings 60 Formatting Strings 62 Dateand Tine 64 Opening Files 66 Writing to Files 68 Exceptions 70 Python Graphics 72 Combining What You Know So Far 76 Calendar Module 78 OSModule 80 Random Module 82 Tkinter Module 84 Pygame Module 88 Using the Math Module 90 Create Your Own Modules aT US Seri cola 94 Python ile Manager 96 Number Guessing Game 98 Polygon circles 99 Random Number Generator 100 Random Password Generator 401 Keyboard Drawing Script 402. Pygame Text Examples 103 Google Search Script 104 Text to Binary Convertor 106 Basic GUI File Browser108 Mouse Controlled Turtle 130 Listing and Moving Files 109 Python Alarm Clock 132 Creating and Deleting Files 110 Vertically Scrolling Text 134 Create and Remove Directories 112. Python Digital Clock 136 Copying, Moving and Renaming Files 114 Pygame Music Player 138 Using the Man Pages 415 Python Image Slideshow Script 440 Fditing Text Files 116 Playing Musicwith the Winsound Module 142 _Gottingto Know Users 148 Text Adventure Script 144 Ownership and Permissions 420. Python Scrolling Ticker Script 146 Useful system and Disk Commands 121. Simple Python Calculator 148 _ Managing Programs anc Processes 122 _ Hangman Game Script 150 Input, Output and Pipes 152__Fun Thingsto Do in the Terminal 154 More Fun Things to Dain the Terminal 156 Linux Tips and Tricks 126 What is Linux? 158 AZof Linux Commands 128 Using the Filesystem 160 Glossary of Python Terms Rear ode a eniam Say Hello r to Pythonsay Hello to Python Cl There are many different programming languages available to learn and use. Some are extremely complex and incredibly powerful and some are very basicand used as minor utilities For the ‘operating system. Python sits somewhere in the middle, combining ease of use witha generous helping of power, which lets the user create all sorts, from minor utilities to excellent games and performance-heavy computational tasks. There's more to Python than simply being another programming language though. Ithasa vibrant and lively community behind it that shares knowledge, code and project ideas, as well as bug fixes For Future releases; it’s thanks to this, ‘community that the language has grown and thrived. Now, it’s your turn to take the plunge and learn how to program in Python. This book will help you get started with the latest version of Python. From there it. guides you through using some of the most common and interesting Functions and features of the language. Before long, you will be able to code your own helpful systems tools and text adventures and even control a character as they move around the screen. & why Python? 10 Equipment You will Need 12 Getting to Know Python 14 How to Set Up Python in Windows 16 Howto Set Up Python on aM 18 How to Set Up Python in Linux 20 Installing a Text EditorWhy Python? There are many different programming languages available for the modern computer, Pier ENE nciemat teen hasan tices ckiay alent etc are designed for scientific work, others For mobile platforms and such. So why choose Python out of all the rest? PYTHON POWER Ever since the earliest home computers were available, enthusiasts, users and professionals have toiled away until the wee hours, staving aver an overheating heap of circuitry to create something akin to magic. ‘These pionee's f programming carved their way intoa new Frantier,Farging smal routines thac enabled the lester to scrol axrousthasereen. may net sound verily exciting 26.2 generation ‘hats used to ultra high-lefinitian graphics anc qpen world, mult player online gaming, However, Fortysomnetning yeersago ie was blindingly brillant. Regardless of whether you use an Android device, iOS device, PC, ac, Linux,Smarc TV, games console, MP3 player, CPS device busin oa ear, set top box ora thousand ather connected and ‘smart nallances, behind tiem alls pregramming ‘Allthose aforementioned digital devices need instructions to tel, hein what Lodo, ane allow thern to be interacted with. These “instructions form the proarariming care of the device anc thet core Naturally nese bedroom coders helned Form che Foundations For ‘every piece of digtal technology we use today. Some went en to become chief developers for top software companies vehereas aathers pushed the avilable hardware to ts limits anc Founded the biion pound garning emavre that conc nually amazesus. ccanibe bul using variety of programming languaaes. “The languages in use today differ depending on the situation the slatform, the device's use and now the device wiliateract with Is, cxrtssettasotrecied asia oid srrayctrl::childbostFecus() i ifteursor == 0) efreshine cursor) ceTehsidtacteacest} i= es ere (RF Pie scram ceeinaars eet ieee cue gra Shaw Pedi s arty Staaf mcman ee Sete Btvowene || ES sarc Be eee po ee ieee eee Smescew [Biecs igs Siero Ses a OT re me ca ire nce aanait come gat tree — too oes ee oe Bearer Stace Secpome race ‘scaloroissbled, scolerPaper?: ee Hea ee sitet corcameily Sree Grass Lifeoe alg) ints Erato cy Gta fibotton = stop osteanecy li) af secanh 8 Ogcakr far(int Us = column cotcounet); j++) ( Strat [Steer i deta uum cases - ih > Stacie! bets [Secret Here grec” Bass Jo crm foot” Seeusers, Operating systems, such as Windows, macOS ‘and such are usually a combination of Cr+, C#, assembly and some Fox of visuabbased language, Games generally use C-r whilst web pages can use a piethors of avaliable lanauages such as HTML, Jv, Pythan ane s9.an, More general-purpose programming is used to create programs, ‘pps, software or wharever else you want to cal them, They're widely used across alt hareware platform's and sult virtually very conceivable application, Some operate fester than others and some ‘are easier to learn anc use than ochers. Python is one such generat purpose language. Python is what's known 25a Migh-Level Language, in thatit take to Ene hardware ane operating system using a variety of arrays, ‘aviables, objects, aithmeli, sut-outines, loops and countless ‘more interactions, Whilst i's ret as streamlined as 3 Low-Level Language. which can deal cirectly w tt memary addresses, call, slacksand reaisters, is benefiLis Ut W's universally access bie land easy to learn [File Tevake java oport javaclaagireflect.+; lass Tovoke { publievstatic void main( String [) args) ( try Glass e = Class-forname( args(0] ); iethod y= c-getllethod( args{1], new Class Thee 2 object ree = m.inyoke( null, null 9; SYStER.OUE.princing or class: + args(a] + wath no args\nkesules: "+ ret): } catch ¢ Gassnocroundexception e ) © 77 Class fornane(-) cane. rind the class } earch ¢ Nosuchiethodexception e2) £ 77 that wethod doesn't. exist 3 eavch € THlegataccessexception ¢3 ) [ if ve ont Pave pereiasion £0 favOkE that } catch ( trvocationtargetexception e¢ ) £ Wan excaprion ocurred white Invoking that feethod : Systen-out.print'In¢ Wesucthod threw an: " + 04 getTargetenception( “)"); + args(1] e Javais a powerful language that's used In web pages, set-top boxes, TWsand even cars. Python vss created over twenty six years ago and has evolved to ‘become anideal beainner's language for learing how to program a compiter. 's perfect For the hobby's, enthusiast, student, teacher {and those who simaly need ta create the'r ewn unique interaction Between either themselves ora plece of external nardware and te computer tse Pythons reece download, installand use ends avallaoe for Linux, vwlindows, macOS, b4S DOS, O5/2, BeOS, IBM isevias machines, and RISC 08% has been vated one ofthe top Five programming anguages in the ward andis continually evoling ahead of the hardware and internet development curve Soto answer the cuestion: why aythor? simaly put its ree, easy to: lear, exceptionally powerful universally acceated, effects anda Supetb learning and educational toe BASIC was once the starter Language that early bit home computerusers learned. iy eset ree forme Python is amore madern take on BASIC, it's easy to learn and makes or an ideal beginner's programming language. —> whvinon CEz= Say Hello to Python Equipment You Will Need You can learn Python with very little hardware or initial financial investment. You fololntaun-t-re ea arene 0) goo uit Cee Ree MUTE nC eae eel Rey iets) ele WHAT WE'RE USING ‘Thankfully, Python is a multi-platform programming language available For Windows, macOS, Linux, Raspberry Pi and more. IF you have one of those systems, then you can easily start using Python, COMPUTER Obviausly you're going to need a computer in order to learn howta program in Python and to test your code, You can use Windows (from xP onward} oncithera 32, 0 64-bit processor, an Apale Mac or Linux instaled PC. __| AN IDE An DE (integrated Developer Environment) inused to enter and execute Pychon Code. It enables yauta inspect your proaram code and the values within the code, as wel.as offering advanced features. There are many efferent IDEs available, se Fing he ane that works For yeu and gives the best resuls, PYTHON SOFTWARE acOS and inux already come with Python prelastalled as part of the operating system, as does the Raspberry i. Hawever, you eed to ensure that youre running the latest version of Python, Windows users need to downlad and nstall Python, ‘ohich we'll cover shorty, TEXT EDITOR \whist a text ecitor san iceal envitonment wo enter code into ts nat an absolute necessity. You can enter anc execute code directly fram Ue IDLE buta text eater, sich 25 Sublime Text or Noteoades, offers more advanced Featuresand colourcoding \when entering code INTERNET ACCESS Python isan ever evolving environment and as euch nev versions often introduce new concepts a! change evis\ing cornmands and wade sLuchute ta makeika move cfficent language, Having sccessto the Interecwill keep you un-to-dete, help you ‘outiwhen you ger stuck and alve access to Pythan’s immense number ot modules, TIME AND PATIENCE Despite what other haus. Lesming mayleacyou wo believe, you wor't become a pragrammmer sein Python takes Eime end patience, You ma ‘ctv ke water, Understand you're leaming aoa ssameth ng enurely new, and youll get there( Equipment You will Need Cl THE RASPBERRY PI ‘Why use a Raspberry Pi? The Raspberry Pisa tiny computer that's very cheap to purchase but offers the user a fantastic learning platform. it's main operating system, Raspbian, comes preinsta led with the latest Python along with many Modules and extras. Ula ca The Raspberry Pi isthe latest version, incorporating amore powerful CPU, more memory, WiFi and Bluetooth suapart. 1 can pickup a Pifor around £32 or as a part af kit Fo depensing on the kityou'e interested The FUZEisa leering environment bull onthe latest model the Raspberry Pi, You can gurchase the warkstetions that with an electronics kt and-even a rebot arm For you 19 bulld ané program. You can fird more information on the FUZE at wausefure.cn BOOKS We have several great Raspberry Pi titles avarlable vis www. ‘bdmpublications.com, Gur Pi books cover how to buy you! first Raspberry i it up and use i thereare some aves step by The Respberry Ps main operating system isa Deblen-besed Linux distribution with everychina you need in simple to use package. Us streamlined For the Piand is an ideal platform For hareware and software projects, Python: programming ang even as2 desktop computer guidesta get he most Fram az= Say Hello to Python Getting to Know Python Python is the greatest computer programming language ever created. It enables Vo eoM ETA Ea ed ear Medel ime Reel el e-LeERCINe Les Marea Cc) Ion taT ess: Te WHAT IS PROGRAMMING? Ithelps to understand what a programming language is before yau try to learn one, and Python is no different. Let’stake a look at how Python came about and how it relates to other languages. eT PROGRAMMING RECIPES tnt Propane sre Mes reohes (Sieg ers Put 180 grant of self-raizing flour in a bowl. programming anguage ccopeto oakescake could go ike th ps te ere ot ae et isallst of instructions that gM 180 niLLELitees oF nil. acomputerfollows These | Put 100 qrams ofselFracng flourin a bow instuctonscanbess simple} Aca 100qams of utter tothe Dont 2s deplaing your name Ack 100 miles oF rik slaving ors le or Bake for alfa ou Sscompexss bulcg 2 wielavtaavortdrtion f° viporencn isos conceived inthe late 19805 CODE by Guide van Rossum Just like avecipe, a program consists of instructior a certrumvishonde 8 inorder program tap dessibes cake mighty Iformaten CW nthe # Netherandsasa successor to F tease ianguge Guido van Rossum, the father of Python. oH eppendC [flour butter ,miLk]) ake, cook(bONl) PROGRAM COMMANDS tke bowl apnend and cake, caok(aow) book, The main thing to know is at the commends do, W's easy to You might not understand some ofthe Python commands, The Firs isa lst, the second an object; well look at both nas its easy Lov ead commands in Pylon, Once you lest vl Figure out how 2 prooram works,HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES Computer languages are easyto read are known as hiah-ewel Thisis because they Fiyhigh above the hardware falso referred tn as “the meta"), Lanquaces thet“ closeto the metal” Ike Assembly commands ead bit reknown a5 “loweevel’. Low-level languages licethicmsg db ,@%a Len equ $ = mse PYTHON 3 VS PYTHON 2 “ Gatting to Know Python (ee ZEN OF PYTHON thon lets you access all the pawer ota computerina language hat humans can uncerstanc). Behind! ll thisisan ethosealled "The Zen of Pychon,” This sa collection of 20 softwere arinciples that fluences the design ofthe language. Srinciples include “Beautiful s better th han complex aly’ ane "Single s Deer Cau ei aan ecu sens Brora cues Downinad fr Windows eariua? Goya aetna ey PYTHON 2.x ereeteet and Co eas eeu Caran! ar ec ec unary Features are ve peasant cence 3.x WINS Jie cunts ernie terre ee Cae) has meant that eer fips agate ras time te mez= Say Hello to Python ) How to Set Up Python in Windows Aneto eae eke re Mee] Aen M Rl EU enn LO MUTI SOLD [yo aer-ferg>y tel Ma Cet ieee =e a arene (Ae) ea Me A COLE EL platform of choice for building their code, it’s still an ideal starting point for beginners. INSTALLING PYTHON 3.X Microsoft Windows doesn’t come with Python preinstalled as standard, so you're going to have to install it yourself manually, Thankfully, it's an easy process to follow. Sixty opnignebbionetonananton, REESE) cocingthe canara tn lon yuo Susy org/cow nloads/. Look For the button detailing eu specify certain parameters, and whilst you may the downloadilinktor Pychon 3. The latest version atthe ime of stay with the deFauits t's 2 qood habit to acopt as sometimes (not ‘weiting is 3.7.0 butas Pythan isfrequently updated thismay bea sth Python, zhankfuily) installers can include unwanted accitional different version for you. Features. Om the fst ser een avalable, ensure ali boxes are Uicked ‘and clic the Next bution, oa ete a Optional Features terete amen eae ae FEES Click the download button forversion 3.x and ERTeeERD The rest page of optionsinclude some interesting save the file teyaur Downloads Folder When the sccitionsso Python. Ensure the Associete ie with Piles daviloaced, double click the executable and the Python ychon, Create Shortcuts, Add Python to Environment varlaies, installation wizare will launch, From here you have bo choices Precompile Standard Urery and install for \l Users options are Install Now end Customise Installation, We recommend onting for Cieked, These make using Python later much easier. Click Inscall when the Customise Installation in. you're ready te continue. J Install Python 3.7.0 (32-bit) Advanced Options Sata mn at i ne neater at i ae cs * Eincwos atari pyth puthe tars windows Famnnnsronae eam windows [Ni (ena( How to Set Up Python in Windows Cl ED Cliceing on the IDLE (Python 3.7 32-bit) tink launch the Python Snell, where you can begin {your Python programiming journey: Don't wary iFyout rewer as lang asil’s Python 3.x aur cade works inside lersianis a putin , windows Before you clre tena wizard window iryou Sug however, i's best to click on the link next to th gues and this time type: CMD, you'll be presented with the shield detated Disable Path Legit. hs alo thon Cmmand Prompt link. Chee it to get to the Windows comuand line acter limitation, enabling yout __erviron-nent. 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In fact a AeololM MINER TNA] Clemo molMe ole r | Ce M ola CMa ie} [eprVCcse I es(o INSTALLING PYTHON Apple's operating system comes with Python installed, so you don't need to install it separately. However, Apple doesn't update Python very often and you're probably sunning an older version. So it makes sense to check and update first. (pena ew Terminal indy cling ca» Cckon telat. veston of rythan 3, nou suze Utilities, then double-click the Terminal icon. Now Sue) pase this is the download nutton for Python 3.6.2, Python =-version,Youstoucsee Syenon 2S rane THe wl auton ersionar thon and ‘even lates, Aaple has updates the OS and Pytnon iastallation. depending an how you've cet your Mac configured, i automaticaly sin. stars the installation wizard, Either way, t's best to check forthe latest: Bi wanna cra! 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DECC Rea aT oN aaa“The nest section details the Software Agreement, and wills n to mast Folks, i's probably worth ares the Continue button ance agai particularly interesting ASTOR AND LCE Final youre be aesentedth te aout oF BUSS space Python will take up on your system and ary ital baton, whieh you amet tr te all tlaton cttytnon on fo your Mise You mej nese to enter our passion ro uuthenvcatethe ntlaton proce Tre inmalason shoals rake roolong ewer susie Mac Mini we used in this section is a little slow. rte htoder Moe racinesand fel took round ty ‘seconds For the Installation Successful prompt to be displayed, hen you're ready, clek an How to Set Up Python on a Mac Cll “There'snothing much sel to doin the Python UES sstallation wizard so you can click the Close Sutton. fyounow drop backintes Terma session an reenter the command: yon =-¥erstod, you cansee the new veins listed, Taenter the command line version af Python, you need python3, Toext, is exitO. ene Piensa Pytnon 3.6.8 3.6. 0:41PM, Dee 22 PNG, 37-293) 1 tags ine, bala S64) (st 3) ‘of Toute (85.9) inne soy be oe FRPIETB Older Mecversions may have trouble with the wer versions of Python, in which case you wil need to revert to a previous Python 32: ble as (ong as yourre using Python 3, the code inthis book will wark For you. [pyenon 3.1.2 (2312 ‘9360K, Mar 24 7010, 01:33:18) [écc 4.021" (apple Inc. build 5493)) on’ darwin Type Topyrisht', 'credite" or “Licesse()* for mo 3]Say Hello to Python How to Set Up Python in Linux PYTHON PENGUIN Linux is such a versatile operating system that i's often difficult to nall down just one way of doing something. Different distributions go about installing software in different ways, so we will stick to Linux Mint 18.1 for this particular tutorial, Fist you needa acertin which vert of Pon Sone Una dite arate suse is currently installed in your Linux systerry, #5 eueee) the installation of Python to the latest weve goingsneising ik Wine vo Fortyezestion, wneneverthe system supcatedTashec, ero ssyerem unde Aevath macOs, dep toa ss colvaths and uparace with: aS sudo apt-get update 8% sudo apt-get upgrade fie Ett aw Seach Tere ei Enter your password and let the system da any upeates. savannas nine edt aw Seah Seba tp BED Necerte:pythoni>> print(“Hello everyone!") Hello everyone! >>> | TED vou rey h then 1 the! elements of Python cade, They are: Bleck Dats and Variables Green Stings Purple Functions Lig Orange Cormmends Blue —User Functions Red—Comments ie Red Error Messages IDLE Colour Coding Geen | Stee | ctette wore | Purp | Funct | ton) peiaec | Despe | eommswe | oe ae sive — | Geert Bakes | conrene | Hosted [Ere mestsoes sudan Starting Python for the First Time Cl “The Python IDLE s# configurable environment. F you den'tlike the waythe colours are represented, em YOU can always change therm via Ontions » Configure IDLE ané licking on the Highl'ghting tab. 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You're not born knowing these words, so you need to learn them. youve dled >ycon IDLE reopen bin REED 1 ensue ersecte nantes one ue) whichever operating system version you prefer. In ES utputis the 2+? yau asked to be printed to the: he Snel erterthe Fania lowing ceen The suoston wars are detringumnaesteirg outpted print'HeLlo") IneILEStl:to pint theta 21 2yeuncestoromowe printc242) PETTY 2st 2: predicted, the word Hello angearsin the Shell astlve text indicating autput from astring, les fairy straightforward and doesn't require too much excianstion, Now ty now, enker printc"2i2") oz You can continueas such, printing 2+2,16442343 ‘and soon tothe Shel, An easier vay s tose = is something we will coverinmore depth ater. Forwhat you heve done here is assign the letters a and b two values: 2and 2. These are naw variaates, which can be called upon by Pythan te outaut sed, subtract. divide «and so on for eslong as their numbersstay the seme. Ty this printca) printcb) Sa veg Spent ween Hop re outaut ofthe las sten dsplays the current values of botha and bindivcualy 2s youve asked tine to be printed separately. F you want to acd them up, you can use the Following; printcare) This code simaly takes the values of and b, adds them together ‘and outputs the result. If: =, SL and the Print functian, For example, you could _iga wa lables For someone's name ‘You can play around with ciferent kinds of weriables ane="David” printname) PEED Nowlet’s edd a surname: surnome="Haynara” printCsurname) ‘You now have two variables containin {and you can print them inceaendentl. ewe were to apply the same routine s before, using the + symbol, the name wouldn't appea cconrectiyin the output inthe Shell Ty printChomersusnane) “You need 2 space between the two, defining themas two separate valves and not something you mathematicaly play around wich. Ih Python 3 youcan separa witha space usiag a com printcname, surname) Alternatively, you printcname" “+surnane) The use ofthe carime is much neater, as you can see. Congratulations, you've just Laken your Fist stepsintothe wide warld oF Python madd the space yourself ono Ciz= Getting Started with Python) Saving and Executing Your Code While working in the IDLE Shell is perfectly fine for small code snippets, it’s not designed For entering longer program listings. In this section you're going to be introduced to the IDLE Editor, where you will be working from now on. EDITING CODE ‘You will eventuslly reach a point where you have to move on From inputting single Lines of code into the Shell. instead, the IDLE Editor will allow you to save and execute your Python code. ath sn BRT E RD ou cn see that the same col ngisinplace click on File 1 inthe IDLE Editor as isin Lhe Shell ensbling you tsa ‘ 0 better understane what's qoingon with your code, However, to 2 the code you ned to Fest save Press FS and you get a Save...Check box open. Bree) Te OLE Ecitoris, forall intents and purposes, a STEP 4 Ok buttonin the Save box anc'sele sin editor with Pytnon Features, colour sdescnation where you'l save all your Python code, codingan " Yau enter The destination ean be a dedicated fold Python oF you canfust dump it wherever youlike. Remember to keep a tiey dive out in the FutureETEREDD ferename for sour code, rit hel ar ‘exemple, anc click om the Save button. Once Python code is caved i's exeeuted ane the outpur willbe detailed in Lhe IDLE Shell In tis case, the words 'Hello everyone! Piste how the vast joy of your Python code uaa will be conducted. 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Just ensure that the cade is wi tien for Python 3, Now create nerf, Closethe ctor ang open cua Me anew instance (File » New File from the Shell. ner the fe Python” brig ‘c"c001!” printCa, by © lowing and save tas hello py “You wil use this code in the next tutoria 2Getting Started with Python) Executing Code From the Command Line COMMAND THE CODE Using the code we created in the previous tutorial, the one we named hello.py, let's see how you can run code that was made inthe GUlat the command ine level. Bap ist 34 before,© Executing Code fram the Command Line Now enter: exit() ts leave the command ln sessionand return you back to the command prompt. Enter the folcer where you saved the code Fram the previous tutcrial and st the avalable Mes within should see the hella py quice obvious, Whilst it ne diferencas between the ‘nt com mand over Python 2, the result ne expected. Using Sublime for the moment, open the nelopy file areata ten Sie sosmenu fo ti’ uE going ta run, enter the fallowing inte the mus Pi, you're gaing Lo Lemporarily leave th omer amet ad seSbline a an exe tha youdont neces python3 hello.py thhehells py le open, alter ito The will execute the code we created, which tore nd you temeenenistennentemaneeiiit print(*Hello,", name) eerenoul? 7 print(a, b, <) ERT Neterely: since tisis code, using the PRUTSET BD. Save the helo.pyFleand crop back ta the sglaxand layout thats unique Le Pytion 3, only nmang line, Now execute the newly saved wwarks when you use the python3 command, Fyou the, trythessme code with with Python 2 by enterna: python hello.py python3 hello.py “The rescle willbe the original Python is cool statement, togethe ‘sith the adced input command asking you For your name, displaying it inthe cammand windoz= Getting Started with Python ) Numbers and Expressions We've seen some basic mathematical expressions with Python, simple addition and the like, Let’s expand on that now and see just how powerful Python is as a calculator. You TE tates ee gs cle a IT'S ALL MATHS, MAN You can get some really impressive results with the mathematical powers of Python; as with most, if not all, programming languages, maths isthe driving force behind the code. openotie a vase oars snr ERE ou ee aaa opto eae you can Use either the Shell or the Fciitor. For the SEES divide, multinty, brackets and so on. Practise with a Sheteloioleicetae i oinerad tte muchireenpls muscle, which we believe isa smal land located at the back ef the brain (or nat 25293 e244) FE sloth long FR codon sno = Xesol mbes nevaentec eed fats 2a crtontng pone etonce Hever Fyourec epee seecclad opposed to a decimal answer, then you can use a double slash: 99867344°27344484221 ~ oes eee - And soon, a ba toes oeYou can also use an operation to see the remaincer leftover from division, Fer example: 10/3 Will splay 3 333333333, whichis oF course 3.3-recurring, F now enter: eK, This will splay 1, which isthe remainder let aver trom eivicing 10 Next upwehove the power erator sug ‘expanentiation if you want to be technical. To work vero somthing you can ne adouble mu iaton Symbol or counestaonthe eee torso Essentially e's 2x2x2 but we're sure-you already know the basics indmaths operators, This s how you would werkt ou jorean tonquestwisters, For frta numberta bina’y, use: Crmenioneson CE “This will be displayed 25 ‘9611, converting the Integer nto binary and aeding the prefix 0 to the Fyou want to remove the Ob prefix then you can use: format(3, “b*) ‘on “The Formac command converts value, the num malted representation as controlled e'b oat r3,t0a he Faimat speciation, ‘A Boolean Expression sa losical statement that will rither be vue or False, We can use these to cen cosee fis equal lata and tex na NewFile: less than or greater than. Try this, a=6 b-7 printct, print(2, print(3, printc4, print¢s, printce, printc?, printcs, print(9, not (a = 7 and b rot a = 7 and b = 6) txecitethe coe rom Step 9, andyou censeea cused series of True or False statements, depending on the result ofthe buo defining values: 8 and 7. I's an extension of shat you've laoked at, and an important part of programming,z= Getting Started with Python Using Comments When writing your code, the Flow, what each variable does, how the overall program will operate and so on isall inside your head. Another programmer could follow the code line by line but over time, it can become difficult to read, #COMMENTS! Programmers use a method of keeping their code readable by commenting on certain sections. IF a variable i Programmer comments on what it’s supposed to do, for example. It's just good practise, used, the PUTER ED St by creating anew instance of the DLE EdLor BRIBE) Resave Le code and execute ik You can see Liat tne (File = New Fie) and creace asimple variable and purputin the IDLE Shell is still the same as befor command despice the extralines being added. Smply put, the hash symbol) ene a line of text the programmer ean lngertto infer chern, and others, of whats going an without the user being aware print("The value of A is,", a) ‘sive the fleand execute the code, a GED) Pecvina the codewill eturvthe lne:Thevalue o's ERIM e's assume thatthe vasabie A that we've created i510 nto the IDLE Shellwindow, which iswhat we is the numberof lvesin a game. Everytime the ‘expected. Now, a¢d some of the typesot commentsyou'd normally alayer flue is decreased by 1. The programmer could seewithia cove nserta routine along the lines of: # Set the start value of A to 10 o-a-1 o=10 print¢“You’ve just lost a Tife!”) # Print the current value of A printc*You now hove”, a, “Lives left!") print("The value of A is,", a) ‘Eh Sam Bi pre enn be page oe nert kw tkhist we knew that che variable Ais ves, and that the player has ust last one, 2 casual viewer or someone checking the cade may nat know. imagine for a moment tat the code istaenty thousand tines long, insleed of just our seven, Youcan see haw handy comments are Essentially, the new code together with comments ould lack ike: # Set the start value of A to 10 o=-10 # Print the current value af & printC'The value of A is,”, a) # Player lost a Uife! o=0-1 # Inform player, and display current value of A Clives> printCYou've just losta Life!”) printC'You now have”, a, “Lives Left!" You can use commentsin citferene ways. For fxamale, Bloc Commenisare a lage s tex tat details what's going on inthe code, such as telling the code reacer what wariaaies you're planning om using: w# This is the best game ever, and has been developed by a crack squad of Python experts # who haven’ slept or washed In weeks being very smelly, the code at Least # works really well Despite Cvirecomens CE FID line comments are comments that follow avection ‘of code. Take our examples From above, inscead of nsertina the coc on 2 separate in, we could use: o-10 # Set the start value of Ato 10 print(“The value of A is,”, a) # Print the current value of & o-a-1 # Player lost a Life! printc“You’ve just lost a life!*) printC“You now have”, a, “Lives left!”) # Inform player, and display current value of A (Lives) # print(“The value of A is,", a) 7 Set the start value of m0 | Forint che current value of A f prine("the value of A 1s § Player loses 1itet F intern player. and display current value of A (Lives) peine("vau've Just lest a, 1ise!") Brint(-You now have”, a. “lives leftt comments Place them before and after the areas you want to commenter them to work ‘This is the best gane ever, and has been developed by @ crack squad oF Python experts ho haven" slept or washed in weeks. Despite being very smelly, the code at Least works really well. Yau also use three single quotes to comment out aBiod mule ne section atz=) Getting Started with Python Working with Variables ARO e NC Me MU Iiro| MOU Ma uTosa Rare (E-llerLeN aoe eee INT Pt acu ae eer cu nite eae nett ety Nate Nees VARIOUS VARIABLES You'll be working with the Python 3 IDLE Shell inthis tutorial. IF you haven't already, open Python 3 or close down the previous IDLE Shelt to clear up any old code. PER losonepregamming languages you'e required — RII vou've sean previously hat variables can be to use adolarsiqntodenar=astring, which 2 ronestenated using the pls symbol between the vvaniablemace up of multole characters, suchas aname of person. arable names. nour exemple we canuse:print Chane + “ In Pythan this sn’ necessary: For example, inthe Shell ente "4 title). Themidcle part between tha quotations allows usto ane="David Hayward” for use yur awn name, uniessyou'te add acolon ard apace, variables are connected! without spaces, ‘also called David Hayward) owe needa add them manually, fH oh Ges Gr eo He ae Se PRD vou can check the Lype of variable in use by oo: issuing the type 0 command, placing the narne oF combine varables the variable inside the braexets, In aur example, this would 2e: within anothervansble, For ‘type: Chame). Add a now string varlaie: t8tLe="Descended bio bath name Fron Vikings” charactersname +: + title Then output the content of the ne viable a print (character) Numbers arestored as different ‘variables age=44 Type Cage) Which, as we know, are integers. BED oct Dog Htee series -Wolurne 37However, you can't combine both strings ant integer type variables in the same command, 25408 ‘would 3 set of similar variables. You need to eltherzurn cneinta the rer OF vce versa, When you da Ly to combine both, yauget en ‘error messaae: print Chane + age) nists a process known as TypeCating, The Python code print character + old.") is “+ str(age) +“ years print Ccharacter, “is, age, “years old.” Notice again that in thelast example, you dan'-reed the spaces bbetureen the words in quotes as the commas teat each argument to print separately 35> print Crane = 392) ‘Traceback (most recent call Jas) File "cpyshelleva>", Lane 1. in enodule> print (a Typettror: Can" nt" object to str implicitly 335" print (character = ie" + str(age) ©" years old") David aynsrd: Descended from Vikings tz 24 years old 53> print Ceharaeeer, "in", age. "sare ld.) David! Hayward: Descended fron Vikings 1s 84 years old) 3 ESTED ercther example of Typecestingiswhen you ssk for input From the user, such as a name, for exarnele, en ‘age= input (“How old’ are you? *) ‘lista stored from the aut commandis stored asa sting variable ett Shel bon sonore wows lp pe “eapytsgneSerestts" or “Licene()* for more sntoration. PoE age na tig char eat SF P33 pete} Set ( Working with Variables (eo FID This presents abit of problem when youwant to work with 2 number that's been Inputtec bythe user, a¢29e-+ !O.won't workdue to belnga string vanable ane an meger instead, you need to enter ‘intCage) +10 “This wk Typeca worked wit we age sting inte an oteger that car be The use of Typecast tate important hen cus dealing with floating point arithmetic; remember: nuinbers that have a decimal int in tiem. For exarnple, enter shirt=19,99 ki w enter type(shirt) and youll see that Python has allecated re number 85a Float’, because the value contains a decimal point. fle Eat Shel Debug Gotare now lp Privan 3a? Caefoule, Gee Fete TST Ge 28.9) on irae ; eelasethoat"> the rever \inen combining integers anc Haaes Python usually conwerts tieintogerto afloat. but should ‘ever be appliedit’s worth remembering that Python doesnt return the exact valve. When converting afloat ton coger, Python wil always round dawn to the nearest inceger, calles truncating; in our ease instead of 19.99 it becomes 19. {EAS Soo ne aaa ae ee aT Tyee fama. “credits” oF License)” for more information, ars e aZZ: » Getting Started with Python User Input We've seen some basic user interaction with the code From a few of the examples earlier, so now would be a good time to Focus solely on how you would get information ue te eek ocala USER FRIENDLY The type of input you want from the user will depend greatly on the type of program you're coding, For example, a game may ask For a character's name, whereas a database can ask for personal details IF it ook already, open te Python 3 IDLE Shel BED Now that we have the user's name sored ina LED oj careaNeweleincnerchior Lets bean th — Maa cocpte of nisleswe con callthem up whenever something realy simple, enter: ‘we want: print¢“HeLlo”) print(‘Welcone”, firstname, surname, “. T hope firstnane=input (What is your first none? you're well today.) printc"Thanks.”) Surnane=inputC*And what is your surname? “) FETED Sec and execute the cove, and asyaualieadyno RAAB ren the codeandyou can seea sight issue, the ‘Gout suspected, nthe 1DLE Sheil the program il Fullstop after the sumame Follows blank space, {skforyourfirst name, storingit asthevariable firstname, followed To eliminate that we can adda pus sign instead of the comma in bby yaur surname; alee stored in its own variable urna che code: printC“Welcone™, firstname, surnames. I hope cE ae you're well today.") te SnoCosmet C PPI vou don'taheayshavetoinclide quoted textwithin EMAMMM what you've createcihereis«coneltion, which we theinput command. For example, you can ask the vill cover soon, In short, we'fe using the input Fram user their name, and haverthe input n te ine below "e user and measuring Itagainsta condition. So, Fhe user enters print(tHeLlo» what's’ your’ name?" Davia thei name, the quar nil allows them Lo pass uahindered up - mhomerpi/Docume He Edt Faymat pun gptens windows Help print Helle, what's your name?) ames Seput() BERD the codetromme previousstepisatten regarded — RUPP suse syoulearred sreviously, anyinoutroma as being alle neater than having a lengthy user automatically 2 sting, se you need to appiya ‘amount of text in the input commanc, ut it's nk aula thal’sset in TypeCast in order toturn itinto something else, This creates same stone, 50 60 as you lke in these situstions, Expanding on eeresting additions tothe input command. Far exemole aes # Code to calculate rate and distance printC“HaLt! Who goes there?” printC“Input arate ond a distance”) one=inputC rate = floatCinputC*Rate: “) ese raat Gat Sone ode Hae [coat Geen: hier: ErTeGAD (252 goodstarttoa text adverturegame.sernans? EEE To finalise th Now you carsexpand on itand use the raw input distence = fleatCinput(*vistence:’ 9), From the userto flesh out the game alittle: Loe ee ‘save and execute tre code ane enter some umbers. Ushg the iat{iput element, we've told Python that anything entered isa loating point number ather thana string rate ane dlstance code, we can add: print (*Welcone, good sin. You may pass.") else: printC"T know you not. Prepare for battle!)z= Getting Started with Python Creating Functions Now that you've mastered the use of variables and user input, the next step is to tackle Functions. You've already used a few Functions, such as the print command but Python enables you to define your own Functions, FUNKY FUNCTIONS ‘A function is a command that you enter into Python to do something. It's alittle piece of self-contained code that takes data, ‘works on it and then returns the result. Ihsnobjust data shat ¢ functign watks on, They can ee) doll manner of useful things in Python, such as. Sort dats, change items from one Formac ca another and checkthe length or typeof items, Basicaly, function isashart word thats «by arackets, Far example, fen(),list() or type). PED) 6 urcicn takes data, usually avariable itdepencing on wihat tre function is to do and retuns the end value. The data being worked on goes, inside the nary letiors he word antisestablishmentarianism, then you! ‘LenC“antidisestablishnentarianism™) and the number 28 would return, vrkson Jackets, so you wanted to know how “You can pas variables Unvough Functions in much thesame manner Lets assume you wantthe ‘umber of letters in a person's surname, you could use the Following code [ete he Lex editor artis example: rnane=input ("Enter your surname: *) count=1en nan) print (“Your surname has, count, “letters in +7) ress F and save the cade to execute Python has tens of Functions builtiatol, far too ‘manyyco get into nthe limites saace avalable here However, to view'the ist oF builtin Functions avalableto Python 3 navigale to wwn.docs psthan.org/3/lbranyfunetonshtml These redefined Functions, but since users have 1e only anes avaliable,( Creating Functions Cl EPID Pcsivional functions can be added ra Pychor: PRP ses function from mexule enter the name of through madules. Python has avast ra the module followed by a full swap, en the nar ‘modules avalabe that can cover sumeraus programing cut ‘ofthe function. Far instance, using che math module since you've They add functions ane can be imported as and when recuired ust imported into Python, you can wlilse the square root Function, ‘example, touse advanced Mathematics Functions encer: Todoso, entes import: math math.sqrt(16) (Once entered, you haveaccessto all the Matin madulefunctions, You cen see thet the code is aresented 5 module functionicata} ie eS Gi eh FORGING FUNCTIONS ‘There are many different Functions you can import created by other Python programmers and you will undoubtedly come _across some excellent examples in the Future; you can also create your own with the def command, ED. reeset) emarcasaiis [from Hello import Hel lof tel loC“David”)} ee LULU AE UL meee I 2 < now expand the function to accept > Pt ee rae hello to David. Chretien ee eee eee aca, 0) :)z= Getting Started with Python Conditions and Loops Conditions and loops are what make a program interesting; they can be simple or rather Conc ae ates ent cnee ee RMR rate net icmetayiteh ceased they could be the number of lives left in a game or just displaying a countdown. TRUE CONDITIONS. Keeping condi iF something is TRUE, then doing something else if itisn’t. Lats create anew Pon progam that il ask ee the User to input e word, then check it ta seeif it’s ‘sfourletter word or nat. Start with File> New File, are begin with the input variable word-input(“Please enter a Four-Letter word: *) Now Function and pass the word: tal numaer of letersthe user has we can ceatea news variable, then use the ler able thrauah itto stentered! Grd input (“Please enter @ four-letter word: *) word_length=Lentword) 's simple to begin with makes learning to program a more enjoyable experience. Let's start then by checking SUES word length variable is equal te Fox Friendly conformation i itapples to the rule Now you can use an i statemente checkif the and print a ordi nput(“PLease enter a four-letter word: word_Length=Len(word) if word Length = 4: print (word, “is @ four-Letter word. Well done.” “The double equal sign (==] means check something's equal ta something else FEF) The colcnal the end of Ftels Python thal ith statement fsciue do everything after the calon at'sindented, Next, move the cursor back to che beginning of che Eda Word=input(“PLease enter a four-letter word: “D word Length=lenCword) if word length = 4: print (nord, “is @ four-letter word, Welt done.” else: print Cword, “is not a four-letter word.) ot met sw rte nny: mmm CE PI Press £5 and save the code to exerute it. Enter FRPP Now expand the cade to nchide anstherconsitions. ‘fourletter word inthe Shell Degin with, you Eventually, (tcould become quite cormptex, we should have the returned messace thatitsche wordisfourletters. added cancition for three-letter words: Now press FS agen and rerun the progiam but ths time enter 3 Fveletter wore, The Shell wil display that t's not aFourietter word. Word-tnput(*Please enter a four-letter word: “) word_Length=Lentvord) if word.length = 4: print Gword, “is @ four-letter word. Well done.) elif nordtength print Gord, “is a three-letter word. Try again.") else: print Cword, “is not @ four-letter word.) LOOPS ‘Aoop looks quite similar toa condition but they are somewhat different in their operation. A toap will run through the same block oF code a number of times, usually with the support of a condition. TEED cc cccevnecrnevnieasenert cei EPID sn rr nies nam a STEP 1 Ce ec CMa STEP 3 Pere ge a eros cee ees pce reareee at tral = re x <1 ie Est Frat Bat ane roe tp Soe a coer eee eter rr eet for x in range (1. 18):) print Oo) eee eee eee eneGetting Started with Python) Python Modules MASTERING MODULES ‘Think of modules as an extension that’s imported into your Python code to enhance and extend its capabil countless modules available and as we've seen, you can even make your own, There are ETE ERED 28) 2ugh good, the Buin Functions within Python ne (asus an ger in be !DLE Shall as Une are mites. The ise oF mociules, however, allows us ygame module sn'trecogn sel ov insted in programs. As you areawere, madules Python, To installa madule we can use Pi (Ip installs P imgor ted, sue a mgr ath jase den Uhe IDLE Shell and drop ite a cevmanel “Terminal session, At an elevated adrnin command prompt, enter pip install pygane Some modules, espacally onthe Raspberry Pi The PlP installation requires an eleva status are include by éefaut, the mach mocule being ¢ sue tins sanents at efferent ocetions, ple, Sadly other mi avaiable ‘winows users can seerch For CMD wa te Start butzon and ight pigame module, which contains click the result then dle Run as Adminstrator Liowx and Mac users example on non Pi pl ‘many Functians to help ereste games, Tx-import pygame, can use the Sudo command, with sudo pin install packsFRI close the command prompt or Terminal and tunch the !DLE Shell when you now enter ‘import pygane, the module willbe imsartadinto tre code without any protlems, You! ind that mast cade downloaded ar copied rom the Internet wi contain 2 module, mainstream o urique, these are usually the source: then boing issn. ‘errors in execution dueto aacheve acertah result withiayaur own code, a we've previously expetimented with. For example: ‘inpomt: wander ules contain che Brings n the cade from the random num can thes use this module to create sore For i ih range(10) : print(random.randint(1, 25)) nalike BR riscade, when saved and ected, ll depay en Suey random numbers fram 1 ta 25. You can play around pnt iede eae nei es kel oon eae Tange, For exerpe import randon for i in range(25): printCrandom.randintct, 100) et generator module. You (Python Modules ‘Multiple modules can be imparted within your eo Toextend ourexample, use import: random ‘import math for I in rangecs): print (random randint(L, 25)) print¢nath.pi) 36 result i asering oF dom numbers faliowed by the value of Pia pulled from the math module sig the print(math,p) function. You can also pullin cei Functionstroma madule by using the from and import commands, ‘from random import randint for 4 in range(s): printGrandinst2, 259) Trishelps create a mx pen streamlined approach to ‘arrmning. You can also use import module ‘which wil impart eversthing defined within the named module, However, i’s often regarded 25 4 waste of resources but it works onezneless. Finally, madules canbe imports as aliases import math asm printcm.pi) ‘OF course, adeing comments helos te tell others whats acing onz=) Getting Started with Python Python Errors ET xelorer erence ew ep Ma LMUelUM Oia Reon erage Rem AR ol mere MN ky Python declares it’s not able to continue due to something being missed out, wrong or simply unknown. Being able to identify these errors makes for a good programmer. DEBUGGING Errors in code are called bugs and are perfectly normal. They can often be ea ed with alittle patience. The important thing isto keep looking, experimenting and testing. Eventually your code will be bug Free. STEP 1 Ce eee EATER [henkfuly Python is helprul when it comes to haw good che programming language's. Python is lisplaying error messages. when youreceive an certainly easier than most languages but even ti prane to some error, in. ree text tom the IDLE Shell ic wilidetine che error self ‘annoying bugs. The most cornman are bypes by the user and viilst__ along withthe line number where the errar has e errors, especialy when you have something lke Remember that For every" there must be an equal number of sot bes cen 2 coarcter in reference ey) Sore sch ppt “ nereare thousands of online Pychon resoure ‘on how best to achieve something, whist 99 per cent ofits goo cade, dor't always be lured into copying and part is that you havertt learnt any Indents Python programming SLT! that alot of beginners fall faul of, Recall the From the Consiians and Loops section, where the colon means ‘everything Hadented following the statements isco be erecutec as lang as t's ue? Missing the indent, arhaving toe much of indent, wllecomeback wth an rior, © crett menses C= in arograrnening ode snippets andlengthy discussions acress for dom coce Inte your editor. Mare often than nat, k won't woreand the worst Cnoenos CE “Acvexcellent way to cheek your code stepbysstep Ba] ta use Python Tutors Visualise web page, found vu puthonbutorcomMisualize nimlémode=edit Simo naste yaur cade ito the editor ane cick the Viele Execution Dutton to run the cade line byline. This helps to.clear buss and any misunderstandinas. 7 Planning makes For good! code. whilst a ttle ola nee school, it'sa goad hab ‘will co beforesieting down to tyae Deused anc the moculestoo;cnen w eraccon or outputs. to plan what your cove Ht Lis the variables that wil ‘out a scrot for any use" Purely out ot interest, the word cebugaing in computing terms comes From admiral Grace 10 backin the '40s was warking on a monolithic Herverd ark ilelectromecharical computer, According tol@gend Hopper Found a meth stuckin relay, thus stoaping the system from Hooper, working, Rernoval oF the mathwwashence called debuggingz= Getting Started with Python ) Combining What You Know So Far We've reached the end of this section so let’s take a moment to combine everything we've looked at so far, and apply it to writing a piece of code. This code can then be (ese ne eM eo oll me ON CelS TEES AMA Stel] ea Lol eee PLAYING WITH PI For this example we're going to create a pragram that will calculate the value of Pi to a set number of decimal places, as described by the user. It combines much of what we've learnt, and alittle more. EE Start by opening Python and creating aNew Fle the Editor First we need to get hol of an ecuatio ately calculate Pi without rendering the computer's (CPU useless Far several minutes. the recemmended calculation Used in such creumstancesis the Chudnovsky Algor tho, you can find moreinFormation about itt en.whined’aaratsiki Chudnovs_algosithm. Besin by importing some important medules and functions within the modules: From decimal import Decimal, getcontext import math Thisuses the decimal ancl getcantext- functions Fram the decimal module, both af which deel with arge decimsl place aumbers and 12 math module, Now you ca insert the Pi calculation, part ofthe code, This is 8 version of the Chudnovsky Algorithm: def calccn): ‘t = Decimal (a) pi = Decinal.cay dero = Decimal(O) kao for k in ranger): t = ecinal 1)*H "math. Factorial @ecinal(6)*4)* (13591409 45451401344) deno = nath.factarial(3**(rath. Factorial k)**De imal (3))*(640320°*(3°)) pi t= Dectmalct)/Decimal (deno) Pi pi = Vpi retum str¢pi) FRIED vou conutise the chudnowsky Algorithm to create your own Python script based on the calculation. pi * Decimal (12)/Decimal (640320**Decimal(1.5)) BRTeGE RD) The previous step defines the rules that make up the algorithm and creates the string that wil eventually display the value of, according the Chudnowsky Brothers’ algorithm. You havens doubt already surmised that t ‘would be handy to actually output the value of Pito the scraen. To rectify that you can adc! printCealecay) PTSD You can save and execute the code at trispoint it you le, The autpub wl print the value of le 27 lecimal places:3.141892653589734207668453591. Whit prety pressive anes avn, you went some user interaction, co askthe sor as be how many places should be calculated “ou can insert np tine before the icalclaton ue Def command, Irneeds to be an integer, as it will cthersecefaulia sstrng Wecancah rmumberefote are vee the getconent Function nunberofdigits = tntCinput¢*please enter the number of decimal place to calculate Pi to: *)) getcontext().prec = rumberofdigitsPEPER vou can execute the c how many dec outputting th inthe DLE Shell. ry itwith 1000 places laut don't go too high or else your comauter wil be locked ypia calculating BD seb oinaty coe making t more presentable, Let's incluce an elemen:chat ames naw longit takes © ‘computer to calculate the ® decimal places and present the information in efFeven! ‘colour. Far this, rop into the commandline ‘and impoit.uhe colorama module Pi users alreedy have installed} pip! instal colorana “ Combining What You Know So Far (ce PRIIED) Nowe we need to import the colerama modcle whicnwill output text in lous} along ‘with che Fore Function {which dictates the Foreground, ink, colour} and the time madule to tat avittual stogwatch ta see how laag ‘urcaleulations take: inport: time inport colorama from colorana import Fore BREED 2 fish ourcode, we needa intiaise the olorams module and ine function the point whore the calculation starts, and when i finches. The ead resus @ coloured ink cisplaying how lang the sroces Lonk (inthe Terminal or camrnand lng From decimal import Decimal, getcontext import math inport time inpart colorama rom colorana import Fore colarana.init© nurberofdigits = intCinput(*please enter the nuniber Gf decimal. places to calculate Pi to: "D) getcontextO, prec = runberofdiaits start.tine = time.tineQ) ‘def caLc(n): t= Decinstca) pi = Decinal(@) dono = Decimal et k=0 for k in rongetn): & = @ecimal(-1)*4k)*(nath. Factorial (Decimal (6)*k))*(135914094545140134%%) deno = math, factorial(3*k)*(math, Factorial Ck)" *Decimal(3))*C640320"7(3"K)), pi += Decimal (+)/Decimal (dene) pi = pi * DecimalC12)/ Decimal (640320"*Decinal (1.5) pi = 1/pi return strCpid printceatecy) print(Fore,RED + “\ntinme taken:", time. time) = start_time)C2) index Working with Data. . ar |( Working with Data Datais worth more than gold these days and with it you can display, control, add, remove, create and manipulate Python to your every demand. Over these coming pages we look at how you can create lists, tuples, dictionaries, and multi-dimensional lists; also how you can use them to Forge exciting and useful programs. Then, you can learn how to use the date and time functions, write to Files on your system and even create graphical user interfaces that take your coding skills to new levels and into new projectideas. A g Strin Date and Time hat ¥z= Working with Data ) Lists eee Ton Moma Mure ecole some eR attest cea ole RT| Reon Lege ali) Python. A listis simply a collection of items, or data if you prefer, that can be accessed asa whole, or individually if wanted. WORKING WITH LISTS Lists are extremely handy in Python. A list can be st and lists within lists. 5, integers and also warlables. You can even include Functions in lists, Alita sceunasf dra ctediers es ETRIARB vou abo cs rn thet tenia ata aE create the name of your list Follawedi by an equals SUES using the minus sign before the item number [-1], sign, then square brackets and the items separated by commas; ‘or the second to last item with [-2] and 50 on. Trying to reference any mote that strings use quertes: ‘tem that isn’t in the list, such as [10] will return an enter: numbers = [1, 4, 7, 21, 98, 156] umber's[-1] rythicot-creatures ~ Unicorn”, “Balrog”, niyehical_creotures[-4] “Vampire”, “Dragon”, “Stinotaur"] FRR once you've defined your tstyou can call exeh FRPP DD) Slicngissinilar loindexing bul you can retrieve: byreferencing its name, follawed bya numer Lists multiple itemsina list by separating tern numbers start the fstitem entry 250, followed by 1,2, 3 and san. ‘with @ colon. For example: Foresample fumbers[123] ae ‘will output the 4 ane 7, being tem numbers 1 and 2. Note that te Tocallupthe entire contents ofthe list. retuened values don't Incude the second incex pasitlon (as you iaEEED ‘would numbers[13] to return, 7and 21), Tocallthe third From ze-o tein the tst (21 inthis case. EREPRI You canupdateicems within an existing st, remove RIBS vou can view what can be dane with lists by entering items ane even join ists together Far exampie,to ist) into the Shell Te ourputis the availanie Join two lists you can use Functions For example, inert and pap are used to add and remove ers at certain positions. To insert the number 62 at item index 4 nunbers.insert(4, 62) Ta removeit: everything = numbers + mythical creatures Then the combined lst with everything ‘number's. popC4) BRTD ers can be addec toa lst by enterin: PRRTSEM ou also use thelist tucson co areaka string don al into its components, For example: Tistc*Davia”) Breaks the oa pews O-Forstrings: ne David into‘ "a, V5, T,'@. This can then passed mythicalcreatres-nythrical_creatures+[“Griffin"] O-byusing the append Function: fone=List ("David Hayward”) mythical_creatures .append(“Nessie”) ‘nome numbers. append(278) age=[44] sae User = nane + age Se eer ae — user Removal oitemscan be done mntwoweys. The Fst, based onthat you can create sprogamtostore ED 2 cor nt ED sccrc'sturneandageasa del numbers[7] name=input(“What’s your name? “) Alternatively by Kem name: nomestisCnare) EN NS age=intG nputC*How old are you: *)) mmythical._creatures .renovec“Nessie”) ‘ogesLage]} SS ee ae user ® Inane + Loge ‘The combined name and ace lst called user, which canbe called jy entering user ino the Sheil Experiment and see whal you caida,z=) Working with Data ) Tuples Tuples are very much identical to lists. However, where lists can be updated, deleted or See een Oremus cman elmer tne Peace oe cusp her ces THE IMMUTABLE TUPLE. Reasons for having tuples vary depending on what the program is intended to do. Normally, a tuple is reserved For something special but they're also used For example, in an adventure game, where non-playing character names are stored. POTTED Siuoleisceaed the same wayasa ist butin iis BUBB vou can ceate groupad tuples neo tists Unak contain instance you use curved brackets instead of square multiple sets of data. For instance, Reve isa tuple brackets. For example: called NPC {Non-tayable Characters) concaining the character name imonthssC*January>yeMrebruaryryiMarchmsesaprinny) altel combat ating for an adventure game: "Moy", “June™) NPC=[CConan”, 100), (*BeLit”, 80), C*Valeria”, months 95)] ——— £6 Sa Gh 0s Are Se 9nd Se ee Swe Mer Mc ee Ta, SEP ay , ee PEED) est 2swithlists theemsuithinanemedtuple car [EWA cect of these data items canbe accessed asa Ee be indexed sccordina to their positon in the data ‘whale by entering NPC nto the Shell or they can be range, le. indexed secording to their position NPC[0), You can alsa indexthe een ndvicualtuples within theNNPC Ist rmonths[5] ecto} C1] However, ary attempt at deleting or adding tothe tuple wil esti Will display 100. in an error in the Shel,BRI 0s veort noting that when referencing multiple tuples within lst, the incexingis sightly d erent from the norm. ¥ou wauld axsect the 95 combat rating ot te haracter Vales to be NPC{A5] but e'snot. I's actualy NPCLZIE1 Fee BA tees ae re TEATTT BERT D ris meancot course thac theindeving Fallows thus ® aya 0,0 z 0,1 20 a aa 1,0 ‘hich as you car imaging, gets a ttle confusing when you've gata lot of tuple data to deal with aS a hahaa ee J Tee) Now unpack the tuple ina two corresponding variables: ame, combat rating! ‘You can now check the values by entering name and combat atin, feeb auth ite, yuean sonst a using negative numbers which count backwards From the-enel of the data list. For our example, using the tuple with utiple cata items, you would reference te Valeria character with: NCE -01 Tuples trough ue feature called unackng, SLE where the data items stored within a tuple are _sstgned variables Fist creste the tuole with two items (name and ‘combat rating) NPC=C*Conan® , 100) BBD ou cn use te matandminfunctonste Fate lee highest and fowest valves of a tuple comaosed of numbers. For examale nunbers=(10.3, 23, 45.2, 109.3, 6.1, 56.7, 99) “The numbers canbe integers and floats. To autput thebighest and lowest. use: printCmax(nunbers)) printGninCrunbers)) cainez= Working with Data ) Dictionaries Lists are extremely useful but dictionaries in Python are by Far the more technical way of dealing with data items. They can be tricky to get to grips with at first but you'll soon ere aie ch ote acs KEY PAIRS alist but instead each data item comes as a pair, these are known as Key and Value, The Key part must be tunique and can either be a number or string whereas the Value can be any data item you lke. PUTER DD Letssayyou nanttoceate aphonebookin Python, BRBSSIEMM As ith ksts and tuples, you can sheckthe contents You would create the dictionary name and enter ‘Bf dictionary by giving the dictionary a name the data in curly rackets, separating the key andvalue byacolon _pahanebook, in this example. This wil display the data ems-you've Koy: Value. For example: entered ina similar Fashion Coal, which you're no doubt Familiar phonebook=t"Ema": 4234, "Daniel" 3456, "Honnak™:) ‘th bY now 6789} reagan eee PD est 2s with most lists, tuples andl so on, stings FETED) The benefit of using adictionaryisthat you Teed be enclosed in quotes ingle or cousie, canenter the key'to index the value. Using the ‘whilst inzegers canbe left open, Remiember that the valuecan be _ahonebook exemple from the previous steps, youcan enter phonebook (“Enna”) phonebook ["Hannah™) celther a suing or an integer, you just need te enclose the relevant nein quotes: ‘David: “0987 654 321") ae eT ye eT rite nerete mocha ies aie eo 10Adding te a cictiznary s easy too, Yau can include anew dats cem entry by acding the new key ane: value items ike: phonebookE“David"] = “0987 654 321” ‘phonebook enti," You canals remove iter rom a cctonay by SUG issuing the del command followed by the item's key; the value will be removed as ell, since both wark as pair of deta tems: el. phonebook [“Dovid"] “Taking thisa step Furshes haw about creating a suet) piece of code that will ask the user fer the dictionary key an value tems? Create a new Fdtor instance and start by codingin a new, blank cictionary: honebook={} New variables: one for the person’sname, the ather | you need ta define the user inputs a fortheir prone number ( Python cade! mone=inputC"Enternawe: “) runber=intCinput(“Enter phone number: ‘skeen isimple to avoid lengthy » (eG faa bin Gm no ae PID veicyciannanene wma ‘avigbles tothe newly created blank dictionary. Using the same process asin Step 5, you car enter phonebook(hane] = number EM Fare tiny es frente» tr those entries inta che phonebook entering into the shel! phonebook hionebook (“David”) tf the number needs to contain spaces you need ro make ita string, soremave the int part oF the input Now shen you save and execute the cace, Python wail ask fora name and 2 number, stall en inset onary, which you can test by caineWorking with Data Splitting and Joining Strings When dealing with data in Python, especially from a user's input, you will undoubtedly come across long sets of strings. A useful skill to learn in Python programming is being able to split thase long strings for better readability. STRING THEORIES You've already locked at some list Functions using insert, remove, and pop but there are also Functions that can be applied tostrings BERD Te maintool inthe svingfncionarsenalis spit. RAUMMEMM Note that he txtsplt part has the brackets, Lith tyou'e able to spt apart string of dat, uates, ten space followed by closing quotes teased an the argument within the brackets, For exarale here's 9 and brackets, The space isthe separatoy, indicating tac each st string with thee tems, each separated bya space tementry separated bya space. Likewise, CV (Carwma parted caememaneen ‘alue} content has a comma, so you'd use: ‘text=" January, February, March, ApriL,May,June™ months=text. spLitC’,”") months FETED Nou let'stumthestring nto alist and spi rae Youve nreviousty seen how you ean splita string content accordingly: Into incividual letters 25 a lst using e nemer nones=text:splitc “) none=list ("David") Then enter the name of the new ist, ames, taseethe chree iter The returned value is ‘a, '¥, ye Whilst it may seem alittle useless under ordinary eve stances, could be handy For ceating «2 speling game For examplePEPER 2e opposite of the splc hinctianis join, where you will have senarate items ina string and canjoin them alltegathe zo forme a word or just a combination of items, fepencing on the progtem youre wnting. Far instance ‘alphobat="".join(L“a",”b”,"c","a","2"1D alphobet This wil cisplay ‘sbede in the Shell You can therefore analy join to the separated name you rade in Step 4, cambining the letters agah to fous the name: nana" joinCname) none ‘We've oinee the string back together, and retained the List called name, gassing t trough the join Function. ‘We Et x) pep ote ramus ve A goad exemple of using the join furctionis when you have allstot wards you want to combine intoa sentence: List=["Conan”, “raised”, “his, “mighty”, “sword”, Mand", “struck”, “the”, “denon"] texte” “.join(list) text Note the space etwreen the quaies befa‘e the Join function (where there wereno quotes in Step 85 join ( Splitting and Joining Strings Cl “Aswith the splitfuretion,the separator doesn’t Baa] have ta be a space, tean slso bea comma, afull stop, a hyphen or whatever you tke eolours-[“Red", “Greén®, “Blue") col=",”.join¢cotours) col ‘There's some interesting functions you apaty to 8 string, such as capitalize and.utle.Far example: ‘title-"conan the cimmerian” itl. copitalizer) title. titled) Yau can also use logic operators an strings. eee with the ‘in’ and ‘notin’ Functions. These enable ‘you ko checkif a string contains (or daes not contain] a sequence of characters messages"Have a nice doy" “nice” in message bad” not in message “day” not in message “night” in message ie Spat roma ar “hese tr ere arto, cetnaeenz= Working with Data ) Formatting Strings When you work with data, creating lists, dictionaries and objects you may often want Cormac tas iat mora ean e erie ee eter aie En SR eMCUae nonce eleke ster ce STRING FORMATTING Since Python 3, string Formatting has become a much neater process, using the .format function combined with curly brackets. It’s more logical and better Formed approach than previous versions. POTTED) Toe basic formatting inPythonistocal each BRTTSE DD ou cn ofcourse alse incu nteyars into the mic veiableingo the string sing the curly brackets ae rreme="Conan” printC*{} of mas a skilled mercenary, rint("The barbarian hero of the Hyborian Age is: and thief too. He once stole {} gold froma 1". Format (nane)) mmerchant.".FormatCnane, place, nunber)) Remember Lo dose the print function with two sets ‘There are many difererLweysto apply sting Of brackets, a5 you've encased the verable in one, Formatting, some are quite simple, as we've shown ‘end the print function in anather: Youcan incluce multiple cases of you heres others cade signiteantly more cormplex, tall depends sting formatting na single print function: ‘on what you want from your program. A goad alace ta reference Frequently reaarcing string Formatting the Python Bocs webpage, Found at wwouedocs.python.org’3.ifibraryistring html, Here, you ‘illfine tons of help. rnane="Conan” place="Cimmeria” print("{} hailed fron the North, ina cold Lond known as {}".format(nane, place)? ea We) en GPT a(- Formatting Strings Cl (ees Pou lan seep is i iy as es einved Tmeeeereae Tbe sae Formatting Function. You need to place an asteriskin eae in the same fashion: Front oF thelist name: ome=inputC“What's your name? “) nunbers=1, 3, 45, 567546, 3425346345 print(“Hello {}.". format(nane) printC’Sore munbers: 0, OG. G, O. 0". Format ¢*nunbers)) ERTS Wien indexing in ists, che sare applies to calling 2 REMESIM vou con extend this simple code examate ta dspley lstusing sting formatting. Youcan index each tem the firs: letter io a aerson’s entered name: ‘eccording ta ts position from to however many are present): ieemnieemeeneicinats nunbors=1, 4, 7,9 print(*Hello {h.". Format (nane)) print('More runbers: {3}, {0% {2}, ‘Vname=1ist(nane) {1}.".formatC*nunbers)) print(“The first Letter of your nane is a {0}". format *Tname)) We Ba 2 Bt ie ds oe And.asyou probably suspect, you can mixstrings EExD You can also call upon a pair of lists and reference Sus and integers ina single list to be called in the Say them individually svichin the same print Function. rt Fi aking Ba he ce Sen 7. cao Bo characterse["Conan; “BelitTy "Valeria’y19 275) fmes=L"Conan”, “BeLEt “Valertar] 20) ages-[25, 21, 22] print Ca} is 43} years old. Whereas {1} is 44} STU cessona CA HaTackers Creating two sts. Now you can call each ist, and individual items: printC“{@[0]} is {1[@]} years old. Whereas {0[1]3 is {1[1}} years old.”.format(nanes, ages))z= Working with Data ) Date and Time When working with data it’s often handy to have access to the time. For example, you Oak eens eater tesa tla seta rome M cn M ete eect te cea eta ohms ce TIME LORDS The time module contains functions Ehat help you retrieve the current system time, reads the date From strings, Formats the time and date and much more. Tea Fistyouncadto import tne Umemodule.tsone — RFPS MM) You can see the structure of how Lime is presented that’s builtin to Python 3 so you shouldr’tneed to by entering! drop into.a command prampt anc pip instal it. Once it’s imported, ‘you can cali Lhe current Lime and date with a simple oman ‘time Local timeQ) ‘The outputs displayed as such: "time struct timate year-2017, tmron-9, tmnday=7, tm hour-9, ‘mmin=6, tm.sec=13, ta_nday=3, tmyday=250, tm ‘isdst=D)’; obviously depencent on your curent Line as opposed {ca the time Chis book was waitten, import time time asctimec) FED Tretine hncionisspltinto nine wples theseare RNIB, there are numerous functions bul into the line chided up into incexed items, as with ary other module, One o the mast common ofthese is tuple, anéshown inthe screen shot below serFémel), With you re able to presenta wice range of arguments asic convertsthe line Cuple inca astring. Far example, La dspla the current dey fF the week you can use inet aloes ‘time. strFeinec*xA) z om soe cw Ne) ome tet : sn co) 6 bayorvess 096 (18 Hoy 1 ometyer 110266 le 4 Davnsvnge 10,1, -1 msn vay ater Black Dag Fee Series Volume 37Coazandtine CE BED itches eens EIR se teenth ti sis Ow cole oat ss COHEe Stone det nie : sin tee yuean time partcuar event sth Take —— he Ende rm above ag elter sigh by ncn ‘time. strftimec“%b") stort_time=time.timeC) time. strftime(“MH") time, strftimeC“aHKM") “Thenthere's: endtimestime -timeC)-starttime the last entry indicates, antering them as %H%iM coesn't display the —ingut statement, as that's when the variable name is bei time correctiyin the Shell Youcen easly recty tis witty depending on hw long the user took to lagin, The length of time is time. strftimeC*RHsx4") then displayed on te last ine ofthe code asthe endttime variable Sk og pene ree THismeaneyoure going tobe abe te doly There satot SLE! either the current time ar the ume when een medule; som nat can be cone withthe me of ibis cuite complextoo, such as Something orcurvee, such as a user entering thelr name, Try cfspleying the rurnberaf seconds since lenairy ‘st 1970. F you thiscodein te Edtor, svantto dill down furtner into the time module, then in the Shel center: helpCtime) to dsplay che current Python version help Fle import time Naneinput(“Enter Login name: primtc'elcome”, ane, "\d") printC"User:", nae, “logged in at", tine. str ftime( “9H 254") Try to extend itfurtherto include day, manth, year and soon. 5 Forthe time mocule, az= Working with Data } Opening Files In Python you can read text and binary Files in your programs. You can also write to file, which is something we will look at next. Reading and writing to files enables you to output and store data From your programs. OPEN, READ AND WRITE In Python you create a file object, similar to creating a variable, only passin the file using the opent) Function. Files are usually categorised as text or binary. GED Sac byenerng some tentinte yoursysien’stet — EERE sryouncw enter poem into ure Shell you will get editor. The text edlitaris best, nat a word processes, some information regarcing the text Fe you just {as wore processors include backaround Formatting and omer ‘asked to be opened. You can now use the poem variable to read the elements In-gur eample, wehavethe peem The Cimmeran,by contents ofthe file okert E Howard. Youneed to save the Fle asp poom:nead() Note than a fb etry in the text represents anew line as you ised previous FETED Yousetheopend function topassthe fieintoa — EEIAB ir you enter poemead asecond limeyou wil variable as an object. You can name the Fle object natice thet the text has been remaved fromthe fle, ‘enything you lke, butyou will needtoteliPythonthensmeand You will need to enter: poermopent/hone/pi/Doctanentts/ location ofthe text Fle you're opening Poom.text") again to recreate the file. Thistime, however, enter: oem-openc“/none/pi/Documents/Poen. tx: printcpoem:reaacyy This time, the mn entries are remiovedin favour of new lines and eaiable text.Opening Files PIR st os with its, tuples, dictionaries and son, PRI ectending thisfursher, youcan use readies to ‘you'reableco index individual characters of the 1790 alithe lines of the text and store them 25, text. For exam rmtipleLsts. These can then be stored 2ea variable: poem.read¢s) oem-open(“/home/pi/Document’s/Poem. txt") i ‘ines=poom.readlinesc) isolaysthe Fst fue characters, whilst again encerin Disolaysthe Fst ers, whilst 8 Lines [0] oen.readcs) Lines[1] Tines[2] Willdsalay the ext Five, Entering {1 will lspiay one chi atine. sug using the readline() Function. For example: age ‘ef text back to us: oem-opent"/fome/pi/Documents/Poem. txt”) for Lines in Lines: oen.readLina() print(Lines) vill isplay the fist line ofthe text wth ‘Since thisis Pythan, there are other ways to praduce the same culpa: poem:readLineg) ‘poemaopen(*/home/pi/Documents/Poen.-txt”) for lines in poem: Displaying the next line of text ance more. aan BETTER) You roy hove guesses thet you can pass BETTER EBD. leython of try. except, else, where the code isheld with try, then if ere's ‘comes across something that's an exception do something, e'se de someshing else inherently wrong with the cade, However, you can creste your ‘wnexceptions that are des-gned to contain the potential erro! nel react tot, 2s opnosed to letting the code fal(eceotins CE PI Fc example, se the dvidety zeroeror.Youcan ERM niotratyyoucan quickly Fix the enue by changing create an exceation where the cece can hance the the" read ontyinstan error without Python quitting due te the problem asyoualrendy know, wll create the Fle and witethe cantare then commt thechanges ta thefie, The end result wil eportacifferen try setofcrcumszances, nis case, successful execution ofthe code GeintCinputC“Enter the first number: *)) a se ESE . beintCinputC*Enter the second nunber: *)) print(a/b) except ZeroDivisiontrror printC*You have tried to divide by zero!”) else: print (“You didn’t divide by zero. Well done!” PRE FIEP ou con atsouses nally: block which worksina ur previous tutorials, nila fashion aut you can't use else with it. To us PRET MD you can use excestions tasks. Using an example let's assume you want to opena fle anc write toi our example from Step 6 try: ty: ‘txt = open(“/hone/pi/Docunents/textfile.tat”, “r") txt = open(“/hone/pi/Documents/textfile,txt™, “r") txt.writeCThis is a test. Normal service will es shortly resure!™) txt.wnlteC*This Is/a’test. Normal’ service will except T0EKror: shortly resume!” print (Error: unable to write the file. check: finally: permissions”) print C*Centent written to file successfully. else Hove @ nice day." print (Content written to file successfully, Have txt. closeC) a nice day.”) except T0Error: ‘txt.closeQ, print “Error: unable to write the fle. Check permissions”) Obviously wont work tote etext Asbetore an er witocauras youve used the SLT txt being opened as read only (the "r" part). Soin eee 'r” read-only permission. If you change ittoa“w", ivca elthas he ion rut or dass) SNE Uva nuke nt ear bebotlinlsed he ‘rong youve creates exception shothe OETor cass OLE Sl Newest rearbe try getting the exception IMonning the user thatthe pemisions re nore oe rghit the stine,Pactee though and youll gtthe hang oi He BO Hye Be eee Br BeBE) vesting wih oa) Python Graphics While dealing with text on the screen, either as a game or in a program, is great, there Py een etna neue iodine tesserae acts et en ar one Pounce ecient n haar tue acti itl GOING GRAPHICAL You can draw simple graph some spectacular effects. PATER 22 of the best graphical modules vo begin learning Python graphics is Turte The Turtle mociule is as the name suggests, based on the turtle rabots usec in many schoo Una ean be plogrammed to caw something ava large piace ‘af paner on the car, The Turtle mocule can bei mportee with: import turtle ines, squares and soon, or you can use one of the many Python modules available, to bring out PETER hs command turlecircletso) is whatdraws the tele on the screen, with 50 being the sie. You can lay around withthe sizes if you ike, gaing upto 100, 150and soyond you can draw anarc by entering: tuntLe.cirelecs0 , 180), where the size $0, uk you're teling Pytnon to only caw 80" ofthe crcl, Gia import! turtle turtle.circle(S0) turtle.getscreen()..root .mainLoop() ‘As usual press FS to save the code and execute it, Anew window will how open up and te"Tu tle wil drawa cele Let's begin by drawing a simple circle Sart. a New File, then enter the following code: PRI) The lst park ofthe circle cade tell Python to keep the window where the crewing fs taking place to remain oper, 50 the user can cickto clase it, Now, lets make a square! ‘import turtle print(*Drawing a square..”) for t in rangeC4): turtle. fornard(39@) surtle-left(90) ‘turtle, getscreen()._root.nainloopO ‘Youcan seethat we'veinserted loop to draw thesidesaf the squareCriton canis CE PI vou can adi anewiinetothescuare cocetoadd — ERE Nowlet’s got the cone by mportingthe pygsme module some colour import pygane turtle. color¢*Red”) pygane. init ‘Then you esn even change the character to a ualturie byentering: ing’ = pygame, image: ToadC“RP -pag") ‘turtle:shapec*turtle”) white = (255, 255, 255) ‘You cen also use he command turtle, begineAILO, and — turkie.end ALG tori nthesausreviththechosencolous; MTA acta ie red outiine, yellow Ti set_mode((n, h)) |e screen-flL(Gwhite)) screen-fill. (Gwhite)) screen-bILtCimng, (,9)) pygane.display.fip() hile True for event in pygane.event. get): if event.type = pygane. QUIT: pygane. ait) Inthe previous ste you imported ygume, nated ee! the pygame engine and asked it to import our saved Ino carolecasyeu beaiito master the way works Ent his yPllogo image saved as png. Nes yu defined the cee colour oft window to dply the image a the inamncaiiiecoee sino a prs seine eee aly ou coler(*red’, ‘yellow’ ) —— begin_fllc) w= 900 while Tree Poe Fornard(zoo) er Screen = pygane. display .set_mode(cn, h)) LeFEC170) Screon.Fill{{white)} iF abscposO)< 2: sek screen. fill((white)) end. AULO Screen.blit(ang, (0.09) done een pygone. display: Fipc> Ws different method, ee ——— ; for event in pygame .event..get(): Af event. type == pygame. QUIT: pygame.quit() butvery effective Another ay inpich ou con display graphics sracrnip areata ED cis inecorenodic mere acnmecs MaMa oe wt becsstaedin ore ways in which pygame can hel you output aranhies to the screen, but for now lets look at displaying a precetined image. Start de and you window, Have a id with the colours, sizes and so on and take time to look tan che many functions within the pygamemodule to pening abrowser and nding an image, then save It tathe Fé where you save your Python code RaspberryPi cospbery!Working with Data Combining What You Know So Far Based on what you've looked at over this section, let's combine it all and come up with a piece of code that can easily be applied into a real-world situatio Pela R ny least, something which you can incorporate into your programs. LOGGING IN For this example, let's look to-a piece of code that creates user logins and then allows them to log into the system and write the time they logged in at: You can even include an option to quit the program by pressing ‘. FERTIM cinby importing the time module, creating evs dictionary to handle the usernames ard passwords and creating avarizble to evaluate the cur the program: import: time Next you need zo define some functions. Youcan pegin by creating the main menu, where all users ‘wilrezurn to after selecting the available options: def mainMenuC): global status Status = input(“Do you have @ Login account? yn? Or press q to quit.”) if status == "y": oldser() elif status = “n": rnenUiserO) elif status = “a": ent scatus of “he ieba status statement eparasalo suede variable fromane that can be called throughout Te lesa) outa oa ong ic ptreoet oad nged inside tre Function. We've aso reference sorme newly defined Funcuons:alduser and newser which we'll get tonext BRUM the newuserfunctionis next: def nentiserC): createLogin = input¢‘Create a Login mane: “) if createLogin in users: print C\nlogin name already exists!\n?) else: createPassw = input(“Create password: “) users[createLogin] = createPassw print(\nUser created!\n") ‘Logins=open(*/none/pi/Documents/Logins. txt", “ar ‘Togins.witeC*\n" + createLogin + “+ ‘createPas si) logins .close() “This creates 2 naw User and password, snd writes the entries ince 3 Fle caled ogins.ixk site lienYou wil nec! ta specify your awn lagins txt Fe, since we're using a Raspberry Pi Lesentally thisadde the username ane paccword Inputs Frorn the user Lothe existing user sf} dictionary, so the key and velue structure remains: exch users te key, the passwardis the value let smaeatey print (*irkogan name already exists!\n") ‘Srestabuian = Uvis “reste pmo: *) atesfereatecopini = erevearooor Freon ene PRRIIDD ow to create the oldUser function def olduser(: login = inputC*nter login name: possw = input(*Enter password: *) # check iF user exists and Login matches possword if login in users ond users[login] print C*\nlogin successful! \n”) print CtUser:”, login, “accessed the syste on:”, tine.asctimeQ)) else: print C*\nlser’ doesn’t exist of anong password!\n"), 1 Ere a Tere' 2 fairbit happening here. There are login and pass variables, hichave then matches ko the users dictionary, IFthere'sa match, then you have a success‘ul login and the time and dete of the lagin's autputted. If chey don't match, Len you arintan evvar and the process starts Filly, yourieec to continually check hasn't been pr th key dco ext the program. We can do. swith: While status 1 “a status = disployMenuC) “Although a seemingly ina two lines, loop iswhat keepsthe program running. At the end against the current value of status. IF hat global value it’ Lhen Lhe program continues. i's ecualto then the program can quit, ‘of every Functionit’schec while status ! a": status = displayMenu() ular names and passwords, with the lagins.txt file neing created ta store the locin data and successful logins being Emestamped. Now i's upto you to further improve the code, Perhaps you can import the lst of created users froma previous Session and display a graphic upen successful login? You can now creste users, chen login with their “ Combining What You Know So Far Cl“ Using Modules Python module is a Python-created source file that contains the necessary code for classes, Functions and global variables. You can bind and reference modules to extend functionality and create even more spectacular Python programs. IFyou want to see how you can better use these modules and adda little something extra to your code, read ‘onand leam how they can be used to Fashion fantastic code, 76 — Calendar Module 78 OSModule 80 Random Module 82 Tkinter Module aap 88 Using the Math Module Create Your Own Modules ame Module asudoubisaionssn Coding frychon FBBE) rena: ) Calendar Module WORKING WITH DATES The calendar module is built into Python 3. However, For some reasonit’s not installed you can add it calendar as a Windows administrator or sudo pip install calendar for Linux and macOs. PETTRDD Louich Python 3 andenter import calendar to callupthe mocule and is inherent Functions. Once Iesloaded into memory, start by entering sep=calendan. TextCelendar(calendar.SUNDAY) sep. prinonth(2017, 9) You can see thatthe days of September 2017 are ciso.aved in a wall calencar Fashion, Neturally you canchangethe 2017, 9 part ef te second ine to any/year ane ‘month you want, abirthday For example (73,6). The Nirseine Configures TextCalendar to stat its weeks on a5 for Monday if you prefer Forming your awin cade. For example, you can 1p yoa’s betwen ls sped years ‘Leaps=calendar. LeapdaysC1900, 2018) printCleaps) There are numerous Turetigns within the calendar module that may be of interest to iaythe number aF “The seault § 29, starting from 1904 onward. Yow could ever Fashion thal particular exa Suse y ‘a plece oF working, user interactive Python code: ‘inport. calendar print('Sess>2>>s>Leop Year Calcul atorecccececce\n" JylmintCinputCEnter the first year: “) y2eintCinput(*Enter the second year: *)) ‘Leaps=calendar. LeapdaysCyl, y2) print(‘Number of Leop years between”, yt, *and”, y2, “isi”, Leaps)import calendar year=intCinput(HEnter the year to display: “) print(calendar .prcet(year)) We're sure youll agree that's quitea handy bit of code to have tohand, You can also create = prcsaram that vil display ll the days, weeks and months withina aiven Interestinaly we can ak month by ustaga simple for loop: import calendar cal=calendar .TextCelendar(calendar-SUNDAY) For i in cal, itermonthdays(2018, 6): printci) You cansee ha coce produced some zeros atthe SLT! beginning, this is cue to the starting day of the wee, Sunday nth ase, and overlapping day Fomthe previous tmont, So teecuttng othe days ta on Friday st Jane D1 an wi total 30 gs the outpu correc ph esi a) ero ep Tn ( Calendar Module eC ‘You're aso able to print the individual mon sd3ys ofthe week import calendar for name in calendar.month_name: print(nane) ‘import calendar for name in calendar .day_name : print(nane) EO seh Duy EN HEH FRETS The csienda-madule also allows us to wrte the Functonsin HTML, so that: dsplayit on a ‘website, Let's start by cresting a new ile ‘import calendar cal=open("/home/pi/Documents/cal .htmi" “w") c-calendar.HTMLCaLencarCealendar . SUNDAY) col .nrite(c. formatmonth2018, 1)) eal .close() “This code wll create an HTML file called cal, open t-with a browser and italspiays the calendar For January 2018. OF course, you can madi b page calendar: ta display a given ‘import calendar year-intCinputC*Enter the year to display as a webpage: 9) cal=open(“/hone/pi/Documents/cal .html”, w") cal .write calendar, HIMLCalendar(cal endar. MONDAY). Formatyear¢year)) cal .close() “This code asks the user Fora year, then createsthe necessary webpage. Remember tochange your fiez=) Using Modules) OS Module INTO THE SYSTEM One of the primary Features of the OS module is the ability to list, move, create, delete and otherwise interact with Files stored on the system, making it the perfect module for backup code. You can stark the 8 macula Functionsto see how itinteracts ment ehae Python is running oa. ty P iy tis th the operating joure using Linux system envi ‘ithe Rasp import os hone=os .getond() print¢hone) Gia Inourexample that's ho be user name you login as. For examle, windows 1D wil Pychon3632 The returned result From arnling the vaslable home. isthe current user's harie foiceron the system, i ie willbe different cenending on re operating system you Use, put: CAProrar Files (x88) EATER) [Windows output islifferentas Unat's the ssurrent working ditectory oF Python, as determined by che systern as you might sussece, the os.gezcstc) Function s asking Python to etiiove the Current Working Directory. Linux users willsee something alang the sare ines asthe Raspleerry Pi, a5 will =racOS users FRIIPD) vel srothe interesting element to the OS module fs tsaoilty co aunch programs that are installed in the host system, For instance, you wanted to launch che chromium browser From within 8 Python pragiam you can use import os browser-o5. systen(*/usr/bin/chromiun-browser")FRI he ossisternd function iswihat allowsinteraction with external orogrems: you can even call ua previous Python oracrams using this method, You will obviously need to know the fllaath and arogram fle name for eta work successfully, However, youcen use the following import os os.systen('start chrome Feed/ausic™*) For Step ’ ' SENG that the OS module works roughly the same acrass: allplatforms, in that case, we opened YouTube's music feed gage, so itistheretor open specific nages import: os os.system¢ ‘chromiun-browser “http:/é ie my Note inthe previous tep'sexample he use of SLE single and double-quotes. The single quates encase aes onerous vey eters Had he totes open the spaced sane ou co hen sears Cal mle absinthe sme browse import os ‘@=(‘ chroniun-bronser “hep: //ednpublications cons”") b-C‘chromium-browser “htto://iumi oongle, co.uk") os. systenca +b) osmedie CE PRISED) the ability to manpulate directories or Folders you arefer, is oneoF the OS module's bes Features, orexample, to ereatea new directory you can Use! import os (os.mdir¢*NEW") “This creates a new directory in the Current Working Directory, ip the mkeir function, ee import os 05. renane("NEN", “OLD") e telete then ‘import os os. rndir¢*0LO") Another module that goes together with Osis shutil. Youcan use the shutil module together eatea tmestaped backup drectary, and ‘sith OS ane time copyils int it import os, shutil, time root_sredir - r*/home/pi/Bocuments* root_dst_dir = '/hone/pi/backup/? + timeasctimeC) for sredir, dirs, fles in os.walkCroot_sre_dir): dst_dir = src_dir.replace(root_src_dir, root_ dst_dir, 1) if not os.path.existsCdst_dir os.mokedirsCdst_dir) for file in files: src_file = os.path.join(src_dir, file_) dst_file = os.pathjoin(dst_dir, file) if 05. path.existsCdst file): os.renove(dst_file) shutitcopy(srefle, dst_dir) print(“ssarssnnneBackup completecssassaess")ee Random Module RANDOM NUMBERS ‘There are numerous Functions within the random module, wl Python programs. when applied can ereate some interesting and very useful PETAR E ust swith ovier modules youneed toimgort BUTE Hoveves ve random mocule is Fandom before you can use any ofthe functions Fornumbers. You can use i to sele ‘we're going to lockat in 2s tuto‘al.Ler'sbean bysimply arininga ust Frariranéom, an the Ist can contain anything, Fandom umber frre 1 to sed enclusively an entry froma import random import random randon.choice([*Conan”, “Valeria”, “Belit"]) BeinteraneeaNE eS. “This will display one of the namas oF our adventurers at random, Which ag eal addilion Lea text adventure game. Inout example thenumber! was returned, However, en the print Funetion a Few mare times endit ay different integer values fom the set ai numbers giver, zee to five, The although pseudo adequate forthe aimmer to utlse in oe FEI 0. can extend the previous example somewhat : : teva random cho'ee selec arom alist or minec variables, For instance vera their code, inport: random “David”, 44, “BOM Publications”, 3245.23, ' “Pi", True, 3.14, “Python"] PRED Fo: a tigger set of numbers, including floating ESSIEN SISIERCR point values, you car extend the rangedy usingche PremeCrnd) imort random ie st Set 2 Si row He printCrandom.random() +208) ‘willdsolay a floating point aumber between O and £09, oth [oF sround Fifteen decimal pointsPERI | tecestinely, youcan also use aFunction within the randori module to shuthe the itemsinshe st, thus ‘adding little more rang omness into the equation: random. shuffleCLst) printcist) This way, you can keep shuffling the lit Before ciplaying avandem item from, BEAD (sing suffle, you can ceate an entirely renciam is cof numbers. Forexemple, wiznin 2 given range: import random Ist=([4] for I in range(z09) random. shuffeCLst) printcist) Keep shuffling the list and youcan havea differ items rom to 20 every tme, ction oF ESTP) You conto select rendom numberfrome given rangeinsteps, using the star, stop, stoa loop: import random For 1 in range(10): printCrandon. randrange(®, 280, 7)) Results willvary but you get the general idea as tohowit works, Random Module GC FRIED 2's ose an example piece of code uhich fips = virtual coin ten chousand times an counts Now manytimesitwilland onnescs or tails: import random output={"Heads”:0, “Tats” 0} coinel ist (output keys) for i in rangec1@a00): output random. choiceccoin)}i=1 printc‘Heads:", output[“Heads")) printC*Tails:”, output[“Taits”]) FRPPIPTD. Here's an interesting piece of cade. Using atex file containing 456 thousand words, you can aluck ‘user generated number of words From tne File ‘import random print(*ssssssoaRandom Word Finder Fle] ad ereakeaTiue/alse while import pygane ‘mont pygane pygane. init From pygane. locals import * pygane.init() REE | ccmeninionepyoane, display. set-node (000, 6002) Se pygane..di splay. set_coptiont “Adventure Game") running-True while running: fer event in pygane.event.get@: iF event. type=QUIT: runningeFalse pygame.quitQ fe EAL Faymat Bin Options Wado Help PRP ts create asimple came ready window, and give ice tite: anew ndon-pygone, di splay.set_mode(C800,620)) Pygame. display. set_caption(*Adventure Game") ered you need to cick back pg cade, alse, youcan change i pybane Locals por Bria display.sei-caption( Aventure cane") soe, unnine — TF tvanttypersGutT pramesquitt)( Pygame Module now stil IFthe Pygame wi close con'tworr,itsjusta =P tHEIDLE fshich sarin perfectly wel You're going to shift the code around abit nom running the main Pygame code within a while loop, er anc easier tofollow. mteve downloaded a use and we need to set some parameters Fo ‘img=pygame image . load“ /home/pi./Domntoads/ spritel.png") def spritetx,y): gamewindow.blitcima, (x,y) 8008.45) itmaes tre import pygame pygane. init peers ‘ganewindow.ALLCwhite) white running spritecxy) ganenindow=pygone. display .set_node (600, 600)) Hen A aan, pygane.display.set_caption(“Adventure Gane”) for event in pygane.event.get(>: black-0,0,0) +f event. type—pygome. QUIT: vhite=(255, 255,255) runningeFalse fecgrrncnns: PRP 2: cuickly gothrouch the cove changes. lownloadediimage calledsprite1 png and allocated ito the Cefined two colours, black and white together \ariable imgtand alco defined = sorte Function and the Bic Function with their respective RGB colour values, Newt we've loaved the ‘illallow us to eventually mave the mage. —— xocooor0 45) fm Bygame, Locals inpors * ee * eptrindn Ftetsce Pybsneslepay updater gumerindow-pygane. display set mode(#00.600)) Dieses display set-cptient ‘Aventure san) weiccteccsmener init ten( 255.255, 259) aT eimenindon-BLACCing, (1.y))BE) rena: ) PRED ov we can charge the cade arounel again, this time containing amavement option within ene ‘while lop, and acing the variables needed to move the spre aroune the streen: ‘import pygame Fron pygame.locals import * pygane.imitC) running-True gamewindan~pygame. display. set_nodeCC80@,600)) pygane. display. set_caption( “Adventure Gane") black=C0,0,0 White+C255,255,255) ‘img-pygame image. Load(“/home/pi/Doonloads/spritel. png”) deF spritecx.y): gomewindon.blitCimg, Oxy) '800*0.45) y-(600"0.8) xchange-9 ‘ingspeede while running: for event in pygane.event.get©: if event. type—QUIT: runningeFaise if event.type — pygame.KEYDONN: if event, keys=pygome.K_LEFT: xchange=-5 elif event. key=pygame.K RIGHT: xchange=5 if event. type=spyygame.KEYUP: if event. keyeeaygame.I LEFT or event. key==pygame. K RIGHT: xchonge-0 x 4= xchange gamenindon AIL Gwhite) sprite(x,y). pygame.cisplay-updatec) pygane.quit) PEE tenis PUTER 02% the code down and using the leftand right arraw keys on the Keyboard you cen move your sprite across the bottom of the scieen. Now, looks like you have the makings of classic arcade 2D seroler in the worksPPI You can now implementa few actions and ils some previoustucarsalcace, Thenew elements are thesubprocess module, of which one Function alow usta launch second Python scrigt Fo withinanather, andhwe'segoing La crestes Fecalled pygametst py impart: pygane imart tire impart. subprocess 1 bt Fam tom ne | pygane. initO —— Screen = pygane.display.set_mode((800, 250) || jcc iit Clock = pygane.time.CLock a somo Font: = pygane.font.Font(None, 25) fees ton pygane, time, set_timerCpygame,USEREVENT, 200) |= ws-rwawe J Pence def text_generatorCtext): eee for letter in text: temp t= Letter if Letter I= *: yield tmp Glass DynaricText (object): def _init_Gelf, font, text, pos, self. font, seLF.text = text self._gen = text_generator(self text) self.pos = pos selF.qutoreset = autoreset self update) deF reset(self): selF._gen = text_generator(self text) self.done = False seLf.updatec) def updateCselF): if not self.done: try: self.rendered = self. Font. renderCnext(seLf.gen}, True, (®, 128, 8) except Stoplterati self done = True ‘time. sLeepC19) subprocess .Popen(“python3. /hore/pi/Documents/ Python\ Cade/pygaret.py 1”, shell=True) def drancself, screen): screen, blit(self .rendered, self.pos) ‘text=C"A Long time ago, a barbarian strode fram the Frozen north. Sword in’ hand. ..”) message = DynamieTextCfont, text, (65, 120), ‘autoreset=True) while True! for event in pygome. event. get): Uf event.type —= pygane.QUIT: break if event. type — pygame.USEREVENT: message. updatec) else: screen. fill (pygane.color.Color¢ black" )) message .dranCscreen) aude. ce pygane display .AlipC clock. tickCée) continue break Pygane.quit© PEPET) ween you run tis code it will dsplay a lors, narraw Pygame window withthe intro text scollinato the sight. Albers pause often seconds, then launches che main game Python seri where you can move the wertiorsprite around, Overall the etfeccis qi but mere's always room For improvement %ee Using the Math Module E=MC ‘The math module provides access to a plethora of mathematical Functions, From simply displaying the valve of Pito helping you create complex 3D shapes. present. you can import the module's function by simply entering import math ints the Shell or as part of your cadein the Edita The math modules bu nna need fo PP install ntoPythen2, sothere's lust like the other moddies ‘He Fat shel Bobun Options wncows sly {e2.813)-09 hin yee “copyrigt™, credits" or “icenea for more information. at Nowoubty thenames ace ava by now that youkrow SEES he individual Functions within the ‘nodule, you can speceay impor them Forinsanc, the Foor Srv/ol futons rund Gown anda la from math import floor, ceil foor(1.2) # returns 1 ceil (1.2) # returns 2 Dyalen 343 (Sef, fet 18 004 “Eredites ar *lieanee()* for nero infomation Ta 3m Hooray See cenlc.2) EES |! porena the math module gives yau access to the module's code, From there you can call up ary oF the avaliable functionsw thin Mat’ by using: math, Falwed ay the ame of the function in question, or example, math.sin(2) ente ‘This displays the sine oF 2 le Eat She Debug gations windows tHe Python 24.3 (detoult, Oot 9 2014 flee 4.9.1) on Linas {tee Seepraghe' oreicey or tice Sos anemia) a apse The meth module can also be renained asyou Import, as wien the omer modules 07 offer within yon, This often saves Lime but dont Forget to makea comment show someore else looking at your code what youlve done: import math asm m.trune(123.45) # Truncate removes the fraction fle Eat sho) Qebum Grint windows eb eee o9ct} oe ince i; Tyee “cooyr ign. redita” or “License()" tor nore inforntin. meric 199-359PERI though k'snor the usual way, itis possible to imperttunctionstrama madule and rename them Inthis example we imporced Floor from Math and renamed ta f This pracess can quickly become confusing though, where ler code isin use: Fron math import floor as fF Fa.2) Bis EOt shel Debon Options wndoas Hee Python 3.4.2 (Gefoult, oct 19 2016, 15:31eT1) flee t.actj en mx Petco tect ae So rth SErygate™ or "senee()™ for sore snton ( Using the Math Module Cl srecsevalues: For Further accuracy whenit comes to numbers, the ‘exp and exp! funccons can de usectto comaute from math import exp, expmt exp(le-5) = 1 # value accurate to 11 places expml(le-5) # result accurate to full precision in Est Shel Debug Opens wsnoms Hop Pyehen 3.4.2 (eae oct 19 2008, 13r3TeT (eee sation Type “eopyraghe’. = Som eapcress) = 1 aeerpe te. ue bor "Blears for more in From math import * Importng2llthe functionsof the math module can be done by entering While certainly hands, this is often frowsed upaniy the developer community as it Lakes up unnecessary resources and ft efficient way oF cocing, However. fit wcrks For you then go ahead, 2 Getaal, Oct 18 2008, HT jan irae ines serge” or se 4 STEP7 ae some functions within the met Imadle are more accurate or to bemave precise, are designed to return 2 more aecuratevalve, than others For example: Sint Lapin eet) Returns the value of 0.999969999, whereas AO ele ie) Reus the value af 1.0 Sle Eét Shell Gabig Sotone rdows Hele ythen 3.4.2 (Geta, bet We 20re, eT (ee sat} on Lim pe, ceeyrage!eredits™ or “Licese()" for mare infomation Sos Siettsty vtyeate ote oT ate at an SP Reim trae ct ote ote ote ot ote ote ADD asudouiaionssn he tora eae eae ou ‘quite niche For the mast part. Probably the two cesta 2a oherethestamference fo ts hed by import math printGnath.e) printGnath.pi) la Eet Shel Getue Geter nndows Hee Pron 3.4.7 Caetautt, bce 18 Fla, TTT foee $9.1) on Linx Hime “copyrsgne”, Meresste or “License() SS coat ase bay tor nore information angular conversion co constants, Look ua wwww.docs.python.ora/3/ Ubrary/math heels for 2 list of availanle math madule Functions, —BE) rena: ) Create Your Own Modules BUILDING MODULES Modules are Python files, containing code, that you save now familiar import command. square or raisea number saan exponent power) inthe DLEard enter Let's starLby creating a set cf basic Mathematics Functions. Multiply a number by two, cree and eate aNew File dof timestwotx): return x * 2 dof timesthreeCx): return x * 3 def squareOd: return x * x def poner(x,y): return x ** y Under the above cade, enter unctians to call the Gia code: print Ctimestwo(2)) print Ctimesthree(3)) print CsquareCé)) print Cponert5,3)) ‘Save the progam as basic_math,py ard execute I to get the results. [erences NT ve a py extension. These are then imported into Python using the Now you'te going to ake te Function definitions ure the program ard into a separate file Highlight the funccion definitions and cheose Cale > Cut. Choose Fie > Naw File and.use Ldlt > P: wo separate files, one wit Function cals, ste in the new win he Function defini You nowha ny the athe with PRP) (you now iyandexecule the basle mathgy code ‘agen the err '‘NameE ror: name timestwo' ‘not defined’ vl be displayed. Ths isdue & nolenger having access to the funcisndefinitions Bia ‘yindaw conlaining Le Function definitions anc cick File» Save 18s, Marne ths minimath.py ‘and save tin the same lacation ssthe orignal basic_math, py program, Now close che ‘vinimath.py window, sothe jow lee Returntothe nasie_matiupy: ‘open,( Greate Your Own Modes (7 Back tothe basic mathpywindow atthe top oF he Proll uc maectsiea ees Esabanarty SLES code enter: ese to determine whet to do with the number and utilise the newly created! function cetinitions: Fron minimath import + if choice == 1": print CtimestwoCnunl.)) elif choice = «2": print (timesthreeCnuml)), elif choice == 3: print (squareCnisnd)) This wilimaartthe function definitions asa made Press FS to elif choice == ‘47: nunz = ineCinputcEnter second number: “)) = print(powerCnum1, num2) print(“InvaLid: input”) PRIM 0. can now use the code furtherto make the program aletle more advaneed, ulising the nevaly created module ta its ful. ncluce some user interaction. Start by creating 2 basic menu the user can choose from: itt 3 print(“SeLect operation. \n”) Jcposce = sngure-rncner cnoice (1/2/3049:"» printC'L.Times by tno") print¢*2.Tines by Three") et =arteettere eer Th printc'3. Square”) cate oe print(4.Pover of”) ist eetagnms choice = inputC*\nEnter choice (1/2/3/4):") iain ERD or ve can add tre userinpurtogettne: thecoe i uml = intGinputC*\nenter muners “)) Thiswiks the userentered numberas the variable numt, Note tat for he last aalabe options, he awe euseu) of choice, we've added a second variable, num?. This pezes second rumberhrousm the etonceitoncalet aa NSP naar GST ower Save and enetts ne progiar ta seein scien Trem wininath import * : print("Select operstion.\n*) int("t.Tames by two") rint("2.Times by Three") rint(“3. Square") print(“a-Poner of") choice = input(\nenter choice (172/3/4):") pumt = int{input("\ntnter number: "))bs de ke ee SAAN Psst Ww Saital woo ea b Be opi ee ‘We've included avast Python code repository for you to freely use in your ‘own programs, There's code for making backups of your files and folders, number guessing games, random number generators, Google search code, game code, animation code, graphics code, text adventure codeand even code that plays music stored on your computer. We've broken down some of the newer, and ‘extended, concepts of the code to help you inunderstanding what's going on. This is an excellent resource that you won't Find in any other Python book, so use it, take it apart and adaptit to your own programs, and see what you can create 94 Python File Manag 96 Number Ci 98 Polygon Circ 99 Random Num 106 Besic GUIFile 108 Mouse Control 108 110 2 nn ov a) Ce eea Pte eer eee Mele lei ea Elia ete) SR EC Tan ute Ea cv eH cease ee Eee Eee teem eee tet ely ese eel otal oi Mag oe ea Crt : of the cade imports the 2d Subpracess med. Each det xxx) of the menu's This art ofthe codethatch theuser sunning, In wind error accu, which command instead. These are the the appropriate Function whenther on 9 to 12, Each executes i wim aor tle eee el FILEMAN.PY ‘Copy the code below into a New > File and save it as FileMan.py. ‘Once executed it will display the program title, along with the ccurrent time and date and the available options. import 08 import time Amport subprocess det Read): [patheinputt"Eater the ale path to ceed") Siewopen(eath,"=") print (ite-read()) input('Prere Enter.) cuviatoet dst weit) athsinputt"Enter the path of fle to write or create:") if ce.path tafile(path): PHInt(‘Rebullding the exieting sie") print((Greuting the new file’) textrinput('Eater text") Slomopenteath,"*) Slewrice(text) det add: athsinputt"Enter the fle path:") texteinput("Enter the text to add:”) ‘ienopen(path,"a") Siewzite(\n'teexe) ase batetai) patheinput{Enter the path of Sle for deletion:") Af ox path avizts(path): Brint( ‘Pile has been deleted’) else: rint(‘File Dose not exist’) der biziist() [atheisputt"Ester the Directory path to aiaplay:”) sortlistrsortedios.2istdir (path) io hills (icten(sortlict)} der checkt) paintlAnput(‘Cheek existence of \nl Pile \n2, Dizeetezy\o")) pathsinput(Estar the Sle path:") Se.path.istla(path)Python File Manager sFempuenaariapay mee S.idat files ina directory Print (Yale Found’) G.check fie existence eint(‘Fale not found’) B.copy a aie sf spe S.orasta w dixectory path-input(“Enter the dixectory path") Diets Sececberd os.path tedir(pathy 2Lopen a program Af on path adi ripathy False: see print (Directory Found) else: ») print (Directory Net Bound’) At doce Resa() of Mawe(): Af dace=2 pathisinput(‘Enter the source path of Sle to movs:!) waite) Rrsine(inpue (1 Rename \n2.Nove \n’)) a Sf mast: [Path2-input(Enter the destination path and de names’) | £ shut move (pathipath2) prine(File renamed’) af sf a2: iris) ‘pathoninput (Eater the path to move:’) st dec==é: shutSl move (peti path2) cheek) print(File aoved") Af doce sove() set Coy athl=input(‘Encer the path of the fle to copy or renames’) Path2=input(Eater the path to copy toi") sShut4l.copy (patht,path2) pHIME((ELIe copied") Makesse() if dec==i0: set Makati): at patheinput("Eater the dizactory nane with path to mele [| \nog. Cr\\elio\\Mewdss \alheze Newsir is new as aarectory:”) exit os.makedis(path) ‘suorint linpub(™LRatusn to menu\o2. Exit \a") Pring(Darectory crested!) det Removedir Patheinput( "Enter the path of Directory:’) Ereedireint (input("I Deleted Directory \nZ Delete Directory Tees \aB.xt \e')) af treedir=i: peemtscteth) shuts] entres path) prine(Uarectory Deleted’) Af txeect exit) ‘det Opensiet) pathetzpat( Tater the path of progeas:’) try: be.sternaie (path) PEint(‘FSie not found’) saci Imports ventte(run==) There are three medulesto import here: Shut OS and 1 try: . . Time, The first bwe deal with Lie operating system and file eae "manegemens and manipulation; ane te Time masiie simply ie entra ey srenctimeane este, print \moossooopoomython 3 Pile Monagarcecceeccccln') pee erry prrergrepre Prine(‘\nthoose the option amber \a') deominctinput(""1.Read a file 2itrite tos Ble ‘Append text te a fle Aelete a fle Note hows we"veinclu ced a try end except bloc ta check iF the ser is runnina the code ona Lnuxsyster or wincows Windows uses CLS to clearthe screen, while Linux uses cea The ty block should work well enough but t'2 point of improvement deaending o7 your oven system. aude Coding for Pythianeras (Netto oe ee Tor u m3 * Tig einefete Peete #4 ere dita eee iret Rahdom module, print and input, Bit Bra eta Petey ee urerseee te end Ee faee ni} Dae ea aa 0. eae in| NUMBERGUESS, PY ‘Copy the code and see if you can beat the computer within Five guesses. t's an interesting bit of code that can be quite handy when your implementing a combination of the Random module alongside a while loop. Amport random ‘e(HelLo! What is your name? ) number = random.randint(1, 30) Print(‘Grestings, ‘+ Name + \, Vm thinking of number between 1 and 30") While guessestsed < 5: quessnint(input(\Guese the nunber within 5 guesses.) gqueesecUsed = queseectized + 1 Ef guess © number: Print("Too low, try again.) A£ guess > number: print("Too high, try again!) Af guess == nunber: Break Af guess == number: quesseavead = stz(guessecveed) Peint('Well done, © + Nane + '! You guessed correctly in ‘+ guessesteed + * guesses’) Af gues |= number: nunber = str(number} Print(’Sorry, out of guesses. The number I vas| thinking of is ° + number) ‘Although this is area some elements ‘win, youreedtte -crably easyte follow program. there are rewarth painting out. To begin reusing wider renge oF random aumber rnumber=random.eandint(1,30) end it tooligh though or the player yi never be ale to guess IF the nlayer quesses too law or tooth, they areaiven the appropriate output. to Uyagain, while the nurmaes fof guesses les then Five, You can also increase the number oF quesses From 5 by acering the while quessesUsed « 5:xclve, IF the nlayer quiessed the correct number thea they are given a well dore’outpat, along with how many rey USEC UP IF the slayer runs outof guesses, then the game over outputs cispayed instead, along with revealing the rurnber the rom iF you do alter tre values of the umber chosen by the campucer or the numer of guesses the player can ake, Een along withthe variabe vl, ualsoneed to amend the instuctonsaiwenin te print estarcafthe cadeCode Improvements. Since hiss such as simple script to aaplytoasiustion, theres plenty of room to mess around withitand makeit more interesting, Pethaps you can include an option totake score, the best out of three rounds Maybe an elaborate vay to cenerstulate the player For geting ole in one’ carrect quess on thelr Fist Moceaver, the number guessing game code does offer someroom Forimpiementing into your cadein 2 manne: What ean by this, the code can be used to retrieve arandom number th inturn can giva yourthe start of acharacte entre game, between arange, creation defined Function thin ana Imagine thestart of text adventure wetienin Python, where the player names theircharacter The next sen isto rll the \irtual random dice to decide what that character's combat ating, siength, endurance and luck values ave, These cant cartiet forwardinto te game under a set of variables tha ‘educed or increased depending on che circumstance character anes up in Number Guessing Game ple, as per thesscreershat provided, you could use meting alona the ines of sekeo Endurance = random randint(1, 15) (oR = random.randint(t, 20) Yack = random randint(t, 10) Print("Your character's state are as follows:\n") Print (“Endurance:", Endurance) PrLot(*Combat Ratlng:*, CR) Print("Luck.", Ick) ver stick wit their rol or tay again picked There's ample waysin “The player canthen dec Forthehope of better values bein ‘shich to implement this coce into abasic adventure gare Coding for Pythianats cy Aa 5a Peace at c| POLYGONCIRCLES.PY Pare esis aR: Here's ats of mathematics used here along with some UTMOST y Ela) Bel ny u intricate coordinate manipulation with the Turtle module. Penal mang cere H Enter the code and execute itto see how it turns out Rees eres es rom tuct ls Anporte Ce oe) fom math Lnport ska, eon, pl Re aoe es cla Sie ee ieeteni/in Des Pope for Ric for 3 in zange(Q00): isin(t};ylextoos(t) xz=xtein(t#n):y2-rtcos(ttn) penup0); gotolxl yl) Pendown();getolx2 92) ota l(oTr ace Graphical Enhancements leral ways in which you sting. You can inset eal ple see 4 aa eangetn0n) xieetein(t); xoresinttin) ‘speod( farte panup(); goto yt) ppendonn():gat0tx2.2) eke fescan take awhile co map out and draw, depending big ane how ince an image i “This un through the test’ speed possible for the Turtle. e certainly makes isworth consicering you're drawing Turtleimagesf presentations. yeec() wil quicken things un, Say Say ciewere Bee fant Fron turtle ingore * ron math inpor! in, cos, pa experiment with the various soeecs by adding the Fun erat: gotacrt yt) Benoni) =goto(a2 72) ie u PR eer rere“ Polygon Circles/Random Number Generator Random Number Generator User input and the ability to manipulate that input are important elements with any programming language. It's what separates a good program from a great program, one that allows the user to interact and see the results of that interaction. RNDNUMGEN.PY emight be simple but this little piece of code will ask the user For two sets of numbers, a start and a finish, The code will then pluck out a random number between the two sets and display it. from randon import * print (*\mo>o>sop>Random Mumber Generatorcceeceecce\n") ambisintlinput(Enter the start number: ")) ‘AnE2ULnt(Snput("Enter the last number: ")) = randine(anbt, ana) ‘Print("\ithe random munber between" rmbt, pristis) amb, "is:\0") More Input hile an easy code to Follow, could le mare interesting you prompt the user Formore input, Perhaps you can provide them ‘with acétion, subtraction, mutipication elements with thei numbers. yout Feeling ever, see f you can passthe code through Tkinterwindow or even the Ticker window that's available oaPage 128, srthesmore, the core ofthe code can be used ina text adventure ‘game, where the character fights something and their health along with the enemy’s, reduced by a random number, This can bermixed with the previous code from Page 90's Number e,suhere we defined the stats for the adventure ‘introduce the Turtle module into the code and defined rules for drawing ashape, object or something based on user inputed random value fiom arenge of parmbers takes alitie working ou aut te effects certenly pally Interesting. Fo exainple, the code cauld be elted to ths from random import + amport turtle ‘peLnt(”\mopppooppomandam TuEtte Taageccceceecce\n") faabinint(input{"Ester the start number: *)) ‘nnb2=int input(Enter the eecond munber: ")) panicintlineut(Ester the third susher: ")) nabinine(input('Ratar the fourth number: *)) turtle.torvardinmbt) turtle-Left(80) turtle. forvard(amn2) turtle 1eFt(90) turtle. forward (ambi) turtle left(90) Se Uassevereembdl turtie 1aft(o0) ‘whilst i's lie rough around the edges, you can easly make i Coding for thanRondon Password Generator aE ca: F vs ices Tle) ie oy Pee ane eat Re ote ot) en fee) oy Ovni Pe EEL Benen password Perel eeclar tain caret Parsee tecst nme 4 rele i onl ey Cele v sera oe " a ou can do tomedfy this cade and impreve it n yaucanoulout securely compress itusing the filepassword and serdit [an interesting sspectto this code isthe ability to introduce sloop and printary number of random passwo assume you a lstof 50 uses for acompany arcl you're in charge of generating m De: oan een RNDPASSWORD.PY ‘Copy the code and run it; each time you'll geta random string ‘of characters that can easily be used as a secure password ‘which will be incredibly dificult for 3 password cracker to hack, import string Amport random dee randampasewordy) charssstring.ascii _vppercase + string.ascii _ Jowercase + string digits size @ return "join (random.choice(chars) for x in xange(size,20)) print (randompassword()) Addingaloop to printaps ys Fey times i extremely easy, fe amport: sneing Amport zandoa 08 randompacensrd() a + string digits = Jein(randon.choice(chars) for x in ange(s12,20)) while 2660: print (rendompascword()) previous“ Random Password Generator/Keyboard Drawing Script Keyboard Drawing Script The Turtle module is an excellent resource for the Python programmer. However, what makes it more interesting, is its ability to enable the user to control the turtle on the screen. This piece of code does exactly that, allowing the user to unleash their inner artist. KEYBDRAW.PY ‘There are two modules inthis script: Turtle and Tkinter. The Turtle module is the main display, where the user controls the drawing, whereas Tkinter simply displays the user controls. ‘ALL movenente and turns are by inerenents of Right arrow key = move forward fess ee eens Tovneclset, soot title Conte eights, wit ‘aad Tinwett(N, “Right. erry tay = nove forvard\ Woe erie ee reece ee eee ar tears vesareal ie ia bodecy = =m Fae mainp aa) teed Pirenlecrow Stern, =) meron, 8) omeyteles, "e) Smteyibene “2 Sateyanban forward), “night Snte/lonbds: bck), are) ctitfumsan ieeeey ox) ategUanbde: signet), >) Listen) =| return “Done!” ae Printineg) mainloop() aude ays room For improvemen’ ge the colours or ask Ue usa ith and then include ak ‘contraiste change the pen colour whist crawing, The alseroam to increase or decrease the speed of the pen, again hat. coule be a user-defined seee, You can also expard the Aninicia set of comments to display the contro, hich can also be outputted asa sega abe hiner window i you wank, fara importnathe necessary modules: rnter ane turtle Setting up the separate enter window displaying the controls and creating afunction to define the width, speed and colour of the ine being draw, alsa setting up the onkey Functions for the cantrals of the oen. ‘A neakwayto finalise the code andlleap i x0 you can eankinue craving withthe pen, Coding for yaneer ays rT ras Jo an do ee a Fy Me retiree ) dis i phics. The module contain manly Furiétions Which ey Piste send iene ee SE ete ae SU cee ia) aati oa re ete pee ee Sep oouy re Pygame mpd ule. Each the code, sayoucan pull text = font.render("“Upside down text’, True, BLACK) ‘text = pygane.tranaform.zotate(text, 180) screen.blit(text, (30, 0}) text = font render(“Flipped text”, True, BLACK) text = pygame.transformfip(text, False, True) soreen.biit(text, [30, 20)) taxt = font.rendar("Rotating text’, Meus, BLACK) text = pygane.transform,rotate(vext, text _ rotate _ degrees) text _Fotate degrees 4= 1 scresa.blit(eaxt, [100, 59]) ygaze.display.flip() elock.tiek(60) Fygane.quit() E The Joy OF Text eile senate rh ston Pepeee Me ees eee P apegrarmer 3 1X9] UMOpP episdj 2 ELlbbeq sexs : 2 % a 4 Ww 5 % ce( Pygame Text Examples/Google Search Script Google Search Script Using the OS and Urllib modules, this small snippet of code will display a window for the user’s input, then pass the input to a Google search in their browser. It's really quite a handy script and one that's easily introduced into your own code. Searching For More used the Zenty command to ceatetthe clog box jermentioned & only avalable to Linx machines (such as ad sant la execute couple of possibite inda jan of Zenity and passthe user's query through if or you can create a Tenierclalog box to pas the infaimation «can see that this particular code uses the Chromium browser ich comes preinstalled on de Raspberry P and some versions OF Linux. To use your Favourite browser in Wineaws, for example, you will need to change the command in thel: to read Firefox, or whatever you use, together wit command. So essentially, ove of the Following tart firefox hitps/lmoccoonte.coml (Googie!) os.system(atart chrome pttps/inewanosie.com! searchtqzte’ + (googie) os.eystan(‘start implore hite:/éne.congle.coal searchiaste’ ¥ (goegle)) Boman GOOGLESEARCH.PY ‘You willneed to pip install the urtlib module, unless i's already installed. It also uses Zenity, which is a Linux-based (GNOME) tool for creating dialog boxes. import 0s import urllib.parse google = os.popen(zenity —-entry --text="Enter your Google search: itle="Google Search" ).readQ) google = urllib.parse.quote(google) ce.ayetem( chromiua-browser bite: //nm.gaeale,com/, searenegns’ * (google) The la for Chrome and Internet Exolores respect “Theresa Zenity for Winclows project. avalable on Git at wwe (btn ccraikeaeetreareeeteas (es aco worn Geson [But yau co need to install it toa Folderon your system where you ‘equi administrator access ta be able ta run the Zen program. when you have Zenity installed you can modify te in Pytnon to read See een googie = os.popen(‘start c:\tomp\zenity\\bin\ renity —entry —text="Entar your Google search: * ~-title="Google Search’").read() google = urllib parse. quoteigeogle) ce.eysten( ‘start srefox bitp://no.gacaie.com., searchtgste! 4 (google) coding for PythonTXT2BIN.PY Naturally we're using the format function to convert the user's entered text string into its binary equivalent. IF you Edel er ed q ‘want to check its accuracy, you can plug the binary into an hake A online convertor Pert Tasca inison7syt an aie 7 textainpt("Enter text to comert te Binary: “) print(* ‘join(format(ord(x), "!) for x in text)) Pear Pee eee tare ay wal File Edit Format Bun Options Windows Help print(">>>>>>>>>>Text to Binary Convertor<<, $0 you may need to pip install any extras ifthe dependencies Fail when you execute the code. From thinter import Me from idlelib.treelidgat import Scrolledcanvas, Filetreeften, Treallode import os root = Tk() Foot bitle("File Browsers") se = Scrolledcanvas{soot, bg='white’ ighlightthickness=0, takefocus=) se-frama.packlexpand=1, fill="both", side="left”) iton = Filetreertem(os.goterd()) node = TreeNede(sc.canvas, None, item) nede.expand() reot.matntoop()Advanced Filing When executed, the cade wil dsoiay the current directory contents, you want to see the contents ef another directory, yau canrun the cade from acommang line within the crosen directonst lustremembestoeallche code fram where t's iocated on your system, as per the second screenshot, You can ais double clk any ofthe file names shonin the direct \drename them, This an interesting pl your own programs, You can extend the code to include use specified cirectoryto browse, derhaps your ovan unique fle icons too. Ff you're using Linux create an alas to execute tne code and hen you can rum i rom wherever you ate inthe ester, code and one that you can inser into Windows users may have some trauble with the above code, an alternative car be ach eve Ly using the Following from tkinter import + from thinter import tk fro tkinter.Oiedialog import askopentilenane ‘root = TR) def Opentirel) ‘name = askopenfilenanelinitialdic="C:/", Sletypes =(("ext Fite", Moet"), (ALL Ne "choose a fle.” “ Basic GUI File Browser ‘with open(aane,‘r') ag Userile: rint(UseFile.readi)) except: peint("No Miles opened”) Mele = soot titlel FL Openas") label = tek Lebel{root, text ="File ‘Open foregronnd="red",font=("Walvetica", 16)) Iabol:pack() nena = wenu(root) ‘Foot. configinenunena) ‘ie = Mens(sens) e.add_conmand(Lebel ‘Sie.add_ conmand(isbel = lambda exit) ‘open’, command = Opentile) "Exit", command = inenv.add_cascade(label = ‘File’, meno = file) oot nainoop () [snot quite the same but this cade allows you to open files Inyour system via the forilar Windows Explore, ls woth ‘experimenting with hatyou caneo witht Coding for ythanA mi fLey res cai ae fi eral Torsha wi rete Ea fea Fi jouse as.a drawing ec mumoan war part eee eae Sa a est re ag ba my i 1 PI cI 5 | Pele por ae aac’ MOUSETURTLE,PY “The first piece of code presents the standard Turtle window. Press Space and then = 0") syeexte() Af minutes < 0 print ("invalid value for minutes, should be >= 0") sys.exit() seconds = minutes * 60 Af minutes = 1: unit _word = ” minute” else: unit _word = ~ minutes” Clock tay: if minutes > 0: print ("Sleeping for sleep(eeconda) print (Wake up") for 4 in range(s} peint (che(7), sleep (1) except KeybonsdIntarcupt: Print (interrupted by Bys.enit(l) + stz{minutes) + unit _word) ser") Wakey Wakey There's same good use of ty and except blacks here, alongside some other useful loopsthetcan hela you geva firmer undersiancing hoy werkin Python, The cade itselr an be used inavariety of ways in 2 game where something happersafter aset amount of time orsmaly asahandy desktop alarm cock loryourtea break. aux users, try making the alarm elock code inka an alias, s0 sou can runa simple commando execute ft. Then, whynot ntegrate auser input atthe beginning to askth length of time they want until the alarm goes nq to include itn the commmand line 3s the only version installed on your zed tocxecute the code without adding ha. to Le ond af tha Pythan cornmand, Far exarnpl: python Alamnclock py 10 ies of the day Coding For Pythanroe crlct a, Seon Pele rae Tenet ere aN evar recite acre e els ME ae Lise eg eee CU ea ceaar anne oe ect BO i #3 4 J area tel ; @ 3 3 ba i j Fy a ra. 7 Hl a A a EPICSCROLL.PY We've used the poem Cimmeria by Robert E. Howard for the code’s serolling text, along with a dramatic black background ‘and red text. We think youll agree, it’s quite epic. import. pa ‘from pygane.2 import * praniea tent _liet = 1 renamber The dark woods, masking alopes of sombre hile The grey clouds’ leaden everlasting arch: The dusky streams that lloved without 2 sound, ‘Asd the Lone winds that whispered down the passes Vista on vista marching, hilis on hilas, Slope beyond slope, each dark with sullen trees, ‘ur gaunt land Jay. So when a man climbed up A rugged peak and gazed, his shaded eye Saw but the endless vista ~ hill on hill, Slope beyond slope, each hooded like its brothers, ALL winds and eloude and dreans that shun the sun, With bare boughs rattling in the lenesone winds, And the dark woodlands brooding over all, Not even lightened by the rare dim sun Which made squat shadows out of men; they called it Cimperia, land of Darkness and deep Wight. Ht was s0 long ago and far away T have forgot the very nase men called me. The axe and flint-tipped spear aze like a dreen, only the 021 ‘that sombre land The closds that piled forever on the hills, The dimness of the everlasting woods Cimmeria, land of Darkness and the Night. Oh, oul of mine, born out of shadowed hills, e clouds and winds and ghosts that shun the sun, How many deaths shall aceve to break at last Appavel of ghosts? 1 search my heart and find Cimseria, land of Darkness and the Night! wr split (Nn)clase Credita: imit_ _(self, screen rect, 1st): selelet = let If eize = 16 (255,0,0) self Duke _contery aalf buff lines = 50 self timer = 0.0 sf delay self.make_surfaces() self.erect.height/2 +5 def make _ text{oel# message): font — pg font Sysront{‘Aial, se2f.aize) text = font rendar(nessage,true,self-colar) rect = text get _rect(centar = (eeif.erect. canters, self.srect.cantery + self.buff_cantery) ) return text rect def make _ surfaces(selt): af .taxt = (1 for i, line in enumeratelsel¥. 1st) 1 self.make_text(line) Luly + itaelZ.bute _ lines elf text append.) def update (els): Af po.tine.get _ticks()-self tiner > self delay: self timer = pg.tine.get _ ticks() for text, rect in self,text: recty = 2 def render(eelf, surf): for text, rect in self.texe: sure b1it(test, rect) screen = pg.display.set __mode((800,600)) screen _ rect = soreen.get _ rect) clock = pg.time,Clock() zunning=teve cred = Credite(screen_rect, text _ list) while cunning: for avent in pg.event.get(): LE event.type —= QUIT: running = False screen, £11((0,0,0)) ‘seed upcately ered. rendez(screen) Py.display. update”) elock.tick(60) ( Vertically Scrolling Text ALong Time Ago. The obvious main point af enhancements the actual text Itself. Replace twith alist of credits, or ic opening storjlineto your Pytion game, and twileertainly hit the ‘mark with whoever playsit. Dant forget to change the screen resolution if needed; we're curently ranningiat 200 «600. Coding for Pythian2 ese | a oF PS ok Fa iP (Netto oe ee a” eae is Gs een Orie Ca) eee eee Coc eia is once ee Sau cd Feat mr alls creat Deere eas eo Soa Cn eaneL Pa oR a er ee te eke ee er DIGCLOCK,PY ‘This is a surprisingly handy little script and one that we've used in the past instead of relying on a watch or even the clock in the system tray of the operating system, import time import tkinter as tk def tick(tinet~"’): f get the current time from the PC Eine? = tise steftine(‘an-ames’) Se timed |= timed: clock.aftar(200, tick) root = th-Tk() clock = thLabel(root, font=t'arial’, 20, ‘boLd'), 1bg='green") clock packifile’hoth’, expand=l) tei) reot-maintoop()Tick Tock Thisis 2 piece of code we've used mary tines in the past ta keep trackof time while working on multiple monitors and with just 8 uick glance to where we've placed ion Uescreen, ‘The Tkinter box canbe moved around without affecting the time, mavimiged or elosed by the user at wil. We haven Egven the Titer dlack wondaw a Ue, so you can ad ta thal easily enough by snipping the code From cine examples inthis ook ‘Another area of ingrovernent iste inelude this code when Windows or Linux stars, sot automaticaly paps up om the desktop, See als, ryou're able to imarove its Functionalty by Including Tesent time zanes: Rorne, Faris, London, New Mescaw and soon. Another example, exoanding on the original>ooopp>awasome Adventureccceeccc *) Printiname, “the barbarian, svord in hand and looking for adventore!") tie. sleep(l) print(lowever, evil is lurking neazby..) fies. sleep{l) PEINE(A pair of bulbous eyes regards the haro...") tine.slesptl) PHnt(WLL", name, “prevail, and win great fortune...) Hime. slept) peint(-or die by the hands of great evil...2*) tine. sieep(l) print\e" $3) Print (Only tine will tall..." Eine. slesptl) pane.) tine. sleep(l) print (9) time. sleep{l) peiat(’/) ‘time. eleeptl) print’) Hime, s10ep(5) rink("w 1200) print(”" You find yourself at a smali inn, There's Little gold in your purse but your svord is sharp, ‘and you're ready for adventure, With you are three other customers, A ragged looking man, and a pair of dangerous ooking guards."’) dee start: peint("\n === zh Brint{"Do you approach the...") print("\n") print("l, Ragged lesking man") Print("2, Dangerous looking guards") endlist=['I", °2"] endegetend(cedlist)Af ond == *V ragged() elif ond quarda() a det ragged) petne("\a" * 200) peint|"""You walk up to the ragged looking men and greet hin, He smiles a toothless grin and, with a strange accent, says “Buy me a cup of wine, and I'L1 tell you of great treasure...) time 2leep(2) det guards) pEine(”\n" *200) Peint(‘""Zou walk up to the dangerous lecking quarde and greet them. ‘The guards look up from their drinks snd anerl at you. “What do you want, barbarian?” One guard reaches for the hilt of his sword...""") tine. sleep(2) (Text Adventure Script def gatend(endlist): ‘end = Anput(sanes">") A€ ond in ondlict: return end if end —= “help: Print("\nEnter your choices az detailed sa tthe game") Print(‘or enter “quit! to leave the game”) return getcnd(codlist) elif ond = “quit” Print(\—--—-——") Eime.sleep (1) print(‘Sadly you return to your homeland without fane or fortune...") time. eleep (5) exit) sf __name * start) Adventure Time ‘This, asyou can see, fjust the beginning ofthe advertsure ane takes un a far Few lines of cade, When you exaand it, andwveave the stary along, youl Find that you can repeat certain instances sacl as 3 chance meeting with an enemy or the tke, ‘We've created each ofthe two encounters asa derined set of Funcions, along with alistot poste choices under the ich isalso defined Function -xpanding on this s culte easy, just map outeach encounter and choice and create ade'ined function araund iL Praviding re user doesn tenterquit into the adventure, they can keep payne, ‘amis Ist, and end var abe There's also room inthe acventure For aset of variables designed or combat, lek, health, endurance and even a inventory amount oF gold eared. Fach successful eombat scvation can reduce the main character's hesth but increase thel- combat sklls OF enclurance, Plus, they could loot the body and gan ‘goldtheovgh quests Fall about Intseducing the ra dale, This wil enable nclude ar element of chancein the game. For example, in ‘combat, when you strike an enemy youll arardom amour ‘of camage as willthey. You could even work cutthe maths behinclimpioving she chance of abebe hit based on your opponent's combat skis, currencheatth, strenath you endurance, YYou could createa game oF cicein the Inn to see Fyou win or lose ‘gold fagain,improve vie chances: luck Factor nto the equation ning by waking out your Needless to say, your Lext adventure an graw exponentially fang prove tobe @ wrk of wonder, Good luck, and Fave fun with youradverture. Coding for Pythaner ere (yet toe aor ad Ticker Scrip eee ay PM dete ccd ae ee a et ee Mest eu ha sg ea Fotin bF Scrolling ticker. Whilst® tein er ae) Fi ARS or! creat ius a ‘ Errol tits MIME A st tickero Ky ais) cr-1 oS fo keep Cece reel toa toa rs r » Ticker Time he Teker code ligin wild splay seyoucanc ‘deolout af icker window the Font and the font-colovr, along the geometry of the Trinte the backan YYetanatherincerestina ees nbrodu of the many available for ew speech medles 10m 3, You could pip install oe, import, hen asthe tice the text, thecext tospeech ‘action wil read outhe variabie hemi text store in th thesame time, since nab labeled plecan be useal warnings, pethaps something thet wil spay across your work ar home network deraling che shutting down oF a server ces the weekend for maincerance: a inform everyone asto what'shapaening you wil come up with same good use Python Scrolling C TICKER.PY ‘We're using Tkinter here along with the Time module to determine the speed the text is displayed across the window. import tkinter as tk root = Heme) tk.Canvas(reot, root.title ("ticker Code") - widthe=800, by="yeL low") canvas. pack’) font = (‘courier', 48, bold’) text_ width = 15 Wext blocks Insert here sl = “This is a scrolling ticker example. As you cen 00, it's quite long but can be a lot longer $f necessary... 2 = "He can even extend the length of the ticker ge by including more variables. “the variables are within the the coda, " st = "Don't forget to concatenate them all before the For loop, and rename the ‘spacer’ s-variable too. 4 pad front and end of text with spaces iS =) teat _aeen ¥ concatenste i© al) Stal tad tad teh t+ 25 y text = canvas.create_textix, y, anchor='n font=font) deel ay = 0 # use horizontal movenent only 4¥ the pixel value depends on dx, font and Length of text: Pixels = 9000 for p in zange(pixals) # move text object by incresents dx, dy A dx -> right to left canvas nove(text, -dx, ay) canvas. update) shorter delay —-> faster movement Hine. eleep (0.008) Apeine(hy # test, helps with pixel value reot.naintoop()( python Scrolling Ticker Script/Simple Python Calculator Simple Python Calculator Sometimes the simplest code can be the most effective. Take for example, this Simple Python Calculator script. It's based on the Create Your Own Modules section seen earlier but doesn't utilise any external modules. CALCULATOR.PY We created some function definitions to begin with, then lead ‘onto the user menu and inputs. It’s an easy piece of cadeto Follow and as such can alse be expanded well too. dof subtracts, »] return x-y def multiply(x, y): return x" y det divides, y) st wei return x fy al peint("Select operation \a") a peint(*L Ada") Print("Z.Subtract”) rint("3.Mottiply") Print(™4.divide") choice = input(*\ninter choice (2/2/2/8:") ‘nun = int(iaput("\nnter fizet number: °)) und = intlinput("Enter cecond nuaber: *)) Af choice =v Peint{numt,"4",ava2,"=", ade(nom],nom2)) Improved Calculations SLE choice = 12’: The obsious contender for improvement here is using the print(numt *-",num2,“=", subtract{mund mam2}) eae Your Own Modules route and extracting the function Gefnitios as a module You canthencallthe mod le an focus elif choice == 13: con the body of the code. peint(nuni “*"num2,"*°, multiply(eumt,sua2}) of improvements making calcul while loop, so once a value is presented the user's sent back 1, Perhata,ipravement to the Invalid input ingintoas welt alie choles == peine(nunt,*/" rund, ‘peint("Invalid inpot") "=", Airs (set mz)) ado Coding for Pytanmae il oe Pts on ) | HANGMAN.PY eg Sune ‘ fe've made a Hangman game board (the gallows) out of extremely.complex, displaying! aaa te ay be dcplayed in me IDLE Skolt sions with Se eda i RE a res ‘ahuge bank of words to randomly choose from. tSee coals available wor ) import random Pats] eu Cas ear Fr; ees Pear Pieced crs WA ei) a uh Lira) Cy cn Re 4 Chee us >ppopppppiannmancececceece r (oye to ole addef _ init__(self word: nalf.miseed letters = [] self guessed letters = (] def quess{sel£ letter): sf letter in self word and letter not in self. guessed _ letters: self.guessed letters append(Letter} elit letter not in eelf.vord and letter not in self.migsed _ Letters self.aieced letters sppend{letter) else: return ‘rue ef hangean _ over(eelt) return self hangman _won() or (len(eslf.nissed _ letters) = 6) ef hangean _ won(eel) Af 1) ne in aelf hide _word(}: ef hide _wordisels) for letter in self.vord: if letter not in self.guessed _ letters: else: rin = Letter def print game _ status(se1£): print Goard[len(eel£.nissed _letters)]) FEint (Word: ' + selfhide “word()) Print (‘letters Missed: ) for letter in selfmissad letters print (letter) = print ( Print (‘letters Guessed: *) for letter in self.guessed letters: print (letter) pEint () det rand _ wordt) bank = ability about above absolute accessible accommodation accounting beautiful bookstore calculator clever engaged engineer enough handsome refrigerator opposite socks interested strawberry backgamnon anniversary confused dangerous entertainment exhausted impossible overveight temperature vacation aciosors accommodation appointment decrease development earthquake envionment brand environnent necessary audios. ( Hangman Game Script luggage xeeponeible ambassador eizcunstance congratulate frequent’ eplit() czeturn hank[randon randint(0,Len(bent))] Sac sea: ‘gano = Hangnanirand _word()) while not. game.hangman _ over): ‘gane.print _ gana _ status() ‘user _Anput = input (\ninter a letter: ') gane guess(user _ input) game.print _gane _status() if game.hasgman _von(): Beint (*\nCongeatulations! You have won!) print (‘\nSorry, you have Jost.") Print (The word was "+ gane.xor3) print (\nGoodbye!\n') QUIT) ‘Since this isthe last examale in our Python cade repose thought weld go out with abang and feature the hancman ‘gallows being raven with each incorrect quess ofthe word, Don't worry fittooks misaligned in the texchese this is merely ‘due tothe cif ferences between using the Python IDLE eit and pastnathe code into @ ward processor shich formats things different There's plenty you cande to improve, enhance anc expand on t weve presented here Vou canincudea routine that Fetuinsan error ube user enters a number or character. You ca inclicie extra points For someone wha guesses the ence word inone garrther than one etter at atime and you could perhaps add Chopin's Funeral March should you lase the game: Or something celebratory you wi. Consider replacing te bankof wares too. They're Found under Ube bank is, and could easly be swapped out for something ou download yaa cithub cami enc asards you can ind atext documencavth ever 466,000 words Perhaps you could swap tha words inthe bank Lo insleadraad the contents of te text File more offical et rand _ word: with open("7home/pi/Downloads/wards.tat", “re") as £: Danke’ readiines() ‘setuen bank [renden,candint(0,en(bank))T Coding for than( Learning to Use Linux Gl Linux is a remarkably versatile and powerful operating system. It's used throughout the programming world and in engineering, science, space exploration, education, gaming and everything else in between. It’s the OS of choice for high performance servers, the backbone of the Internet and it Powers the Fastest supercomputers in the world. Knowing how to use Linux, and how it’s structured, is key to being able to create better Python content. The Raspberry Pi, for example, uses a Linux-based OS and as such makes For an excellent coding platform. Regardless of whether you're using aPi like us, Linux Mint or Ubuntu, these pages will prove invaluable while you learn Python, 426 What's Linux? 128 Using the Filesystem ¥30 Listing and Moving Files 132 Creating and Deleting Files 134 Create and Remove Direstories 136 Copying, Moving and Renaming Files 138 Using the Man Pages 140 Editing Text Files 142. Getting to Know Users 144 Ownership and Permissions 146 Useful System and Disk Commands 148 Managing Programs and Pracesses 150 Input, Output end Pipes 152 Fun Things to Doin the Terminal 154 More Fun Things Lo Do im the Terminal 486 Linux Tipsand Tricks 158 AZof Linux Commands 160 Glossary of Python Terms aLearning to Use Linux BED seesitsetnn ) What is Linux? ntact w A ae LIL ae Ae Ee areola eR ect what exactly is Linux? Where did it come From and what does it do? In a world where Mn ee inuccoste tert tenes camtarks tse Mit contacts aia i aircon lem com A alte aan RTL NTOTN aUIMTIe Ny isinaly powerful, Fast, secure and capable operating system. It's used as the OS of choice For the Raspberry Pi, tthe Form of Rasphian OS, as well asin some of the most unlikely places. Despite only enjoying a 1.968% share faccording tonetmarketshare, com) ofthe total deskton onerating systern market. Linu has2 dedicated following of enthusiasts, usersand contibutors was crested in 1991 by University of Helsing stucent, Linus Torvalds, ‘wha had become Frustrated with the imitations énd icensing ofthe popular educaticnal system Minis, amniniature version ofthe Unix ‘operating system, in use a the tine Unde sot was releasedin the early'70s, asa multitasking, modular designed operating system originally daveloped for progiamme: ‘who reeded = stable platform ca code on, However, its performan powerand portabiley meant tat t soon became the system of Choice far companies ane universities where high-end camauting tasks were needed BOOTLOADER The bootloader isthe software that iniialises and boots up E yourcompurer. I loads up the various modulesthe OS uses to begin toaccess the hardware inthe system. You can modify a bootleaelet bo load more than ane OS installed on the system, Daemons are backround services that start as tne operating system ls booting. These can enable printing, sound, networking andso oa. They run unaberusively rather than under the direct control af the user, aften waitina to be activated by an event or condition. DESKTOP ENVIRONMENT) The Destop Environment, or DE, isthe main Graphical User InterFace (CUI) chat users Interact with l's tre desktop, thet Includes internet browsers, productivity, games and whatever program ar ana youre using. There are countless DES avallanle Respbian uses PIXEL. “Torvalds neededia system that could ieror Unis's performance and Features, without the licensing cost. Thus was bom Linux, the Unix-like operating system which used Freely available code from the GNU project. This enabled users around the world to utilise the ower of the Uniclike system, completely free of charge, an ethas that still holels today: Linas Free to download, install and use. ti xismuch like any other operating system, such as Windows or “0S inthat it manages the computer hardware, provides an terface fr the user to access that harchware and comes with rogram for productivity, communications, gaming, science, ‘education ang more. Linuxcan be brosen up intoa umber oF i elements: fee re es a8 ‘This. a module withia Linux that provides a graphical outpuk to your monitor Iesreferred tos the X server 0° simply fst X Xisan application that manages one or mare graphical displays and ane or meze input devices (zeyboard, mouse, ete) connerced tothe computer, ‘The kemelis the care ofthe system and the single element that is actually called Linux. The Linux kernel manages the computer processor, memory, storage andany peripheralsyou have attacned to your comautes provides the basic services For all othe: parts oF the OS, aele AUN Aaa) \With Linux being an open source, free operating system, also makes use of the tans of thousandé oF freely available aaplications, The likes of LibveOfFce, GIMP and Python are jest the bp of the icebergThe Linux shells commence interface enviranment that a Linuxuser can use to enter commands to the O5 chat drecty affect it. Within the shel you can add new users, rebootthe system, create and delete files anwfolders, and much mace. BASH (Bousne Again She!) i the most pepular shell Used in Linu, althaueh more ate asilable, Te shies also known asthe minal, anc i's where you're goingto work from through this section of the book Tuxsthe Linux mascot (nus tkes Penguins). aff Raspbian-on the Raspberry PIs the Linux distribution of chaice, D4 my ‘ADesktop Environment can beas complex or assimple as the userdesires. Curatsinnn CE Linus Torvalds, the creator of the Linux kernel Linux i used throughout the werte, na number of Basie and) quive unicue uses, hie may Look radicaly different Fa lenviron-nent tothe rest, the actual linus kernel, cam be rn modern smart Tvs, in-car entertainment syscems and GPS, Supercomputers, loT davices and the Raspberry IS used by NASA, both in the command centre ard onboard the 5. Linux servers power the backbor: Internet, along witn most oF the ebsites you visit daly. Android utilises components ofthe Linas kernel as de sel b reecet, ones, ames consoles and even you Fridge, fn and washing machine, Linuxisiitjusta eto use opevatingsystern. e's stable, powerful and fost, easly customised ancirecqires very tle maintenance, However, t's more than just perforrmance stats Linux means freedom from the walled garden approach oF he operating systems. t's ively community of tke-minded iaivié uals sho want more from their comauters without che shackles af price confarmity, LinuxGETTING AROUND To drop into the Terminal, click on the Fourth icon From the left along the top of the Raspberry Pi desktop, the one with a right- Facing arrow and an underscore. This isthe shell, or Terminal. BERD em etstaceuomauye BED crestsioverinconewernw cat inside each a cl Fhomefpi it means te pislrectany since the hi Enter €lear and aressreturn to clean the screen, Ni you'll olQurs: executable Files This stands for Print Working Directory and csalays, 1s} are tight green, archived flesare red and so on. Blue andswhite are thebwo you need ka know to gel stivted, hea yaulog in Le your Raspberry Pi, you daa! FPID) Now you're going la mave From the pidiecteryinto start atthe bese of tnehard drive known as the the Documents cirectory, Encer: ed Documents, 9/35 the conost decoy}, steed you begin 2° Linuxis case sensitive, which means ou inside your user crectory, which Is named by defaul. and ster the exact name including covreetcapitalsation. the tselFina ¢ led home! Directaries are indicated by the'? d stands for change dtectary, Now enter ad again ory called called symaol, 5 root 3 di home, andthe next"/" says that inside “home” isa dire *. Thats where you stant FED cerneg steer series volume 37‘cots means the ry. nee never use "cd rth knowing eceuse ry bur t's ABSOLUTE VS RELATIVE PATHS. ED: Pictur your Doruments cirectory ch be this directory to move pack up tu 4 Docunents/Pictures: use cd 2/s It is important to know the difference between the warking directory, root directory and home, There are also two types of path: Absolute and Relative, These are easier to understand than they sound. Let's take a look... Ceca a meet ty Ce eee et comets ree ue conta cen ea Geen at ain sd ect ete eee etn ce FED he soot directory is lays Entering LE crear perry eerie nea eeterriae fe eee ees ee mm ace Ute ean eel tale ene rat Meat Pen ae rename) Beles ies attemptsto list the content of Pictures in a directory called Documents inside the root directory (because the ‘path started with J", whichis root), There is typically no Documents Cen eee eed weed ek ee eee na area tena starting without the is known asa "relative path because itis ea nt pee tetas Cr eau een STEP 4 Entering: EEE always ists the contents of yourhome directory, Ree ee ee eta ena Ree eimemei a cueun cme nety wherever you are: enter: [ERASMAS to cisplay ReesLOOKING AT FILES Operating systems are built on files and Folders, or directories ifyou prefer. While you're used to viewing your own files, most operating systems keep other files out of sight. In Raspbian, you have access to every file in the system. vic lists he les Ha Afber dhe permission letters came a single number. oF files theiters F's afi least 2, This isdec inwetory cx awitva single dat ne with be Directories cantaining files or ot rectoties will have = hicher rumber ument.This's anoplion that mecifies the ve I argument ls Hles and diectoriesin long fle and directory's now on asin inst you'l see lots of ecters Next you see the word" ited line, This refers to the user rather tar your deravle username is pr). Tne First ist wee on each name of ‘and dashes, like 'ervxrarx. Da sworty abut these for nows they 1n 35 permissions and well come to those later the secandis the group. Ty ly these wl ot an enters Is =F jas in the oot cirectory that belong to foul see ether par Toot. Yo BED ocr vog steer series volumes?ne next number relates cuirent, Fis anc’ clrectories can be divectory with ack neh SOME COMMON DIRECTORIES Now that you know how to view the contents of your hard drive you'll start to notice a lot of directories with names like bin, sbin, vvar and dev. These are the files and directories that you are kept away from on a Mac, and won't encounter on a Windows PC. STEP 1 peas (ch eee geese) Cre mrmnt inerrant? eae Ermer tay gem ester eee esi ee a eee Te eee eas rmak@ up your Raspblan OS (whichis a version oF Linus). 'sworth From the default home directory. This is where you are expected Prt cement to place mostof the documents you create, Don't confuse home ‘vith "usr the /ust directorys where find you Find program tools eres Be = onc ane ge Soles dieconitresdnwies isthe ERIM isa duc tt consis code STECZ Ce Ma eae oa SERS Ce en eeu Sep cua eect si See ae ceca "up your system. Dev contains references to your devices: hard re ee a en ee nat treet ary drive, keyboard, mouse and so on. Etc contains your system Ee ee ce eee meee ea ee eee ee eee en caeeuemu ena ene ese Cerium)CREATING FILES Once you learn to recognise the Files and directories that make up Raspbian OS, it's time to discover howe to make your own, Knowing how to make, edit and delete files and directories is essential iF you want to make your own projects. neeqongtouatestiengaconmard ated ERRRAEB seu to oue ae vat doe you cut toe file, or directory, and updates i janges the system me ‘touich/testtfile and Ls /=I to view the files. You'lt now havea siTyou'd ust opened the file), Youean see Teueh inaecessusing "ie ew fle ny aditettory called ‘testfle". Notice thatthe size aralcheccna thetime next i aclrestary (such as Scratch) a the fileis ise thas nothing ini Now enter: touch Serateh and 1S/=L again and EED Auick wore about filenames: remember thal notice that the time has changed Linuxiscese sensitive, so you now encer Couch fe currenttime. You might be wondering what this has TeStfile (witr a canitel 1) itdoesn'tupdate vestfle’ inscead, i eating Mies or diectaries. Touch has seeane, more p creates a second fie calec Teste’, Enter: IS =L to see both les, which istocreate files This isconsing, so most people sick rercase lettersAnother imaortant rhina to k test file fis", Technically there are we ti REMOVING FILES oa Pur a Cece er ee ony uaLataretan a Cure Deen iu eT ee es tro Perea acy Fallowed the steps before then youshould ea) et Bee eco p ob eeu e Mra caieet eames Aas CCC eo “Testhile” (with the uppercase “t").Enter: [ESET and youl find it's Pee a eee ee oe Cece ee eon mes tec) Eee emt cis De lee Oe e oe ne ergo wo files, But again this is something you really need to dowith care First use “sto lst the files and make sure itsthe one you wantto delete. Enter: ISM to view files that match the word "test and any other characters. The "* character eee eee ere Dee ene re Rote mime en ae emcee ect rtd OT ee ee eee ae RUURTUmeeag"n test Lee ue eeiE Finally enter: IMI to get ri of the confusing file,Learning to Use Linux.) Create and Remove Directories MANAGING FILES AND DIRECTORIES Now that you know howto create files, you'll want to learn how to make directories, which are the same thing as folders, as ‘well as move items around. If you are more used to working with a desktop interface, this can take a bit of getting used to. youcan eeate multiple director “the mali command. Enter: ki Enter: TS to quickly ache home location, ries are created Enter mkelir home direccory, Ente Eestdim’to creat Ts again ta see | step 2 } ne “mkdir command ie diferent other using Tedoesnt update the rindi Dosuments/ Airectory that aeady exists. Enter: mkdir es ain and yout side you aget the ertor ‘madi esnnot este cirecory ‘testi File exists to akeary exist, though, er: mkdir articles/reports and vous or rere s no articles dre BED sctnog steer series volumes?you need to arts. Fier: 1S GETTING RID OF DIRECTORIES Create and Remove Directories d,option Deleting directoriesis pretty easy in Linux, along with files, and this can bea problem. i's too easy to delete entire directories Containing iles and these are instantly removed, not sent to a trash directory. Tread carefully eee nen ceca STEEs Gea ec ea Ect tana ee umenar mL f (EESTZN and WS agsinto confi the directory has been removed. Ree eter ec TEP 2 Cette ane ers] eee snes ae Pee en eee tea Ue nse cro! BORE ta ere ets sirectories, you return to the “rm command used ee eee Semen a Cu mae aetna Ceres eget ne agen -k arciclosiay Se es BID 2: with multiple files youcan delete multiple eee aad ror cane ee et eee eee sean RO see es Eis budreturniotce eu es eee TetCn eer arene ate aceLearning to Use Linux.) Copying, Moving and Renaming Files USING THE MOVE COMMAND In Linux, renaming a file is simply moving it From ane name to another and copying a File is moving it without deleting the original. Don't panic, it’s quite easy to ma rove anythi Le testa and press cetusr estivems incur zi ile dacument inti olongerinthe | step 2 } h files are moved inthe same: ay testdir newparent zo movet looked at so far x parent directory. Let's move into the ‘ommend line's commane, option, argument). TheFist atgument _cfrectoryto find the file Eater- ed nenparent/testdir and isthe source (the Fle ordirectoryto be moved) and the secondis enter: LS to view the teste sting incide the directory be cestination directory BED sce vog steer series volume 37th ani th isthe current diectar Emerme testfile ouble dot isthe parent he t RENAMING FILES AND DIRECTORIES. Copying, Moving and Renaming Files cd nv nenparent/testfile nenparent nave the testi from tscurrer directory, Enter Is! estdin/te: location back insice the esc nenparent/tiestdirr co view the Fle backin Sea ern Ca eee eae me mCi gar aust) eho meer tee ye eee ene ems Biogeouch esr cemete a tues eee art Contains the names of some people. So let'scallt something more oe a ae Enter (NEESER and Now we can Seema eros ay ere es let are reese ee ee ee eee} Ce eas ccc se ils en See eee ea ere es STEP 3 ade aeebeaacedeaerur ara ‘which is now inside the weople directory, Enter: IMATE estdir nanes/friendsaemeavagny names peop le/] HARGIS to move the names file inside the friends directory. ee er ae a ee ene ad cee ene erates Exeirouch testh ieee | Re easy Cie perenne cy; J Learning to Use Linux Using the Man Pages HEY, MAN! ‘The man pages are one of the best Features of Linux, and asa built-in tool it's invaluable For both beginner and senior level Linux administrators. Let's see how it works. Limos has @ bult-in manual, known as man fo Short, Using the man command you ean ebtain -mation on all che Linux talked about. Sime entes:tan ar tlse name of the command you wan Lo learn more aut. Start by entering: tan, 1 in the commandline ‘Most commands are prety easy Le Figure out ha to use, sowhat you spend most ofthe time inthe ing une he Description. Here you willsee all the es used to activate tern, Mast man pages are Longerthan asta page, so press any key, such asthe snace ha, nove to the nex EER Te man pagesare a bit more detalied than you Imightbe used to. Fat se, hich tells eae the synopsis shows you haw ic works. tis case "'s [aPnON]. (FILE J" Sa you enter: 1S followed by options (suchas Aa and the File or citectory ta is PresstheH key while laaking al aman page to view the commands you can use to control the view This iscalleg the Summary of Less Commands (che less camimand s something we'll come to when welookat editing text, Far now ‘ove back and Forward with 7 and Wt, Press Q alse that witom a Tyo heman page mation. Typically you wl find [rns that can ae useful for mare infatration. Press Q to ext.the: man page and return tothe commandline USING MAN OPTIONS ened ing the Man Pages uch ran chaod Cee er en Cora aerate er tore ae reg Pea Or ais Entering: HERE enables you to view some of the options, But sometimes you'lljust want a quick Pe ee eee ec lists the options. Press Q if you're in a man page and enter: TEAMED Bere eget i Marites em ea Enter ARAB to view all of the man pages relating Perce ear ee renee ea maa ere ee eee erty ees F Go STEP 2 ane tiarreeaunaree ateonirints i peer e eet ar aer Barre eaten eet eae arertoe eee Cee ee eee er ee ere eet? Care eee eMa eerie a ets Se eee Beene eat ear ciTHE JOY OF TEXT Tobe able to edit or create a text file, youneed a good text editor. Linux has many but here are some inaction on the Raspberry Pi ee either daubleclickan existing text filer click the manwicon (inthe Lap let of the desktop) and fvem the ssaries menu, chagse Text Ea oe mins, One oF the vied aver From launch any oF the d na For ect exit Nano ithout saving ng your“ Editing Text Files Gl Emacs, or GNU Emacs, is an extensible and | steps ) Emacs can offer an uncomplicated wiew of your text cuscomissble,seltedacumencing realime display Fle or one witha plethora ot information regarding editor. 'sa Fantastic test editor and one thst'sworth cetting used rueture of the Fle In question it's up ta yout werk out your s sagitas you cai. Sadly, t's rat installed on the Piliydefeult, awn preference. These’s aso a hitden tex! adventure sovou'll need to instalit, Inthe Terminal enter sudo apt=get| hich we cover later inthis Book, why not see you can find it install ewacs without our hela ne previous command cores the Os sanother excellenttexedrar or Linx aE {Raspbian is based on 2 Debian Linux distribution), Sure Again, it's not installed by default on the Raspberry ‘eposkories an pls don the infrration nee total nowt, by een: Sudo epteget tnstall ged ancl Emacs When the Pigs tocontnde with the nstalation,press¥, accepting the stalation, the program can beon the I na matte Thisinsalsthelatestverson and whenit’sdone,youllbebackto of seconds Once t's instal use Qe inte Terminal aunch nea pronst 1 Ged sopeat tent ecto for cong Oncetiinstlaton scope ener IIR Rouea arenas compare ED iocsctamncttecnocspustsceet aves MaMa coc cae stgosegneandcentswth asestn offering atutorial which we recommend yourun of features. To install t enter Sudo “apt-get install ed. ation anc wien i's comalete, use; jed to launch through and a guidec tour amongst other information. ‘Accept the insta = audomubiaionssn cosingtorrychon QIehtioe Tet xagsy WHAT IS A USER? {An important part of using Linux is the concept of users and understanding which user you are and which group you belong to. Like all modern computers, you can have multiple user accounts with each having different levels of access. ineand press return. Ieshould you set up you essentiallyi'sthe h ghest evel o thes name differently during setup). The “whoa” commandmightseer already installed text editers using sudo, You'll come aeress sud abit simplistic, butt cames in very hancy sometimes, equeniyin Lin soles ceake # secand aceaunt to ges the hang fit. Enter: Sudo Usenadd =m Lucy far pick vour nar} when you are working im Linus, From line to time a EE Nove ade a password for the new account. Er mrssion denied’ error wil occur, yaicaly when Sudo passiid Lucy andenter:a short pas: ryto create, ecitor exeexce runjatlleer diveccory aurside Retype ‘and you'l now have owe ace sf your area Jeathis enter:mkgim/ your Raspuerty P. Now enter: Us =U home Le view testidin, Attempting to create anew d'rectory inyaur root dicectories for both users. Notice that the | allowed. the owner anc group; and pi directory iwlege. you want Fea perenne eee ees Catena Bee rat cessfully a re o ToC a eee Cnet renee etre) Preertyn” but the working directo this Enter hoon GETTING SUDO ( Getting to Know Users reate files inthe /home/oi cirects ee cota tne eae me ese ene eg ee een ad Filesin fhomefpi. But there's also a third account, called "root", that sits above both lucy and pi.écan edit files anywhere. Rosen ree mace tats une cee Se ace ee Cen eees oom ean renter enema eee ey Deere ecru nee eye ase proc Sa ents raat eer eee un ieee) BRTEEEED Most peonle think sudo stands For “super user", ae dmeie emg Trace mess. -u | SYRIA PATSTIANTST ATO to create a File inside the licy home directory, You wont aet an error because the lucy userhas Pema Clarets EOTeSEEDD I s'20e that you use sudo ta substitute another eer eat ee ie ected eec teas Riri tent teema sudo couch /hone/tucy Fanothertecth le Sfape tens Cony ies Rt re eererTeersTt Poors eee pana ae cae an it needs tobe added to the sudoers file. Enter to view the sudoers file, Add LST TED MWTASS tothe lastline and use Conrol+0 fo output the file. Remove the poeta ure re teeters Deine peers ree ere een errr Cc eee eee}Learning to Use Linux.) Ownership and Permissions OWNER AND PRIVILEGE Each user account in Linux isan owner oF a section of the filesystem: thelr Home area. Within this area, they do what they like (within reason), as they have owner privileges. Elsewhere though, they usually just have read-only privileges. sdthe ace pould now ale tia ase vd Now enver: ES =U and let’shiave a qood look atthe nsfile, Qurtestile tt Fes starts Doerr taeset to On, The sine CHANGING PERMISSIONS nership and Permissions The presence of, oF xmesnsthat this asp ole. adash means itisw Gur} many lettes? Why not just thee; read, vi letcersare for different Group Other Peet ae i ue ere eer ene are ca ene Ce ets reas Ichnodhieticve aa tuemt Re eee to understand, There are two ways you can adjust neuter nei Sr ert en ea aires net id ar Followed by = andthe letters or dashes you want. So enter: EEG to make all three groups read, HERE to see your handiwork. Pee a ae a eu mes COM ak eats eM Eom! Fe te econ ee Neer Lic cies ‘group, thereforeilf a group isread, write and execute it's 7, iFt's ee ead eee eee ad 55 755, Enter: SUEEEMEISENER to change the file Sees een!Learning to Use Linux.) Useful System and Disk Commands LOTS OF LINUX Linux is a huge and versatile command line Language and there are hundreds of commands you can learn and use. Here are a Few that can help you get more from your Raspberry Pi FETED the maspborry Pisa great tle computer so let's start by gett formation Enter tals on your Raspberry? spbery Pi 3 you will see Faur pr games. responcistothe screen (outa). This sthe regular wayof doing ty Gat" autpuls the ist of hems ia anew text file calle “games. dinput and output” (often called "sed mes tt contains the output ror mand. You ca tusing" games Le sa ecitable Lex. file containing alithe permss.ens, ser an filesize information and the names of From thets-{ command, narmalty splayed on the stead Sent Lo Uhl, Press Contsali x les. The output s Far as the computer is concerned, Input and ult can be to and from a whole range oF yours ven think about. A program different sour an get input fiom ath drive andl a whole nos ine, ut also toes, othe!input froma file. Make files, boty eae Jefferson Airplane a USING PIPES ‘As well as directing input and output to and frat neuen ‘nano Input, Output and Pipes ext il asinp sort < i uses the standard output jut and outout togethes rked txt to creat tothe bands. txt era put sot spec Files, you can send the output from one command directly Into another. This PEPER 6: you start to get more advanced in Linux you Cee eons Poa iment ence eterna Pesan BREED Wic've used the pine a few timesin the book ('ps ‘aux less), but you might not have understood arena: The i ea Career isnt displayed on the screen, instead its piped into the we (word aunt) function, This then tells us how many lines, wards and er etre Cua re tec pe ec pote wo ameu neces fect bands ext T sort Tarep they tthe band starting with "The" in alphabetical order, The output of ead eet ees aed ‘output From sartis passed into grep which filters out the bands, Se a eet Soe en tetas STEP 4 ‘create complex expressions, Yau can also use >> CEI eae jands. txt Tne >> REGIS This takes the ovtput From the bandstxt file and pipes it into the we (word count} function, Deon eeu e ae Eeergcat bonds. txtLearning to Use Linux.) Fun Things to Do in the Terminal TERMINAL FUN All these commands are Li Linux distributions ETE Te first command we're goinoto use isl t's rat stalled by cefault sa enter: sudo aptsger EnstalW/SL. The commanc can be run with sianc to inezal the Terminal aoa, Fortune, irs displays a Stearn Locomative traveling, Enter: sudo apt-get install Fortune ther simply encr: Entering: LS (note the upper case) alsa works Fortune, nts the Terminal tosee what comes up reveommandiscertainlyinteresting, and at ule useless addition oo the neseemingly unbreakable ter: Rev anc then type some text, Then press Enter tomel and everything you typed in is reversed, Press Cbs to ext ied having the computer read «om fortune out ta yoat then you's in luck os the screen then Bap =: of Star Ea = Terminal By tink len gets Fawhenitcomesto toa remote server viathe BED =: telnet commane, you can watch Episode IV: New Hope being cab played out, albeit in ASCIL, Ta view this spectacle, enter: SUd@ nasswords apt-get install telnet, Folowed by: tele blinkenbights.oh BED ee cog steer series votune a7Fun Things to Do inthe Terminal (4 jute stuck work cual the possible really wantto expand the whole rom ors for ary particular number, sirmphy en twhatever reason, then pine the Fortune Factor Followedby the number. Fo example, Factor? ‘command throught, with: Foreune! | ‘coWsay: and forthe Fer much output, whereas factor 60 dspleys mare, graphical cow equivalent: Fortune | xcowsay. Plus, there's ss couthink. Tv Comthink «This book-is awesome, ine line between che rather co EED Admittedly, the command tole doesn tinssine ute weird, Having an ASCH cow repeat much canvidence. However, its notas bad as xt Co you could potentially fal into the later. Start by nstaling First sounds, Start oy nsaling it with: Sudo onrteget "ins taLL ay: sudo apt-get. install consay,:nenenter:consay) toilet, men aed, sype something along the ines of Raspberry Pi is Acel. infact put the toilet David; or peshops is: the contents ofthe cutreat folder ‘onwnand through the cow, by entering: Ls” cowsay. ivough it, wid: US) Itoi let. Jet commane, you can actually lupe cance Ease Enter Jang graphiesthreugh ibwith: Sudo @pt-aet install xcousay, tren when it’s For example, by this toilet =F wionol2 —F metal David installed enter something similar to cowsay, such as, XCONSAYBDM) You can enter: toilet =hellp for lst oF the command line Publications are ace! arguments ta expand fuLearning to Use Linux.) More Fun Things to Do in the Terminal MORE FUN, YAY Since the Terminal session is already open, and your keyboard digits are nicely warmed up, here are another twa pages of daysof computing, ARIA Having alittle white Hello’, 20.got stound the clesktop may Raspblan youcan ime, Oddy though it isnt. Entew sudo. apt: 1 neko, then type: oneka to have Terminal nonsense. pases. Use rouse! cursor around the screen and exit the action than the previous niuallyrepicates one ofthe most) Ea i entryie alittle more serio sdandthere’seven a version of For Bomb ‘or Lina Install tvsith: sudo. ape~gee imply enter: CME 21386 ne encer ChartPAX ane Follow install ematrix. when it’s te rabbit Neo, Unlike the reat Matrix thouah, to ent ingrionate! reboot, prStringing several commands anc piping them ercommendsis what makes srigcing such a powerful ele n OS. Ferexample, using the while ‘mineral, taget her wit tole, can yieid same Impressive results Enter while true; do echa “S(date ‘4x0 MT? | toilet =f term -F border =-metal)"; sleep 1; done ing computers were he Care che '05.Ta Suse relive the fun enter: sudo apt=get' install: speak ther:especk “This. 1s a Rospberry PL" ove Tohune stared up andy the fling Ls Sora ‘ex BE espeak =f Folders txt. Ths gets Raspbian tovead back the contents of the s commanc BETTER 81027119 AS ire isr'tthe most useful command ui but st Sudo opt-get install Tibaa-bin thea use: cafire Ilsa! exactiy warming but you get the idea, To-expand the above, enter Sudo apt-get install bb caca-utils, sven: cacafire More Fun Things to Do inthe Terminal i Nod Used as. music demo from the sic sigs ara kes memories of three ard half inch lopaies erammc ‘of dema scene goodies. "You've alreal int from the previous steg, so just enter: Bb. the onscreen inzructions and turn up your lume. xo parts, Fist younees to get hala ackages: sudo apt-get in ne enter. €d DowiLoads/ 8% get bttmi//search cran.org/CPAN/authors/id/K/KB el tre necessary KBAUCOM/Term-Animation-2.4.tar-gz && tar -xF Term= Animation-2.4targz && cd Term-Animation-2.4/. Folower by: perl Makefile.PL Smoke 88 make test 88 sudo moke install =a ED os ‘obobunny com 8B nget http: //mme rojects/ase iquariun/asei i quar un ‘tor.gz 8& tar =xf asciiquarium,tor.gz && cd asciiquariumt.1/ && chad 4x asctiquarium Providing allwent well, enter: fase iquanium and enjoy your very een ‘ASCILbased aquarium,TAKING COMMAND There are countless Linux tips, secrets, hacks and tricks out there. Some are very old, originating from Linua’s Unix heritage, while others are recent adetons to Linx lore. Here are our ten favour tps and tics, EASTER EGGS yew bie to tose | EINECS os trscess te Leditor, a g but ciel you kr ‘shidelen Easter Egg? with Emacs installed (suda aat-get install, ‘errinal? while not particularly useFul it isa fascinating thing to ernaes24), drop Lea Terminal seccien and ent d. Te €0s0, onto emacs -batch “1 dunnet sudo apt-get install elinks Dunne fs tex: adventure vertzen by Ron Schneltin 1882, and Then: hiddeninEmacs since 1994 — Enter the website you went to vis Pea eso cs 982 ace sae, en home computers Sue guia in La Tenaya cking Atari wget aR hittns://aist gi thubusercontent.. con/sontek/1505483/ raw/74024715ea57e69b52632fee09F42753361¢402/ ssnowjob.sh moon-bugay He chnod 4x snowjad.sh /smomjab .shate eemD Memos Hoos IFyouneed tose BBS : sshich apps ere consuming the most twas made up of Bulletin Board Syst memory an your RasaberryP, simple enter servers provides hangouts Far usersto ch: ‘and more. Using Telnet in Linux, you can stl connect to some active nBSes ps aux | sont -rnke 4 ‘telnet battlestarabs.dyndns.org “There are countiess one ational BBSes avaiable; ch usutelnetbbsauide,com/bbsilistédetailf For “nore BT en a hervou delete a Mle, there's stl achanceot someone with te right software being abie te retrieve it. However, files can be securely anc permanently deleted ssing shred: ee —, shred -zvu NAMEOFFILE txt CURES SSRIS) olde) ree with a cr EQFFILE with the name of the Fle Ni mkdir =p New-Din/ {subfoldert , subfolder?2, subfolders, subfolders} “This creates « NeweDirwith Four subfolders within, rartcan be quit ASCILART tsking when ap , ane ieers Oe Caen ina rele ee (sncteey tying apt jus: righ, You can create some great ASG art from the images eRe ENS yyouaiready have on the Raspberry Piby using ima2vst: avallabie Linuxccommanes. Thankfully help, imgtxt NAMEOFIMAGEFILE. png sine Replace NAMEQFIMAGEFILE with the actual name of the image File vf the conwnand ‘apropos “copy files” ‘apropos “rename files!”eee fs A-Z of Linux Commands There are literally thousands of Linux commands, so while this is not a complete A-Z, it Cooder ee oder ecumenism ciel Uke ais) Cretan emarl cmesecenumueue stant etme ei tants inl overall knowledge is still very useful. A G adduser ‘Adda newuser dd Data Dump. cenvert and gawk Find and Replace text arch Print machine architecture Snag winnie se HS tnintacioe "HATS ayocauciss BREET Sic a be Aniatbitary precision named filets) te head ‘Qutput the first part constant Ain sicriadteaeios orn on the standard output eee : ce web Sevens iecicar” asian” Pico Sega ane chair hengerworing Sectory sree chorp changathe aroun extended expression onmersip of ies ; : on Bilayer emove cand chroot: Change root directory environment variabies oe (OES lst) cksum Print CRC checksum and expand Convert tabs to spaces wi Help inte ae exer Eualuate mipressons a oon op Gompare tu fies PS o comm ‘Compare two sorted Files F Unebe ine J op Copy one or more files to Fae Bristirene oes join Join tines on a anotyerlocstion fdisk comme ed crontab Schedule acommand to mngnistor fer Liaue runat aletertine farep Search Flt} For lines that K split Salita fle into context: ae tae aed cerermines pees fina Searehfortiesthatmeat MT ees cut Divide a file into ee ee sevralpans fn fefarnal pangaghent fendi Wapieeisris LL D specified width less Display output one screen atime on Pistay achat — a See In make links between Files: dake & time fsck Filesystem consistency i is ss ae check andrepsr locate aLoaname pe: lor lprm nl rnohup P passad paste pathchk pr printcap printeny print® quota quotacheck quotact R Print current login name Line printer control sregram oftlineprine Remove obs from the print queue See Hela manual (Create new Folders) Make FiFOs inamed pines) ‘Make block or characker special files Display output ane screen atatme Int ale system Set the priority of 3 ‘commane or job Number lines and write Fes Run a.command immune to hangups Med fy auser password Merge lines o files (Check Fe name porcabaity CConverttext Files for pitting Pen apablly dalabase Priatenranmen: variables Format and print data Display disk usage and limits Scan file system for tisk usage Seta ssc quotas vm rain rom rsync sdiff select seq, shutdown sleep sort ‘split symlink sync tac toil tor tee test time ‘touch top traceroute tr tsort Mcfinxcomens CRE sores U ae tumour Unmount adeviee eee unexpand Convert spacestatabs unia Uniquify Files units Convert units rom one seale to anathe’ unshar Unpacishellarchiveseripts useradd ——Crestenew user account Terminatwindow manager USO == Modify use: account eee users Listusers cnrenty ge woo fies meractvely tose Accept keyboard inpuc Prrecceaues Vf Shutdown ocrestatt NOt uy Verbosely ist directory a Execute or display Make anew name for ao HE Spach onise data ondick lates ol pepe ‘with memory which Locate e pragrar file in resin the user's path who Print all usernames currently loggedin thoani Print the current user id andname te xX Red maltiple es Resource Use change filetimestamps the system Tr Route to Host anslate, squeeze andor delete characters lopological sortz= Learning to Use Linux. } Glossary of Python Terms Just like most technology, Python contains many confusing words and acronyms. Here then, for your own sanity, is a handy glossary to help you keep on top of what’s being Pema tecm cise ountueteslat neal cece Mush Argument The detaied extrainformation used by Python to perform more detaied commands. Can also be used in the conmmand prompt to specva vertain runtime event. Block Used to descnbe 2 section or sections of codethat are grouped together Break ‘A cormmand that can be used to exit afor ot while loop, For example, IF key s nressed to quitthe program, Break willext Ere loop. Class ‘class provides a means of undinadate and Functional together They are usec za eneansuiate variables 2nd funetionsincoa single ent, Comments ‘A commentisa section of eal ward worting inserted by the plagrammer tohelp document what's going avin une code, They ‘can ae single line or multiline and are defined by a # or Debian {8 Lmcbased dstra or distrution hat Forms the Osbiaa P-oject This erwironment offers the user a friendly and stable GUI to interact with along with Terminal commands and other Forms oF system evel administration Def Used ta define 3 function of method in Python, Dictionaries A dictlonaryin Python isa data structure that candistsof key and vale pairs Distro ‘Ako Distniution, an operating shen that uses the Laux cemel ass ‘core but offers something differenti its presentation cathe end user, Editor ‘An india program, or 2 part ofthe graphical version oF Python, that enables che user ta enter code ready for execution. Exceptions Used aa mears of breaking from the normal low of a code blockin ‘order to hance any potential errors exceptional cantons within theprograr. Expression Essentilly, Python code tha producesa value of something Float ‘An nmutable floating point numer used in Python, Function Usedin Python te definea sequence of statements that canbe calles or referenced at any time by che programmer. GitHub ‘A eb-39sed version control and collaboration portal designed for Software developers to better manage source cade. Global Variable ‘Avariable chat is useable anywhere in the program. Graphics ‘The use of visual nzeraction with a program, game or operating system. Designed to make it easier For Une user to manage the jagiam in question GUI Graphical User interface, The interface which most moder ‘operating systems use to enable the user to interact with che ‘core aragramming of the system. friendly, easy 0 use graphical clesktop enuitonment High-Level Language ‘A progtamnming Language that’s signed to be way For people to read HOLE Stands or integrated Development Euironment or integrated Development and learning Environment. Immutable Spiething that cannot be changed ales itis created, Import Uwdin Python tone modules togevier wih llthe accompanying code, inctonsand variables they coal, Indentation thon uses indentation to delimit blocks oF code The indents are Four spaces apart, and are often created automaticallyafter 2 colon susedin te code,Integer ‘uur datatype that mustbea 2 decimal Interactive Shell ‘The Python Shell hich is dlsplayed whenever you launch che raphical version oF Python. Kernel The care of an operating system, which handles eata precessing, memory allocation, input and cutout, and processes infermation between the hardware and programs. Linux An open source operating system Developed in 1991 by Finnish tude at's modllled ont UNI Linus Torvalds, Lists ‘A Bychon datatype that contains collections of values, which can be ‘of any type and can -eaclly be maciied. Local Variable ‘variable thay's defined insie 2 Function andiis only that Function Loop ‘plete of code tat cepeats tse unis certain condtion met: Loops cn encase the ete code or jst sections of Module python fle that jer rogram ta futher extendthe effectiveness of the ans various Functions that car be used win sno ode. Operating System ‘Also 05. The proram that’s loaded into the comauterfrer the intiak boot sequence hes completed. The OS the athe programs graphical user interface (Gul), mput and output and Physical herd ware interactions withthe use Output Data thats sen rom the program to sereen, printer or other ‘external perionera PIP Pip Installs Packages. A package management system used to install 2nd manage modules anc othe softwere wrten Python. Print ‘function usec to cisnlay the output of something tothe screen, Prompt The element of Python, orthe Command Line, where the User ‘enters their commands In Python t's represented as >>> in the interactive shel Pygame ‘AP\thon nodule thas dessgned for wing games. Rineludes

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