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317 views165 pages

Broadband Technician: National Skill Development Corporation

broadband technician

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SAKTHILAKSHMI

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You are on page 1/ 165

National Skill Development

Corporation

BROADBAND TECHNICIAN

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM

VERSION 1 - MAY 2016

Broadband Technician Introduction to Communication System

1. INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

STRUCTURE
1.1 INTRODUCTION

1.2 OBJECTIVES

1.3 DATA REPRESENTATION

1.4 BYTES

1.5 DATA TRANSMISSION

1.6 BIT RATE

1.7 MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION

1.8 BAUD &BAUD RATE

1.9 NOISE & ATTENUATION IN COMMUNICATION

1.10 SUMMARY

1.11 KEY LEARNING

1.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

1.13 WORKSHEET

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Communication, whether between human beings or computer systems, involves the transfer of
information from a sender to receiver. Data communication refers to exchanger of digital
information between two digital devices. In this chapter, we examine some of the basic concepts
and terminology relating to data communication. Data representation, serial/parallel data
transmission and asynchronous/synchronous data transmission concepts are discussed first. We
then proceed to examine some practical concepts of Bit rate, Baud rate, Noise and attenuation and
their impact in data communication.Communication is the process of sending, receiving &
interpreting data by means of a protocol or bilateral agreement.Transmission means the transfer of
data from the source to the destination. Thus, every communication session involves transmission
sessions but, every transmission may not involve communication.

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1.2 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this session is to make trainee aware of concepts of data communication and its
related important terms, definations and parameters.

1.3 Data representation

Data is represented in form of bits. “Bits” word has been taken from Binary Digits.A binary digit
or bit has only two states, “0” and “1” and can represent only two symbols, but even the simplest
form of communication between computers requires a much larger set of symbols, e.g.
 52 (capital and small) letters,
 10 numerals from 0 to 9,
 punctuation marks and other special symbols, and
 terminal control characters – Carriage Return (CR), Line Feed (LF).

Therefore, a group of bits is used as a code to represent a symbol. The code can be7 to 32 bits
long depending on the type of code being used. An 7-bit code can represent 27 = 128 symbols
whereas 32-bit code can represent 232 symbols. ASCII (American Standard Code for information
Interchange) code is 7 bit code whereas Unicode is 32 bit code. Unicode can represent character
of any language available in the world.

1.4 BYTES
Byte is a group of bits which is considered as a single unit during processing. It is usually eight
bits long. The byte is a unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight bits. The
byte is the number of bits used to encode a single character of text in a computer and for this
reason it is the smallest addressable unit of memory in many computer architectures. The unit
symbol kB is commonly used for kilobyte, but may be confused with the still often-used
abbreviation of kb for kilobit.In data transmission systems, the byte is defined as a contiguous
sequence of bits in a serial data stream, representing is the smallest distinguished unit of data.

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1.5 DATA TRANSMISSION

There is always need to exchange data, commends and other control information between a
computer and its terminals or between two computer. This information, as we saw in the previous
section, is in the form of bits.
Data transmission refers to movement of the bits over some physical medium connecting two or
more digital devices. There are two options of transmitting the bits, namely, Parallel transmission,
or Serial transmission.
1.5.1 Parallel Transmission
In parallel transmission, all the bits of a byte are transmitted simultaneously on separate wires as
show in Fig. 1 and multiple circuits interconnecting the two devices are, therefore, required. It is
practical only if the two devices, e.g., a computer and its associated printer are close to each other.

Fig. 1 Parallel transmission

1.5.2 Serial Transmission

In serial transmission, bits are transmitted serially one after the other (Fig.2). The least significant

1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

Transmitter Receiver
Fig. 2 Serial transmission

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Bit (LSB) is usually transmitted first. Note that as compared to transmission, serial transmission
requires only one circuit interconnecting the two devices. Therefore, serial transmission is suitable
for transmission over long distances.

1.6 BIT RATE

Bit rate is simply the number of bits which can be transmitted in a second. If t p is the duration of a
bit, the bit rate R will be 1/tp. It must be noted that bit duration is not necessarily the pulse
duration. For example, in Fig.3, the first pulse is of two-bit duration. Letter, we will come across
signal formats in which the pulse duration is only half the bit duration.

1.7 MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION

There are two methods of timing control for reception of bits. The transmission modes
corresponding to these two timing methods are called Asynchronous transmission and
Synchronous transmission.
Asynchronous Transmission
We call an action asynchronous when the agent performing the action does so whenever it wishes.
Asynchronous transmission refers to the case when the sending end commences transmission of
bytes at any instant of time. Only one byte is sent at a time and there is no time relation between
consecutive bytes, i.e., after sending a byte, the next byte can sent after arbitrary delay (Fig. 3).In
the idle state, when no byte is being transmitted, the polarity of the electrical signal corresponds to
“1”

Idle Idle Idle

Start Start
1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
Stop bit Stop bit
bit bit

Fig. 3Asynchronous transmission.

Due to the arbitrary delay between consecutive bytes, the time occurrences of the clock pulses at
the receiving end need to be synchronized repeatedly for each byte. This is achieved by providing
two extra bits, a start bit at the beginning and a stop bit at the end of a byte.
Start Bit. The start bit is always “0” and is prefixed to each byte. At the onset transmission of a
byte, it ensures that the electrical signal changes form idle state “1” to “0” and remains at “0” for
one bit duration. The leading edge of the start bit used as a time reference for generating the clock
pulses at the required sampling instants. Thus, each onset of a byte results in resynchronization of
the receiver clock.
Stop Bit. To ensure that the transition from “1” to “0” is always present at the beginning of a
byte, it is necessary that polarity of the electrical signal should correspond to “1” before
occurrence of the start bit. That is why the idle state is kept at “1”. But there may be two bytes,
one immediately following the other and if the last bit of the first byte is “0”, the transition from
“1” to “0” will not occur. Therefore, a stop bit is also suffixed to each byte. It is always “1” and
its duration is usually 1, 1.5 or 2 bits.

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Synchronous Transmission
A synchronous action, unlike an asynchronous action, is carried out under the control of a timing
source. In synchronous transmission, bits are always synchronized to a reference clock
irrespective of the bytes they belong to. There are no start or stop bits. bytes are transmitted as a
block (group of bytes) in a continuous stream of bits (Fig. 4). Even the inter block idle time is
filled with idle characters.
Direction of Transmission

Fla Block Of bytes Flag Idle data Flag Block Of bytes Flag
g

Block 2 Block 1

Fig. 4 Synchronous transmission.

Continuous transmission of bits enables the receiver to extract the clock from the incoming
electrical signal . As this clock is inherently synchronized to the bits, the job of the receiver
becomes simpler.
There is, however, still one problem. The bytes lose their identity and their boundaries need to be
identified. Therefore, a unique sequence of fixed number of bits, called flag, is prefixed to each
block. The flag identifies the start of a block. The receiver first detects the flag and then identifies
the boundaries of different bytes using a counter. Just after the flag there is first bit of the first
byte.
A more common term for data block is frame. A frame contains may other fields in addition to the
flag. We will discuss frame structures later in the chapter on Data Link Control.
1.8 BAUD
When bits are transmitted as an electrical signal having two levels, the bits rate and the
“modulation” rate of the electrical signal are the same (Fig. 5). Modulation rate is the rate at

Fig. 5 Baud rate for two-level modulation.

which the electrical signal changes its levels. It is expressed in bauds (“per second” is implied).
Note that there is one to one correspondence between bits and electrical levels.
It is possible to associate more than one bit to one electrical level. For example, if the electrical
signal has four distinct levels, two bits can be associated with one electrical level (Fig. 6). In this
case, the bit rate is twice the baud rate.

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Fig. 6 Baud rate for four-level modulation.

1.9 NOISE AND ATTENUATION IN COMMUNICATION

Noise is any unwanted signal that may interfere our desired signal and may lower the strength of
desired signal. Signal-to-noise ratio is the parameter which compares the strength of signal to the
strength of noise.Signal-to-noise ratio (often abbreviated SNR or S/N) is an electrical engineering
measurement defined as the ratio of a signal power to the noise power corrupting the signal.
In less technical terms, signal-to-noise ratio compares the level of a desired signal (such as music)
to the level of background noise. The higher the ratio, the less obtrusive the background noise is.
In general, higher signal to noise ratio or higher noise margin means the quality of desired signal
is better.
Attenuation is the gradual loss in intensity of any kind of flux through a medium(i.e. the reduction
in signal strength due to length of your phone line). For instance, sunlight is attenuated by dark
glasses, and X-rays are attenuated by lead.In ADSL the signal is attenuated by length of copper
lines. Attenuation is normally directly linked to the length of your line. Copper is traditionally
used in the local loop and the higher gauge of copper will give the best signal, however some lines
may have some aluminium or aluminium joints on the line which will increase resistance... as will
oxidization of joints. In general, lower Attenuation is better. Lower the attenuation is , stronger
the signal will be.
SNR and attenuation can be measured in unit called Decibel(dB)
SNR in dB = 10 x Log10(Power of desired signal/Power of noise signal)
Attenuation (dB) = 10 x Log10(Input Power / Output Power)
Power in dBm = 10 x Log10(Power in mW/1 mW)

1.10 SUMMARY

Binary codes are used for representing the symbols for computer communications. ASCII is the
most common code set used worldwide. The bits of a binary code can be transmitted in parallel or
in serial form. Transmission is always serial unless the devices are near each other. Serial
transmission mode can be asynchronous or synchronous. Asynchronous transmission is byte by
byte transmission and start/stop bits are appended to each byte. In synchronous transmission, data
is transmitted in the form of frames having flags to identify the start of a frame.Data
communication has wider scope as compared to data transmission. Asynchronous and

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synchronous communication refer to non-disciplined and disciplined exchange of messages

respectively. A communication channel is limited in its information-carrying capacity by its
bandwidth and the noise present in the channel.

1.11 KEY LEARNING

 Calculate value of 01001001 in decimal.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Convert 34 into binary.

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 What is difference between communication & transmission?

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 What is the unit for measuring SNR & attenuation?

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1.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS
 http://mybroadband.co.za/
 http://www.rapidtables.com/electric
 http://www.globalguideline.com/

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1.13 WORKSHEET

1. Look at the following diagram and identify the type of cable

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Look at the following diagram and identify the type of cable

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Look at the figure below and name the equipment shown

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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4. Which equipment is shown in the figure below

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5. Identify the equipment shown in the below picture

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6. Which device has been shown in the figure below

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7. Fill in the blanks:-

1. 24 bits = ________ bytes.

2. Timing source is used in __________________ communication
(Synchronous/Asynchronous)
3. _________________ communication is suitable for long distance communication.
4. (Parallel/Serial)
5. If x is duration of bit , then bit rate will be ________________
6. _________________is any unwanted signal that may interfere our desired signal and
may lower the strength of desired signal.
7. __________________ is the gradual loss in intensity of any kind of flux through a
medium.
8. SNR and attenuation can be measured in unit called __________________

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Broadband Technician LAN, MAN & WAN

National Skill Development

Corporation

BROADBAND TECHNICIAN

LAN, MAN & WAN

VERSION 1 - MAY 2016

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2. LAN, MAN & WAN

2.1 INTRODUCTION

2.2 OBJECTIVES

2.3 LOCAL AREA NETWORK

2.4 METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK

2.5 WIDE AREA NETWORK

2.6 SUMMARY

2.7 KEY LEARNING

2.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

2.1 INTRODUCTION
There are so many different types of computer networks in existence, it can be hard to understand
the differences between them, particularly the ones with very similar-sounding names. This lesson
explains the structures and functions of some of the most popular computer networks.
There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can be characterized
by their size as well as their purpose.
The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the number of
computers that are part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful of devices
within a single room to millions of devices spread across the entire globe.
Some of the different networks based on size are:
 Local area network, or LAN
 Metropolitan area network, or MAN
 Wide area network, or WAN
In terms of purpose, many networks can be considered general purpose, which means they are
used for everything from sending files to a printer to accessing the Internet. Some types of
networks, however, serve a very particular purpose. Some of the different networks based on their
main purpose are:
 Storage area network, or SAN
 Enterprise private network, or EPN
 Virtual private network, or VPN

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2.2 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this session is to make trainee aware of different type of network and their
importance w.r.t data communication and their related important terms, definations and
parameters.

2.3 LOCAL AREA NETWORK

A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common
communications line or wireless link to a server. Typically, a LAN encompasses computers and
peripherals connected to a server within a small geographic area such as an office building or
home. Computers and other mobile devices can share resources such as a printer or network
storage.Usually, the server has applications and data storage that are shared in common by
multiplecomputer users.
A local area network may serve as few as two or three users (for example, in a home network) or
as many hundreds of users. Ethernet and Wi-Fi are the two most commonly used LAN
technologies. Other LAN technologies, including Token Ring, Fiber Distributed Data
Interface and ARCNET have lost favor as Ethernet and Wi-Fi speeds have increased. The rise of
virtualization has fueled the development of virtual LANs (VLANs) which allows network
administrators to logically group network nodes and partition their networks without the need for
major infrastructure changes.
Typically, a suite of application programs can be kept on the LAN server. Users who need an
application frequently can download it once and then run it from their local device. Users can
order printing and other services as needed through applications run on the LAN server. A user
can share files with others stored on the LAN server; read and write access is maintained by a
network administrator. A LAN server may also be used as a Web server, if safeguards are taken to
secure internal applications and data from outside access.
In some situations, a wireless LAN, or Wi-Fi, may be preferable to a wired LAN because of its
flexibility and cost. Companies are assessing WLANs as a replacement for their wired
infrastructures as the number of smartphones, tablets and other mobile devices proliferates.
The following characteristics differentiate one LAN from another:
Topology : The geometric arrangement of devices on the network. For example, devices can be
arranged in a ring or in a straight line.
Protocols : The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocols also determine
whether the network uses a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.
Media : Devices can be connected by twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or fiber optic cables.
Some networks do without connecting media altogether, communicating instead via radio waves.
Many LANs are now based partly or wholly on wireless technologies. Smartphones, tablet
computers and laptops typically have wireless networking support built-in. In a wireless local area
network, users may move unrestricted in the coverage area. Wireless networks have become
popular in residences and small businesses, because of their ease of installation. Guests are often
offered Internet access via a hotspot service.

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2.4 METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that interconnects users with computer
resources in a geographic area or region larger than that covered by even a large local area
network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN). The term is
applied to the interconnection of networks in a city into a single larger network (which may then
also offer efficient connection to a wide area network). It is also used to mean the interconnection
of several local area networks by bridging them with backbone lines. The latter usage is also
sometimes referred to as a campus network.

It’s all about benefits reason why a particular campus, town, city of metro would go for a MAN.
MAN is a computer network infrastructure which facilitates the communications among local
government, private businesses, organizations, utilities, educational institutions, libraries, and
citizens within a specific physical area. Obviously, one of the strong reasons why MANs are in
expansion nowadays is all due to its enormous benefits. Besides allowing access to resources
available in this networking infrastructure, lately majority of service providers in MANs networks
are providing for its users the Internet access as well. Looking this from a philosophic point of
view, it would be that the benefit alone is the existence of MAN itself. This in turn, facilitates the
process of establishing an IT oriented society.
The Broadband equipments deployed in a city is also considered as a MAN.

2.5 WIDE AREA NETWORK

A wide area network (WAN) is a geographically dispersed telecommunications network. The

term distinguishes a broader telecommunication structure from a local area network (LAN). A

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wide area network may be privately owned or rented, but the term usually denotes the inclusion of
public (shared user) networks. An intermediate form of network in terms of geography is a
metropolitan area network (MAN).
Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected through public networks, such
as the telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites. The largest
WAN in existence is the Internet.
A WAN connects more than one LAN and is used for larger geographical areas. WANs are
similar to a banking system, where hundreds of branches in different cities are connected with
each other in order to share their official data.
A WAN works in a similar fashion to a LAN, just on a larger scale. Typically, TCP/IP is the
protocol used for a WAN in combination with devices such as routers, switches, firewalls and
modems.
A WAN is different from a MAN because of the distance between each of the networks. In a
WAN, one network may be anywhere from several hundred miles away, to across the globe in a
different country. The same difference applies to a LAN. Computers in a LAN are usually close to
each other, but a WAN can have larger distances between computers and networks within the
WAN.
WANs generally utilize different and much more expensive networking equipment than do LANs.
Key technologies often found in WANs include SONET, Frame Relay, and ATM.

2.6 SUMMARY

LAN, MAN & WAN are the category of the network on basis of geographical area supported by
them. LAN supports smaller area while WAN supports bigger one. The bifurcation of the network
help in identifying the equipments that can be utilized as per the demand of network type and
thereby makes the management of network easier. For example, in case of LAN, router is not
necessary while it is mandatory in case of WAN. Similarly, modems or switches with fiber ports
can be used for configuration of MAN.

2.7 KEY LEARNING

 List the types of network based on geographical area ?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
 Which protocol is nowadays populare in LAN?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
 Give an example of Metropolitan Area Network?
…………………………………………………………………………………………

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…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

 How is WAN different from MAN?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

2.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

 http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/
 http://www.webopedia.com/
 https://www.quora.com
 https://www.techopedia.com

2.9 WORK SHEET

2.9.1 Title: Physical preparation & setup of Ethernet cable used in Broadband access inhome &
enterprise/business.
2.9.2 Set up/Equipments Required:
Cat 5 Cable 10 to 15m
RJ 45 connectors 2 to 4 Numbers
Crimping Tool
Wire Striper (Facility may be available in Crimping tool itself)
PC’s / Laptops 2 Numbers
Switch 1 No.
RJ45 Cable tester
2.9.3 Reports to be taken/ referred:
a) Verify the Length required for networking two PC’s
b) Verify that cat 5 cables are properly stripped and study internal structure of cable.
c) Arranging the wires as per the color code using T568 B Standard (or it is also called
EIA 568 B standard) given on both sides for preparing straight cable. for both the ends.
d) Find Pin No 1 on RJ45 connector.
e) Inserting wires properly in RJ 45connector.
f) Crimping RJ45 connector properly with use of Crimping Tool (Both ends not required
to reverse any order of the wires)
g) Verify the prepared cable

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2.9.4 Exercise:

Preparation of Straight Cable used for dissimilar devices such as PC and Switch.
a) Cut required length of cat 5 cable with Wire stripper or facility available in
Crimping tool.

b) Get the cat5 cable properly stripped at both ends with help of Wire stripper or
facility available in Crimping tool. And Study internal Structure of cable.

c) Arrange the wires as per the color code using T568 B Standard (or it is also called
EIA 568 B standard) given on both sides for preparing straight cable. for both the
ends. Unwind and pair of the similar colors.

d) Get RJ 45 connector and find PIN No 1 on it.

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f) Push the wires into the connector. Note the position of the blue plastic shielding.
Also note how the wires go all the way to the end.

g) View from the top. All the wires are all the way in. There are no short wires.

WRONG WAY (Fig Below)- Note how the blue plastic shielding is not inside the
connector where it can be locked into place. The wires are too long. They should be
1/2 inch from the sleeve.

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WRONG WAY (fig below)- Note how the cables do not go all the way to the end of
the connector.

h) CRIMPING THE CABLE ... carefully place the connector into the Ethernet
Crimper and cinch down on the handles tightly. The copper splicing tabs on the
connector will pierce into each of the eight wires. There is also a locking tab that
holds the blue plastic sleeve in place for a tight compression fit. When you remove
the cable from the crimper, the cable is ready to use.

i) Repeat all steps on the other end of the Ethernet cable exactly. There is no need to
reverse any order of the wires.

j) Make sure to test the cables before installing them. An inexpensive Ethernet cable
tester does this quite well.

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k) Straight cable will be as below

Preparation of cross cable used for Similar devices

a) Repeat all steps in Fig – (a) and (b) with new cable of required length.
c) Arrange the wires as per the color code using T568 B Standard (or it is also called
EIA 568 B standard) on one end
and T568 A Standard (or it is also called EIA 568 A standard) on another end.

d) Get RJ 45 connector and find PIN No 1 on it.

e) Pinch the wires between your fingers and straighten them out as shown. (The wire
colors line up to form a straight through standard cat 5 cable as described below).
Use scissors to make a straight cut across the wires 1/2 Inch from the cut sleeve to
the end of the wires.
f) Push the wires into the connector. Note the position of the blue plastic shielding.
Also note how the wires go all the way to the end.
g) View from the top. All the wires are all the way in. There are no short wires.
h) CRIMPING THE CABLE ... carefully place the connector into the Ethernet

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Crimper and cinch down on the handles tightly. The copper splicing tabs on the
connector will pierce into each of the eight wires. There is also a locking tab that
holds the blue plastic sleeve in place for a tight compression fit. When you remove
the cable from the crimper, the cable is ready to use.
i) Repeat all steps on the other end (Use cable pair as per standard T568 A shown in
9.6.2 c)
j) Make sure to test the cables before installing them. An inexpensive Ethernet cable
tester does this quite well.

k) Cross cable will be as below

2.9.5 Notes:

………………………………………………………………………………………

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Notes contd.:

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

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Broadband Technician LAN & WAN Topologies

National Skill Development

Corporation

BROADBAND TECHNICIAN

LAN & WAN Topologies

VERSION 1 - MAY 2016

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3. LAN & WAN Topologies

STRUCTURE
3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.2 OBJECTIVES

3.3 BUS TOPOLOGY

3.4 STAR TOPOLOGY

3.5 RING TOPOLOGY

3.6 MESH TOPOLOGY

3.7 TREE TOPOLOGY

3.8 HYBRID TOPOLOGY

3.9 WAN TOPOLOGIES

3.10 SUMMARY

3.11 KEY LEARNING

3.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

3.13 WORKSHEET

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Network Topology refers to layout of a network and how different nodes in a network are
connected to each other and how they communicate. Topologies are either physical (the physical
layout of devices on a network) or logical (the way that the signals act on the network media, or
the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next).The most common
nodes are computers and peripheral devices. Network topology is illustrated by showing these
nodes and their connections using cables.
Computers in a network have to be connected in some logical manner. The layout pattern of the
interconnections between computers in a network is called network topology. You can think of
topology as the virtual shape or structure of the network. Network topology is also referred to as
'network architecture.'

3.2 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this session is to make trainee aware of different type of network topologies and
their advantages and drawbacks thereby making them understand the approach which can be used
with respect to connnectivity of equipments so that whole network and its resources can be
optimally utilised.

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3.3 BUS TOPOLOGY

Bus topology uses one main cable to which all nodes are directly connected. The main cable acts
as a backbone for the network. One of the computers in the network typically acts as the computer
server. The first advantage of bus topology is that it is easy to connect a computer or peripheral
device. The second advantage is that the cable requirements are relatively small, resulting in
lower cost.
One of the disadvantages is that if the main cable breaks, the entire network goes down. This type
of network is also difficult to troubleshoot. For these reasons, this type of topology is not used for
large networks, such as those covering an entire building.
Bus Topology: In networking a bus is the central cable -- the main wire -- that connects all
devices on a local-area network (LAN). It is also called the backbone. This is often used to
describe the main network connections composing the Internet. Bus networks are relatively
inexpensive and easy to install for small networks. Ethernetsystems use a bus topology.

 Features of Bus Topology

 It transmits data only in one direction.
 Every device is connected to a single cable

 Advantages of Bus Topology

 It is cost effective.
 Cable required is least compared to other network topology.

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 Used in small networks.

 It is easy to understand.
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.

 Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 Cables fails then whole network fails.
 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more, the performance of the network decreases.
 Cable has a limited length.
 It is slower than the ring topology.

3.4 STAR TOPOLOGY

In star topology, each computer is connected to a central hub using a point-to-point connection.
The central hub can be a computer server that manages the network, or it can be a much simpler
device that only makes the connections between computers over the network possible.
Star topology is very popular because the startup costs are low. It is also easy to add new nodes to
the network. The network is robust in the sense that if one connection between a computer and the
hub fails, the other connections remain intact. If the central hub fails, however, the entire network
goes down. It also requires more cable than bus topology and is, therefore, more expensive.

 Features of Star Topology

 Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
 Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
 Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

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 Advantages of Star Topology

 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

 Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Cost of installation is high.
 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
 Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

3.5 RING TOPOLOGY

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another
computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device. That is,
all of the nodes are connected in a closed loop. Messages travel around the ring, with each node
reading those messages addressed to it.

 Features of Ring Topology

 A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes,
then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent
data loss repeaters are used in the network.

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 The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2

connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
 In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the
network up.
 Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass
through each node of the network, till the destination node.

 Advantages of Ring Topology

 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the
nodes having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand.

 Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

3.6 MESH Topology

It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to
each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :
 Routing
 Flooding
Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like, routing logic to
direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has
information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic,
to re-configure the failed nodes.
Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is
required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted
load over the network.

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 Types of Mesh Topology

 Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.It
is less expensive to implement and yields less redundancy than full mesh topology. Partial
mesh topology is commonly found in peripheral networks connected to a full meshed
backbone.
 Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.Full
mesh is very expensive to implement but yields the greatest amount of redundancy, so in
the event that one of those nodes fails, network traffic can be directed to any of the other
nodes. Full mesh is usually reserved for backbone networks.

 Features of Mesh Topology

 Fully connected.
 Robust.
 Not flexible.
 Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Each connection can carry its own data load.
 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy.
 Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration is difficult.
 Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required.

3.7 TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.It is also a special case
of "hybrid" topology that combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. In a tree
network, groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus backbone cable.

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 Features of Tree Topology

 Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
 Used in Wide Area Network.
 Advantages of Tree Topology
 Extension of bus and star topologies.
 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.
 Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails, network fails.
Tree topology enables the user to expand and configure the existing network depending on the
requirements. Twisted pair cable is commonly used by tree topology. A tree topology connects
multiple star networks. According to the structure of star topology, all devices are connected to a
central hub. There are multiple such hub devices which are connected directly to a tree bus. Thus,
the hub is used as the root of the tree of number of devices. Tree networks thus may have
branches that contain multiple devices connected point-to-point.
Signal from transmitting device first reaches the hub to which it is connected. Hub then directs
this signal to tree bus which then travels along the entire network.

3.8 Hybrid Topology

Hybrid topology is a combination of different network topologies. It is also known as a Special
Topology. This topology is useful for corporate offices to link their internal LANs together while
adding external networks through Wide Area Networks (WANs). The commonly used
combination of topologies is Star-Bus or Star-Ring. A star-bus network consists of two or more
star topologies connected using a bus trunk. Whereas a tree topology, can be viewed as a
collection of star networks arranged in a hierarchy. Here the function of the central node may be
distributed unlike the star topology.
Hybrid topology is a network where two or more topologies are connected in such a way that the
resulting network does not have one of the standard forms. This network is a combination of two

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or more topologies. . The ring network and bus network are connected to another network through
point-to-point connection. Star topologies are connected using Multistation Access Unit (MAU)
as a centralized hub. MAU connects network computers in a star topology. It has the ability to
identify non-operating devices and maintain the structure of the network.

 Features of Hybrid Topology

 It is a combination of two or topologies
 Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included
 Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
 Effective.
 Scalable as size can be increased easily.
 Flexible.
 Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

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 Complex in design.
 Costly.

3.9 WAN TOPOLOGIES

The phrase WAN topology refers to the arrangement or relative positioning of links and
nodes. These topologies can end up being analogous, at greater levels of abstraction/hierarchy, to
LAN topologies.
The Point To Point WAN
A Point-To-Point WAN has a remote access link for each major node in the WAN. The link can
be anything from a T-1 line to a 56 Kbps dial up line. The following diagram represents a
intercity WAN.

Its major advantage is that

 It is inexpensive relative to the other options

Its major disadvantages have to do with

 Vulnerability to failure in key components

 Limited scalability (less number of hops)
 No alternative route in case of failure,

Thus the point-to-point WAN is best when there are only two or three major locations.

The Ring WAN

The Ring WAN is developed by having point to point connections that connect the major nodes in
a ring. This is illustrated in the next image.

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Its major advantages over other topologies are

 This is an improvement over the point-to-point WAN in that it provides alternative

routes
 It is less expensive than all but the point-to-point WAN

Its biggest disadvantages relative to other topologies are

 it is slightly more expensive than the point-to-point

 it has slightly worse scalability problems the point-to-point

The Star WAN. A WAN star is laid out in a star configuration with one location as the "hub".
In this case this hub will make use of something called a concentrator router. In the following
figure the concentrator router is located in Chicago.

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Its major advantages relative to other topologies are

 it is more scalable
 relatively easy to add nodes
 each node is at most two hops away from any other
Its major disadvantage is
 it has a single point of failure at the concentrator router
To get by some of these problems, network administrators tend to add in some alternative links
between sites not at the hub. This increases costs slightly, but gives alternative routes in case of
failure or congestion. Providing direct links between all possible pairs of nodes, i.e. a full mesh
topology, requires a huge expense and is not at all scalable.This leads to the most typical high
volume implementation.

3.10 SUMMARY
Topology visualization is crucial. Doctors rely on X-rays and CT scans to diagnose problems and
plan how to solve them. Truck drivers use GPS to plan a long-haul shipment. Filmmakers use
storyboards. Without visual insight into their network, how can IT professionals expect to get to
the root cause of a problem?
While visual insight into physical and logical topology is helpful, it has limitations. It presents
information that must be interpreted and evaluated by a talented network administrator.

So why does the topology, or shape, of the network matter? There are a number of reasons:

 The network topology impacts performance.

 The network topology is a factor in determining the media type used to cable the network.
 The network topology impacts the cost of cabling the network.

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 Some access methods can work only with specific topologies.

The path traveled by a data packet--the distance traveled and the layout of the path--as it moves
from the sending computer to the receiving computer on the network greatly impacts the speed of
communication. Knowing the layout of your network will help you to not only optimize your
network's operation, but also troubleshoot performance issues. Different Lan topologies include
Mesh, Ring, Star, Hybrid whereas WAN topologies are point-to-point, Star and Ring.

3.11 KEY LEARNING

 Which LAN topology is popular nowadays and why ?
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
 Which WAN topology is popular nowadays and why?
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
 What is topology? Why it is important?
………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

3.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

 http://www.studytonight.com/computer-networks
 http://www.webopedia.com/quick_ref/topologies.asp
 https://networking-communications.knoji.com
 http://zaielacademic.net/networking

3.13 WORKSHEET

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3.13.1 Title: Demonstration and understanding of topology to connect Broadband

components like DSLAM, STM to Ethernet converters, Tier 1/Tier2 switches,
OCLAN switch, BRAS/BNG etc.

3.13.2 Set up/Equipments Required:

Depends on the equipments availability at the training locations ,it may have
DSLAM,STM to Ethernet converters, Tier-1 /Tier-2 Switch, BRAS/BNG, OCLAN etc.

3.13.3 Reports to be taken/ referred Nil

3.13.4 Exercise:

Understanding broadband Network Architecture

Following is the connectivity of Broadband network.

a) Find out which Broadband components are connected in Ring and which are
connected in star topology.

….………………………………………………………………………..
….………………………………………………………………………..

b) Which ports are used for connecting RPR Tier2 switch with DSLAM

…………………………………………………………………………..

c) Which port is used to connect RPR Tier2 switch with RPR Tier1 switch

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…………………………………………………………………………..

d) Which ports of RPR Tier1 and RPR Tier2 are interconnected? Which topology they
represents?

.………………………………………………………………………..
.………………………………………………………………………..
.…………………………………………………………………………
.…………………………………………………………………………
e) How the ports in switches are interconnected to build up Ring Topology?

………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………..

f) Identify the slot number in RPR Tier1 and RPR Tier2 switches whose ports are used
to build Ring topology?

………………………………………………………………………..

g) Identify the slot number in DSLAM which are used to connect RPR switches?

………………………………………………………………………..

h) Is dual ring topology possible in RPR switches?

………………………………………………………………………..

3.13.5 Notes :

………………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

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TCP / IP and IPAddress

VERSION 1 - MAY 2016

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4 TCP / IP and IPAddress

4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 OBJECTIVE
4.3 WHAT IS TCP IP
4.4 HOW DOES TCP/IP WORKS
4.5 THREE MOST COMMON PROTOCOLS
4.6 DOMAIN NAMES AND TCP/IP ADDRESS
4.7 IP ADDRESSING
4.8 SUMMARY
4.9 WORKSHEET

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Short for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, TCP/IP is a set of rules
(protocols) governing communications among all computers on the Internet. More specifically,
TCP/IP dictates how information should be packaged (turned into bundles of information
called packets), sent, and received, as well as how to get to its destination. TCP/IP was developed
in 1978 and driven by Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf.

4.2 OBJECTIVE
After completion of this chapter participants will be able to understand
 Use of TCP/IP.
 Protocols used in communication.
 IP addressing with version 4

4.3 WHAT IS TCP / IP

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. It defines how
electronic devices (like computers) should be connected over the Internet, and how data should be
transmitted between them.
TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
TCP is responsible for breaking data down into small packets before they can be sent over a
network, and for assembling the packets again when they arrive.
IP - Internet Protocol
IP takes care of the communication between computers. It is responsible for addressing, sending
and receiving the data packets over the Internet.

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4.4 How TCP / IP Works

As the name implies, TCP/IP is a combination of two separate protocols: Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). The Internet Protocol standard dictates the logistics of
packets sent out over networks; it tells packets where to go and how to get there. IP has a method
that lets any computer on the Internet forward a packet to another computer that is one or more
intervals closer to the packet's recipient. You can think of it like workers in a line passing
boulders from a quarry to a mining cart.
The Transmission Control Protocol is responsible for ensuring the reliable transmission of data
across Internet-connected networks. TCP checks packets for errors and submits requests for re-
transmissions if any are found.
4.5 Three Most Common TCP / IP Protocol
 HTTP - Used between a web client and a web server, for non-secure data transmissions.
A web client (i.e. Internet browser on a computer) sends a request to a web server to view
a web page. The web server receives that request and sends the web page information back
to the web client.
 HTTPS - Used between a web client and a web server, for secure data transmissions.
Often used for sending credit card transaction data or other private data from a web client
(i.e. Internet browser on a computer) to a web server.
 FTP - Used between two or more computers. One computer sends data to or receives data
from another computer directly.
4.6 Domain names and TCP/IP addresses
The TCP/IP address for a website or web server is typically not easy to remember. To remedy this
issue, a domain name is used instead. For example, 45.79.151.23 is the IP address for the

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Computer Hope website and computerhope.com is the domain name. Using this method, instead
of a set of numbers, makes it much easier for users to remember Computer Hope's web address.

4.7 IP Addressing

Decomposition of an IPv4 address from dot-decimal notation to its binary value.

In IPv4 an address consists of 32 bits which limits the address space to 4294967296 (232)
possible unique addresses. IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private
networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses(~270 million addresses).
IPv4 addresses are canonically represented in dot-decimal notation, which consists of four
decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 172.16.254.1. Each part
represents a group of 8 bits (octet) of the address. In some cases of technical writing, IPv4
addresses may be presented in various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations.
In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol,[1] network administrators interpreted
an IP address in two parts: network number portion and host number portion. The highest order
octet (most significant eight bits) in an address was designated as the network number and the
remaining bits were called the rest field or host identifier and were used for host numbering
within a network.
This early method soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were
independent of the existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the
Internet addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful
network architecture.[2]
Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments and fine-
grained subnetwork design. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were
defined as the class of the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for
universal unicast addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was
based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional
octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order
classes (B and C). The following table gives an overview of this now obsolete system.

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16,7
128 77,2 0.0 127.255
2
A 0 8 (27 16 .0. .255.25
4
) (224 0 5
)

16, 65,5 12
191.255
1 384 36 8.0
B 10 16 .255.25
6 (21 (216 .0.
5
4) ) 0

2,0
19
97, 223.255
11 256 2.0
C 24 8 152 .255.25
0 (28) .0.
(22 5
0
1)
Classful network design served its purpose in the startup stage of the Internet, but it
lacked scalability in the face of the rapid expansion of the network in the 1990s. The class system
of the address space was replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993. CIDR is
based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing based on
arbitrary-length prefixes.
Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default
configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g. netmask), and
in the technical jargon used in network administrators' discussions.
Private addresses
Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications
with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or
device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed
and public address space needed to be conserved.

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Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with
each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally unique IP addresses. Three non-overlapping ranges
of IPv4 addresses for private networks were reserved in RFC 1918. These addresses are not
routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry.
Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network
address translation (NAT).

IANA-reserved private IPv4 network ranges

No. of
Start End
addresses

24-bit block (/8 prefix, 1

10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 16777216
× A)

20-bit block (/12 prefix,

172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 1048576
16 × B)

16-bit block (/16 prefix,

192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 65536
256 × C)
Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a
block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of
192.168.0.0 through 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24).
IP V4 Address Exhaustion
High levels of demand have decreased the supply of unallocated Internet Protocol Version
4 (IPv4) addresses available for assignment to Internet service providers and end user
organizations since the 1980s. This development is referred to as IPv4 address exhaustion.
IANA's primary address pool was exhausted on 3 February 2011, when the last five blocks were
allocated to the five RIRs.[5][6] APNIC was the first RIR to exhaust its regional pool on 15 April
2011, except for a small amount of address space reserved for the transition to IPv6, intended to
be allocated in a restricted process.[7]

4.8 SUMMARY
TCP/IP is a large set—sometimes called a suite—of communications protocols that fit in the
middle of a larger set of mechanisms. These protocols provide the linkage between applications
that can communicate and a physical network that carries the communicated data. Thus, TCP/IP
complements and extends the capability of a physical network, but can't work without it.

4.9 WORKSHEET
Qu.1 Fill in the blanks:
1. Abbreviate TCP ………………..
2. Bit length of Ipv4 is …….
3. Number of network bits in class A is………...
4. Number of network bits in class B is………...

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5. Number of network bits in class C is………...

Qu.2 Mark True or False

1. Netmask of class A IP is 255.255.0.0
2. Netmask of class B IP is 255.255.0.0
3. HTTP is used for web access.
4. FTP is used for file upload and download.
5. 10.0.0.0 is private IP address.

Qu.3 Write down the different classes of IP address along with their subnet mask?

Qu. 4 Write down how TCP/IP works?

Qu.5 Write down name of components that will require to build a LAN and also make a diagram
for computer connectivity inside a LAN?

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Notes:

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--------------------------------

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IP Version 6

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5 IP VERSION 6

5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 OBJECTIVE
5.3 PRIVATE ADDRESSES
5.3 IP SUB NETWORK
5.4IP ADDRESS ASSIGNMENT
5.5 STICKY DYNAMIC IP ADDRESS
5.6 ROUTING
5.7 PUBLIC ADDRESS
5.8 DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS
5.9 SUMMARY
5.10 KEY LEARNING
5.11 WORKSHEET

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Decomposition of an IPv6 address fromhexadecimal representation to its binary value.

The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
to explore new technologies to expand the addressing capability in the Internet. The permanent
solution was deemed to be a redesign of the Internet Protocol itself. This new generation of the
Internet Protocol was eventually named Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995. The address
size was increased from 32 to 128 bits (16 octets), thus providing up to
2128 (approximately3.403×1038) addresses. This is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future.

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The intent of the new design was not to provide just a sufficient quantity of addresses, but also
redesign routing in the Internet by more efficient aggregation of subnetwork routing prefixes. This
resulted in slower growth of routing tables in routers. The smallest possible individual allocation
is a subnet for 264 hosts, which is the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels,
actual address utilization rates will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also
provides the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment, i.e. the
local administration of the segment's available space, from the addressing prefix used to route
traffic to and from external networks. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing
prefix of entire networks, should the global connectivity or the routing policy change, without
requiring internal redesign or manual renumbering.
The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and,
where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is no
need to have complex address conservation methods as used in CIDR.
All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the IPv6
protocol, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as residential networking
routers, voice over IP (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and network peripherals.
5.2 OBJECTIVE
After reading this chapter participants will be able
1. Identify the format of IP v6 address.
2. IP v6 features.
3. IPV6 troubleshooting and diagnosis.
5.3 PRIVATE ADDRESSES
Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private networks, blocks of addresses are set aside in IPv6. In
IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses (ULA). RFC 4193reserves the routing prefix
fc00::/7 for this block which is divided into two /8 blocks with different implied policies. The
addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom number that minimizes the risk of address collisions if
sites merge or packets are misrouted.[8]
Early practices used a different block for this purpose (fec0::), dubbed site-local
addresses.[9] However, the definition of what constituted sites remained unclear and the poorly
defined addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. This address type was abandoned and
must not be used in new systems.[10]
Addresses starting with fe80:, called link-local addresses, are assigned to interfaces for
communication on the attached link. The addresses are automatically generated by the operating
system for each network interface. This provides instant and automatic communication between
all IPv6 host on a link. This feature is required in the lower layers of IPv6 network administration,
such as for the Neighbor Discovery Protocol.

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Private address prefixes may not be routed on the public Internet.

5.4IP SUBNETWORK
IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6. For this purpose, an IP
address is logically recognized as consisting of two parts: the network prefix and thehost
identifier, or interface identifier (IPv6). The subnet mask or the CIDR prefix determines how the
IP address is divided into network and host parts.
The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the CIDR concept
and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits
used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its
subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same
IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the
network and subnet.
5.5 IP ADDRESS ASSIGNMENT
Internet Protocol addresses are assigned to a host either anew at the time of booting, or
permanently by fixed configuration of its hardware or software. Persistent configuration is also
known as using a static IP address. In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP address is
assigned newly each time, this is known as using a dynamic IP address.
Methods
Static IP addresses are manually assigned to a computer by an administrator. The exact procedure
varies according to platform. This contrasts with dynamic IP addresses, which are assigned either
by the computer interface or host software itself, as in Zeroconf, or assigned by a server
using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Even though IP addresses assigned using
DHCP may stay the same for long periods of time, they can generally change. In some cases, a
network administrator may implement dynamically assigned static IP addresses. In this case, a
DHCP server is used, but it is specifically configured to always assign the same IP address to a
particular computer. This allows static IP addresses to be configured centrally, without having to
specifically configure each computer on the network in a manual procedure.
In the absence or failure of static or stateful (DHCP) address configurations, an operating system
may assign an IP address to a network interface using state-less auto-configuration methods, such
as Zeroconf.
Uses of dynamic address assignment
IP addresses are most frequently assigned dynamically on LANs and broadband networks by
the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). They are used because it avoids the
administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also
allows many devices to share limited address space on a network if only some of them will be
online at a particular time. In most current desktop operating systems, dynamic IP configuration is

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enabled by default so that a user does not need to manually enter any settings to connect to a
network with a DHCP server. DHCP is not the only technology used to assign IP addresses
dynamically. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-
Point Protocol.
5.6 STICKY DYNAMIC IP ADDRESS
A sticky dynamic IP address is an informal term used by cable and DSL Internet access
subscribers to describe a dynamically assigned IP address which seldom changes. The addresses
are usually assigned with DHCP. Since the modems are usually powered on for extended periods
of time, the address leases are usually set to long periods and simply renewed. If a modem is
turned off and powered up again before the next expiration of the address lease, it will most likely
receive the same IP address.
Address autoconfiguration
RFC 3330 defines an address block, 169.254.0.0/16, for the special use in link-local
addressing for IPv4 networks. In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address
assignments, also receives a local-link address automatically in the block fe80::/10.
These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point
connection, that a host is connected to. These addresses are not routable and like private addresses
cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet.
When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of
address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft created an implementation that is called
Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines
and has, thus, become a de facto standard in the industry. In RFC 3927, the IETF defined a formal
standard for this functionality, entitled Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses.
Uses of static addressing
Some infrastructure situations have to use static addressing, such as when finding the Domain
Name System (DNS) host that will translate domain names to IP addresses. Static addresses are
also convenient, but not absolutely necessary, to locate servers inside an enterprise. An address
obtained from a DNS server comes with a time to live, or caching time, after which it should be
looked up to confirm that it has not changed. Even static IP addresses do change as a result of
network administration (RFC 2072).
Conflict
An IP address conflict occurs when two devices on the same local physical or wireless network
claim to have the same IP address – that is, they conflict with each other. Since only one of the
devices is supposed to be on the network at a time, the second one to arrive will generally stop the
IP functionality of one or both of the devices. In many cases with modern Operating Systems, the
Operating System will notify the user of one of the devices that there is an IP address conflict

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(displaying the symptom error message[11][12]) and then either stop functioning on the network
or function very badly on the network, and the user will then be stumped as to how to resolve the
conflict, probably considering the situation an emergency. In some unfortunate cases, both
devices will function very badly on the network. In severe cases in which one of the devices is the
gateway, the network will be crippled. Since IP addresses are assigned by multiple people and
systems in multiple ways, any of them can be at fault.

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5.7ROUTING
IP addresses are classified into several classes of operational characteristics: unicast,
multicast, anycast and broadcast addressing.
Unicast addressing
The most common concept of an IP address is in unicast addressing, available in
both IPv4 and IPv6. It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver, and can be used for
both sending and receiving. Usually, a unicast address is associated with a single device or host,
but a device or host may have more than one unicast address. Some individual PCs have several
distinct unicast addresses, each for its own distinct purpose. Sending the same data to multiple
unicast addresses requires the sender to send all the data many times over, once for each recipient.
Broadcast addressing
In IPv4 it is possible to send data to all possible destinations ("all-hosts broadcast"), which
permits the sender to send the data only once, and all receivers receive a copy of it. In the IPv4
protocol, the address 255.255.255.255 is used for local broadcast. In addition, a directed (limited)
broadcast can be made by combining the network prefix with a host suffix composed entirely of
binary 1s. For example, the destination address used for a directed broadcast to devices on the
192.0.2.0/24 network is 192.0.2.255. IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing and replaces
it with multicast to the specially-defined all-nodes multicast address.
Multicast addressing
A multicast address is associated with a group of interested receivers. In IPv4, addresses 224.0.0.0
through 239.255.255.255 (the former Class D addresses) are designated as multicast
addresses. IPv6 uses the address block with the prefix ff00::/8 for multicast applications. In either
case, the sender sends a single datagram from its unicast address to the multicast group address
and the intermediary routers take care of making copies and sending them to all receivers that
have joined the corresponding multicast group.
Anycast addressing
Like broadcast and multicast, anycast is a one-to-many routing topology. However, the data
stream is not transmitted to all receivers, just the one which the router decides is logically closest
in the network. Anycast address is an inherent feature of only IPv6. In IPv4, anycast addressing
implementations typically operate using the shortest-path metric of BGP routing and do not take
into account congestion or other attributes of the path. Anycast methods are useful for global load
balancing and are commonly used in distributedDNS systems.
5.8PUBLIC ADDRESS
A public IP address, in common parlance, is a globally routable unicast IP address, meaning that
the address is not an address reserved for use in private networks, such as those reserved by RFC

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1918, or the various IPv6 address formats of local scope or site-local scope, for example for link-
local addressing. Public IP addresses may be used for communication between hosts on the global
Internet.
5.9DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS
Computer operating systems provide various diagnostic tools to examine their network interface
and address configuration. Windows provides the command-line
interface toolsipconfig and netsh and users of Unix-like systems can
use ifconfig, netstat, route, lanstat, fstat, or iproute2 utilities to accomplish the task.
5.10 SUMMARY
TCP/IP is a large set—sometimes called a suite—of communications protocols that fit in the
middle of a larger set of mechanisms. These protocols provide the linkage between applications
that can communicate and a physical network that carries the communicated data. Thus, TCP/IP
complements and extends the capability of a physical network, but can't work without it.
5.11 WORKSHEET
Qu.1 Fill in the blanks:

1. IPV6 address is ………bit long.

2. netsh is …………. Command.
3. IPv6 uses the address block with the prefix ……….. for multicast applications.
4. A Globally routable unicast IP address are known …………IP address.
5. ………….. is a one-to-many routing topology
Qu.2 Mark True or False
1. Broadcast is also known as one to many.
2. Anycast is also known as one to many.
3. Public IP address are unicast addresses.
4. Static addresses are non changeable adresses.
5. IPV6 doesn’t have private IP address.

Qu.3 Write down the steps and command to check Ipv6 address assigned to computer?

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Qu. 4 Write down steps to check whether remote system with IP 192.168.2.45 is alive on network
or not?

Qu.5 Write down methods used for IP address assignment?

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BROADBAND TECHNICIAN

BROADBAND CONCEPTS

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VERSION 1 - MAY 2016

6 BROAD BAND CONCEPT

6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 OBJECTIVE
6.3 BROADBAND TECHNOLOGY EVOLUTION
6.4 CABLE MODEM
6.5 DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (DSL)
6.6 FEATURES OF DSL TECHNOLOGY
6.7 ADSL TECHNOLOGY
6.8 ADSL 2+ TECHNOLOGY
6.9 ADSL APPLICATIONS
6.10 DMT MODULATION
6.11 SUMMARY
6.12 WORKSHEET

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6.1 INTRODUCTION
Before the late 1990s, people connected remotely to their offices or the Internet using dial up
connections. An always-on remote network connection was not possible for a reasonable price. To
connect to the corporate network, the user ran a program that dialed a phone number. Unless the
user had a second phone line, being online prohibited incoming or outgoing phone calls. The user
entered a user ID and password to gain access to the system. The fastest speed available over
phone lines was 56 kbps, which was fine until the web became popular in the 1990s.
Downloading large pictures, documents, applications, and audio files took what seemed like
forever. Then, along came broadband. Broadband networking offered a reasonable high-speed
alternative to traditional dialup networking. Using existing service connections to houses (such as
phone wiring, cable TV coaxial cable, or even satellite), service providers offered Internet
services at many times the speed of dialup. Downloading large files became palatable with
broadband. Broadband technologies allow service providers to offer always-on connectivity
similar to what people use in a corporate network. Computers on the broadband network always
have access to the network; there is no intermediate dialup step. Sit down, load the browser, and
off you go. High-speed Internet access to homes offers new levels of productivity and
entertainment not possible before the commercialization of the Internet and the web. Aside from
apparent uses such as online shopping and video streaming, corporations can accommodate road
warriors and work-from-home folks in a way not previously possible. Using encryption
technologies, an employee with a laptop computer can securely access her corporate network
from any Internet access point in the world. Additionally, employees can attach IP phones,
allowing them to work on their computers and make calls from their office-phone extensions as if
they were sitting at their desks.
6.2 OBJECTIVE
After reading this chapter participants will be able
1. To understand basic concept of broad band technology.
2. To understand basic concept of DSL.
3. To understand basic concept of modulation technology.

6.3 BROADBAND TECHNOLOGY EVOLUTION

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) was the first commercially viable broadband option
available. Using existing phone lines, home users commonly subscribed to a Basic Rate Interface
(BRI), which had a throughput maximum of 128 kbps. ISDN had some significant adoption in
Europe, but in the U.S., ISDN was eclipsed by more cost-effective broadband technologies before
it had a chance to become commonplace. Cable modem and digital subscriber line (DSL) services
became the premier broadband technologies. Although other broadband technologies existed, the
primary determination of a technology’s viability was access to “last mile” wiring to houses.
Anything that required new wiring probably wouldn’t make it. Other technologies that take
advantage of other media exist, such as satellite television dishes, but they did not become widely
adopted. For those requiring even higher throughput, some providers now offer fiber links to
homes as a premier service. This is already popular throughout major cities in Asia and is being
installed in several cities in the U.S. as well.
6.4 CABLE MODEM

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Cable modems provide high-speed data communication using existing cable television coaxial
cabling. Current implementations of cable-modem technologies offer speeds as fast as Ethernet
(greater than 10 Mbps). This means that a file that takes 2 minutes to transfer over ISDN takes 2
seconds over a cable modem. Cable modem can provide higher speeds than traditional leased
lines, with lower cost and easier installation. Because a cable-modem connection is permanently
established, it cannot dial multiple locations directly. As a result, cable-modem access must be to
the Internet. This restriction means that employees can connect to their company’s network only if
the company provides access through the Internet. Usually, this is done through a secure VPN
connection.

6.5 DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (DSL)

DSL is technology to provide next generation high bandwidth services to the home and business
using the existing telephone cabling infrastructure. DSL to the home over existing phone lines
promises bandwidths up to 8Mb/s or more, but distance limitations and line quality conditions can
reduce what will actually be achievable. DSL technologies used a greater range of frequencies
over the telephone cable than the traditional telephone services have used. This in turn allows for
greater bandwidth with which to send and receive information
DSL comes in several different varieties, which are known collectively as xDSL. Following are
the various types of DSL: -
1. ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line)
2. HDSL (High bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line)
3. SDSL (Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line)
4. VDSL (Very high bit-rate Digital SubscriberLine)
6.6 FEATURES OF DSL TECHNOLOGY
 DSL may offer more than 100 times the network performance of a traditional analog
modem
 Precise speed of a connection depends upon the type of DSL employed
 DSL uses the same telephone line as traditional modem
 Provides simultaneous access to Web & Telephone removing the need for a second
telephone line.
 DSL remains always-on all the time
 Customer no longer need to physically dial up to the ISP to “log in to the internet”
 On power failure, telephone line is still available like a standard telephone line.
 DSL can also be implemented with PPoE (Point to Point Protocol over Ethernet) that does
not support always-on. This is required when authentication is necessary. PPPoE can be
configured in PC or it can be configured in ADSL modem itself.
6.7 ADSL TECHNOLOGY
 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
 G.DMT / G.992.1 standard

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 Used for applications which require greater download bandwidth but require relatively
little in opposite direction like Web browsing; File downloads etc.
 An ADSL circuit connects an ADSL modem on each end of a twisted pair telephone line
creating three information channels
 A high speed downstream channel
 A medium speed duplex channel for both upstream & downstream applications
 A basic telephone service channel
 The basic telephone service channel is split off from the digital modem by splitter at
client site
 Allows simultaneous access of the line by the telephone and the computer
 In case of power/ADSL failure, data transmission is lost but basic telephone service will
be operational
 Can work up to a distance of 3.7 to 5.5 kms.
6.8 ADSL 2+ TECHNOLOGY
 Second generation of ADSL
 G.992.5 standard
 Doubles the max. frequency used for downstream data transmission from 1.1 Mhz
to 2.2 Mhz.
 Offers a greater data rates of 25 Mb/s downstream and upto 1.5 Mb/s upstream.
Can work upto 6.3 Kms with reduced data rates
 Has all the other benefits of ADSL 2 like improved power management ,
seamless adaptation of data rate in real time to meet the changing line conditions,
bonding of copper pairs for higher data rates etc.
6.9 ADSL APPLICATIONS
 Internet access ( SOHO)
 LAN Access ( Telecommuting)
 Distance Learning
 Tele-medicine
 Broadcast TV
 Home shopping
 Interactive Games
 Movies

6.10 DMT MODULATION

 Discrete Multi-Tone modulation

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 Evolved from the concept of operating an array of N relatively low-rate

transceivers in parallel to achieve an overall high rate on one line
 The N low-rate information streams are kept separated from one another by
sending them over N separate frequency sub-bands or sub-channels, also called
sub-carriers.
 DMT achieves this sub-channel arraying by utilising the IFFT (Inverse Fast
Fourier Transform) and its counterpart, the FFT (Fast Fourier Transform)
Bandwidth from 0 to 2.2 Mhz is divided into 512 sub carriers with each occupying 4 Khz. Lower
1 to 6 sub- carriers are reserved to pass the 4khz analog voice.

ADSL/ADSL2

1.1MHz
Voice
No
of
Bit Downstream
s 6 3 0.14M
1 7 Hz
5

0
4 3 25
8 5
Frequency
6.11 SUMMARY
Broad band access technology works with the help of DSL (Disgital Subscriber line)
which is having always on feature and this differs it from existing technologies.

6.12 WORKSHEET
Qu.1 Fill in the blanks:
1. Abbreviate PPPoE…………………………….
2. Abbreviate DSL ………………………………
3. G.992.1standered defines……………………

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4. ADSL2+ uses……………Mhz frequency band.

5. ………….. is modulation technique used by ADSL.
Qu.2 Mark True or False
1. ADSL is synchronous in nature.
2. DSL is always on type connection.
3. Distance learning is one of the application of DSL.
4. Splitter is not required at subscriber premises.
5. Broad band can work parallel with telephone.
Qu.3 Write down the name of components required to run broad band connection at subscriber
premises by observing following figure?

Qu. 4 Write down applications of DSL Technology?

Qu.5 Write down steps for making physical connectivity of broad band equipments at subscriber
premises?
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BROADBAND ACCESS
TECHNOLOGIES

VERSION 1 - MAY 2016

- -

7 BROAD BAND ACCESS TECHNOLOGIES

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7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 OBJECTIVE
7.3 HARDWIRED BROADBAND ACCESS
7.4 DIAL-UP ACCESS
7.5 MULTILINK DIAL-UP
7.6 INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK
7.7 LEASED LINES
7.8 CABLE INTERNET ACCESS
7.9 DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (DSL, ADSL, SDSL, AND VDSL)
7.10 DSL RINGS
7.11 FIBER TO THE HOME
7.12 POWER-LINE INTERNET
7.13 ATM AND FRAME RELAY
7.14 WIRELESS BROADBAND ACCESS
7.15 SATELLITE BROADBAND
7.16 MOBILE BROADBAND
7.17 WI-MAX
7.18 WIRELESS ISP
7.19 LOCAL MULTIPOINT DISTRIBUTION SERVICE
7.20 SUMMARY
7.21 WORKSHEET

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7.1 INTRODUCTION
Internet access is the process that enables individuals and organisations to connect to
the Internet using computer terminals,computers, mobile devices, sometimes via computer
networks. Once connected to the Internet, users can access Internet services, such as email and
the World Wide Web. Internet service providers (ISPs) offer Internet access through various
technologies that offer a wide range of data signaling rates (speeds).
Consumer use of the Internet first became popular through dial-up Internet access in the 1990s.
By the first decade of the 21st century, many consumers in developed nations used
faster, broadband Internet access technologies. As of 2014, broadband was ubiquitous around the
world, with a global average connection speed exceeding 4 Mbit/s
7.2 OBJECTIVE
After reading this chapter participants will be able
1. To understand different means for internet connectivity.
2. Wired and wireless internet access.
3. Different technologies working for broad band access.
7.3 HARDWIRED BROADBAND ACCESS
The term broadband includes a broad range of technologies, all of which provide higher data rate
access to the Internet. The following technologies use wires or cables in contrast to wireless
broadband described later.
7.4 DIAL-UP ACCESS
Dial-up Internet access uses a modem and a phone call placed over the public switched telephone
network (PSTN) to connect to a pool of modems operated by an ISP. The modem converts a
computer's digital signal into an analog signal that travels over a phone line's local loop until it
reaches a telephone company's switching facilities or central office (CO) where it is switched to
another phone line that connects to another modem at the remote end of the connection.
Operating on a single channel, a dial-up connection monopolizes the phone line and is one of the
slowest methods of accessing the Internet. Dial-up is often the only form of Internet access
available in rural areas as it requires no new infrastructure beyond the already existing telephone
network, to connect to the Internet. Typically, dial-up connections do not exceed a speed of
56 kbit/s, as they are primarily made using modems that operate at a maximum data rate of 56
kbit/s downstream (towards the end user) and 34 or 48 kbit/s upstream (toward the global
Internet).
7.5 MULTILINK DIAL-UP
Multilink dial-up provides increased bandwidth by channel bonding multiple dial-up connections
and accessing them as a single data channel. It requires two or more modems, phone lines, and
dial-up accounts, as well as an ISP that supports multilinking – and of course any line and data
charges are also doubled. This inverse multiplexing option was briefly popular with some high-
end users before ISDN, DSL and other technologies became available. Diamond and other
vendors created special modems to support multilinking.

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7.6 INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a switched telephone service capable of
transporting voice and digital data, is one of the oldest Internet access methods. ISDN has been
used for voice, video conferencing, and broadband data applications. ISDN was very popular in
Europe, but less common in North America. Its use peaked in the late 1990s before the
availability of DSL and cable modem technologies.
Basic rate ISDN, known as ISDN-BRI, has two 64 kbit/s "bearer" or "B" channels. These
channels can be used separately for voice or data calls or bonded together to provide a 128 kbit/s
service. Multiple ISDN-BRI lines can be bonded together to provide data rates above 128 kbit/s.
Primary rate ISDN, known as ISDN-PRI, has 23 bearer channels (64 kbit/s each) for a combined
data rate of 1.5 Mbit/s (US standard). An ISDN E1 (European standard) line has 30 bearer
channels and a combined data rate of 1.9 Mbit/s.
7.7 LEASED LINES
Leased lines are dedicated lines used primarily by ISPs, business, and other large enterprises to
connect LANs and campus networks to the Internet using the existing infrastructure of the public
telephone network or other providers. Delivered using wire, optical fiber, and radio, leased lines
are used to provide Internet access directly as well as the building blocks from which several
other forms of Internet access are created.
T-carrier technology dates to 1957 and provides data rates that range from 56 and 64 kbit/s (DS0)
to 1.5 Mbit/s (DS1 or T1), to 45 Mbit/s (DS3 or T3). A T1 line carries 24 voice or data channels
(24 DS0s), so customers may use some channels for data and others for voice traffic or use all 24
channels for clear channel data. A DS3 (T3) line carries 28 DS1 (T1) channels. Fractional T1
lines are also available in multiples of a DS0 to provide data rates between 56 and 1,500 kbit/s. T-
carrier lines require special termination equipment that may be separate from or integrated into a
router or switch and which may be purchased or leased from an ISP. In Japan the equivalent
standard is J1/J3. In Europe, a slightly different standard, E-carrier, provides 32 user channels
(64 kbit/s) on an E1 (2.0 Mbit/s) and 512 user channels or 16 E1s on an E3 (34.4 Mbit/s).
Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET, in the U.S. and Canada) and Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH, in the rest of the world) are the standard multiplexing protocols used to carry
high-data-rate digital bit-streams over optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent
light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs). At lower transmission rates data can also be transferred
via an electrical interface. The basic unit of framing is an OC-3c (optical) or STS-3c (electrical)
which carries 155.520 Mbit/s. Thus an OC-3c will carry three OC-1(51.84 Mbit/s) payloads each
of which has enough capacity to include a full DS3. Higher data rates are delivered in OC-3c
multiples of four providing OC-12c (622.080 Mbit/s),OC-48c (2.488 Gbit/s), OC-
192c (9.953 Gbit/s), and OC-768c (39.813 Gbit/s). The "c" at the end of the OC labels stands for
"concatenated" and indicates a single data stream rather than several multiplexed data streams.
The 1, 10, 40, and 100 gigabit Ethernet (GbE, 10 GbE, 40/100 GbE) IEEE standards
(802.3) allow digital data to be delivered over copper wiring at distances to 100 m and over
optical fiber at distances to 40 km.
7.8 CABLE INTERNET ACCESS
Cable Internet provides access using a cable modem on hybrid fiber coaxial wiring originally
developed to carry television signals. Either fiber-optic or coaxial copper cable may connect a
node to a customer's location at a connection known as a cable drop. In a cable modem

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termination system, all nodes for cable subscribers in a neighborhood connect to a cable
company's central office, known as the "head end." The cable company then connects to the
Internet using a variety of means – usually fiber optic cable or digital satellite and microwave
transmissions. Like DSL, broadband cable provides a continuous connection with an ISP.
Downstream, the direction toward the user, bit rates can be as much as 400 Mbit/s for business
connections, and 250 Mbit/s for residential service in some countries. Upstream traffic,
originating at the user, ranges from 384 kbit/s to more than 20 Mbit/s. Broadband cable access
tends to service fewer business customers because existing television cable networks tend to
service residential buildings and commercial buildings do not always include wiring for coaxial
cable networks. In addition, because broadband cable subscribers share the same local line,
communications may be intercepted by neighboring subscribers. Cable networks regularly
provide encryption schemes for data traveling to and from customers, but these schemes may be
thwarted.
7.9 DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (DSL, ADSL, SDSL, AND VDSL)
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service provides a connection to the Internet through the telephone
network. Unlike dial-up, DSL can operate using a single phone line without preventing normal
use of the telephone line for voice phone calls. DSL uses the high frequencies, while the low
(audible) frequencies of the line are left free for regular telephonecommunication. These
frequency bands are subsequently separated by filters installed at the customer's premises.
DSL originally stood for "digital subscriber loop". In telecommunications marketing, the term
digital subscriber line is widely understood to mean Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL),
the most commonly installed variety of DSL. The data throughput of consumer DSL services
typically ranges from 256 kbit/s to 20 Mbit/s in the direction to the customer (downstream),
depending on DSL technology, line conditions, and service-level implementation. In ADSL, the
data throughput in the upstream direction, (i.e. in the direction to the service provider) is lower
than that in the downstream direction (i.e. to the customer), hence the designation of asymmetric.
With a symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL), the downstream and upstream data rates are
equal.
Very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL or VHDSL, ITU G.993.1)[38] is a digital
subscriber line (DSL) standard approved in 2001 that provides data rates up to 52 Mbit/s
downstream and 16 Mbit/s upstream over copper wiresand up to 85 Mbit/s down- and upstream
on coaxial cable. VDSL is capable of supporting applications such as high-definition television, as
well as telephone services (voice over IP) and general Internet access, over a single physical
connection.
VDSL2 (ITU-T G.993.2) is a second-generation version and an enhancement of VDSL. Approved
in February 2006, it is able to provide data rates exceeding 100 Mbit/s simultaneously in both the
upstream and downstream directions. However, the maximum data rate is achieved at a range of
about 300 meters and performance degrades as distance and loop attenuation increases.
7.10 DSL RINGS
DSL Rings (DSLR) or Bonded DSL Rings is a ring topology that uses DSL technology over
existing copper telephone wires to provide data rates of up to 400 Mbit/s.[42]
7.11 FIBER TO THE HOME
Fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) is one member of the Fiber-to-the-x (FTTx) family that includes Fiber-
to-the-building or basement (FTTB), Fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP), Fiber-to-the-desk (FTTD),

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Fiber-to-the-curb (FTTC), and Fiber-to-the-node (FTTN).[43] These methods all bring data closer
to the end user on optical fibers. The differences between the methods have mostly to do with just
how close to the end user the delivery on fiber comes. All of these delivery methods are similar
to hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) systems used to provide cable Internet access.
The use of optical fiber offers much higher data rates over relatively longer distances. Most high-
capacity Internet and cable television backbones already use fiber optic technology, with data
switched to other technologies (DSL, cable, POTS) for final delivery to customers.
Australia began rolling out its National Broadband Network across the country using fiber-optic
cables to 93 percent of Australian homes, schools, and businesses. The project was abandoned by
the subsequent LNP government, in favour of a hybrid FTTN design, which turned out to be more
expensive and introduced delays. Similar efforts are underway in Italy, Canada, India, and many
other countries (see Fiber to the premises by country).
7.12 POWER-LINE INTERNET
Power-line Internet, also known as Broadband over power lines (BPL), carries Internet data on a
conductor that is also used for electric power transmission. Because of the extensive power line
infrastructure already in place, this technology can provide people in rural and low population
areas access to the Internet with little cost in terms of new transmission equipment, cables, or
wires. Data rates are asymmetric and generally range from 256 kbit/s to 2.7 Mbit/s.
Because these systems use parts of the radio spectrum allocated to other over-the-air
communication services, interference between the services is a limiting factor in the introduction
of power-line Internet systems. The IEEE P1901 standard specifies that all power-line protocols
must detect existing usage and avoid interfering with it.
Power-line Internet has developed faster in Europe than in the U.S. due to a historical difference
in power system design philosophies. Data signals cannot pass through the step-down
transformers used and so a repeater must be installed on each transformer. In the U.S. a
transformer serves a small cluster of from one to a few houses. In Europe, it is more common for
a somewhat larger transformer to service larger clusters of from 10 to 100 houses. Thus a typical
U.S. city requires an order of magnitude more repeaters than in a comparable European city.
7.13 ATM AND FRAME RELAY
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Frame Relay are wide-area networking standards that
can be used to provide Internet access directly or as building blocks of other access technologies.
For example, many DSL implementations use an ATM layer over the low-level bitstream layer to
enable a number of different technologies over the same link. Customer LANs are typically
connected to an ATM switch or a Frame Relay node using leased lines at a wide range of data
rates.
While still widely used, with the advent of Ethernet over optical fiber, MPLS, VPNs and
broadband services such as cable modem and DSL, ATM and Frame Relay no longer play the
prominent role they once did.
7.14 WIRELESS BROADBAND ACCESS
Wireless broadband is used to provide both fixed and mobile Internet access with the following
technologies.

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7.15 SATELLITE BROADBAND

Satellite Internet access provides fixed, portable, and mobile Internet access. Data rates range
from 2 kbit/s to 1 Gbit/s downstream and from 2 kbit/s to 10 Mbit/s upstream. Satellite antenna
dishes require a clear line of sight to the southern sky. Service can be adversely affected by
moisture, rain, and snow (known as rain fade). The system requires a carefully aimed directional
antenna.
Satellites in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) operate in a fixed position 35,786 km (22,236 miles)
above the Earth's equator. At the speed of light (about 300,000 km/s or 186,000 miles per second),
it takes a quarter of a second for a radio signal to travel from the Earth to the satellite and back.
When other switching and routing delays are added and the delays are doubled to allow for a full
round-trip transmission, the total delay can be 0.75 to 1.25 seconds. This latency is large when
compared to other forms of Internet access with typical latencies that range from 0.015 to 0.2
seconds. Long latencies negatively affect some applications that require real-time response,
particularly online games, voice over IP, and remote control devices. TCP tuning and TCP
acceleration techniques can mitigate some of these problems. GEO satellites do not cover the
Earth's polar regions. HughesNet, Exede, AT&T and Dish Network have GEO systems.
Satellites in low Earth orbit (LEO, below 2000 km or 1243 miles) and medium Earth orbit (MEO,
between 2000 and 35,786 km or 1,243 and 22,236 miles) are less common, operate at lower
altitudes, and are not fixed in their position above the Earth. Lower altitudes allow lower latencies
and make real-time interactive Internet applications more feasible. LEO systems
include Globalstar and Iridium. The O3b Satellite Constellation is a proposed MEO system with a
latency of 125 ms. COMMStellation™ is a LEO system, scheduled for launch in 2015, that is
expected to have a latency of just 7 ms.
7.16 MOBILE BROADBAND
Mobile broadband is the marketing term for wireless Internet access delivered through mobile
phone towers to computers, mobile phones (called "cell phones" in North America and South
Africa, and "hand phones" in Asia), and other digital devices using portable modems. Some
mobile services allow more than one device to be connected to the Internet using a single cellular
connection using a process called tethering. The modem may be built into laptop computers,
tablets, mobile phones, and other devices, added to some devices using PC cards, USB modems,
and USB sticks ordongles, or separate wireless modems can be used.
New mobile phone technology and infrastructure is introduced periodically and generally involves
a change in the fundamental nature of the service, non-backwards-compatible transmission
technology, higher peak data rates, new frequency bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in
Hertz becomes available. These transitions are referred to as generations. The first mobile data
services became available during the second generation (2G).
Second generation (2G) from 1991:

Speeds in kbit/s down and up

• GSM CSD 9.6 kbit/s

• CDPD up to 19.2 kbit/s

• GSM GPRS (2.5G) 56 to 115 kbit/s

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• GSM EDGE (2.75G) up to 237 kbit/s

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Third generation (3G) from 2001:

Speeds in Mbit/s down up

• UMTS W-CDMA 0.4 Mbit/s

• UMTS HSPA 14.4 5.8

• UMTS TDD 16 Mbit/s

• CDMA2000 1xRTT 0.3 0.15

• CDMA2000 EV-DO 2.5–4.9 0.15–1.8

• GSM EDGE-Evolution 1.6 0.5

Fourth generation (4G) from 2006:

Speeds in Mbit/s down up

• HSPA+ 21–672 5.8–168

• Mobile WiMAX (802.16) 37–365 17–376

• LTE 100–300 50–75

• LTE-Advanced:

• moving at higher speeds 100 Mbit/s

• not moving or moving at lower

up to 1000 Mbit/s
speeds

• MBWA (802.20) 80 Mbit/s

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The download (to the user) and upload (to the Internet) data rates given above are peak or
maximum rates and end users will typically experience lower data rates.
WiMAX was originally developed to deliver fixed wireless service with wireless mobility added
in 2005. CDPD, CDMA2000 EV-DO, and MBWA are no longer being actively developed.
In 2011, 90% of the world's population lived in areas with 2G coverage, while 45% lived in areas
with 2G and 3G coverage.
7.17 WIMAX
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX ) is a set of interoperable
implementations of the IEEE 802.16 family of wireless-network standards certified by
theWiMAX Forum. WiMAX enables "the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an
alternative to cable and DSL".The original IEEE 802.16 standard, now called "Fixed WiMAX",
was published in 2001 and provided 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data rates.[68] Mobility support
was added in 2005. A 2011 update provides data rates up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. WiMax
offers a metropolitan area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles), far surpassing
the 30-metre (100-foot) wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi local area network (LAN).
WiMAX signals also penetrate building walls much more effectively than Wi-Fi.
7.18 WIRELESS ISP
Wireless Internet service providers (WISPs) operate independently of mobile phone operators.
WISPs typically employ low-cost IEEE 802.11 Wi-Firadio systems to link up remote locations
over great distances (Long-range Wi-Fi), but may use other higher-power radio communications
systems as well.
Traditional 802.11b is an unlicensed omnidirectional service designed to span between 100 and
150 m (300 to 500 ft). By focusing the radio signal using a directional antenna 802.11b can
operate reliably over a distance of many km(miles), although the technology's line-of-sight
requirements hamper connectivity in areas with hilly or heavily foliated terrain. In addition,
compared to hard-wired connectivity, there are security risks (unless robust security protocols are
enabled); data rates are significantly slower (2 to 50 times slower); and the network can be less
stable, due to interference from other wireless devices and networks, weather and line-of-sight
problems.
Deploying multiple adjacent Wi-Fi access points is sometimes used to create city-wide wireless
networks. Some are by commercial WISPs but grassroots efforts have also led to wireless
community networks. Rural wireless-ISP installations are typically not commercial in nature and
are instead a patchwork of systems built up by hobbyists mounting antennas on radio masts and
towers, agricultural storage silos, very tall trees, or whatever other tall objects are available. There
are a number of companies that provide this service.
Proprietary technologies like Motorola Canopy & Expedience can be used by a WISP to offer
wireless access to rural and other markets that are hard to reach using Wi-Fi or WiMAX.
7.19 LOCAL MULTIPOINT DISTRIBUTION SERVICE
Local Multipoint Distribution Service (LMDS) is a broadband wireless access technology that
uses microwave signals operating between 26 GHz and 29 GHz. Originally designed for digital
television transmission (DTV), it is conceived as a fixed wireless, point-to-multipoint technology
for utilization in the last mile. Data rates range from 64 kbit/s to 155 Mbit/s. Distance is typically
limited to about 1.5 miles (2.4 km), but links of up to 5 miles (8 km) from the base station are
possible in some circumstances.

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LMDS has been surpassed in both technological and commercial potential by the LTE and
WiMAX standards.
7.20 SUMMARY
Broad band access technology covers variety of technology with wired and wireless access
like DSL broad band, WiFi, Wi-Max etc that all together working as a backbone for connecting
people each other.
7.21 WORKSHEET
Qu.1 Fill in the blanks:
1. …………………. Can be checked by observing internet LED on modem.
2. ………..port is used for connecting PC with modem.
3. …………….. signal can be used to connect mobile devices with modem.
4. Green LED shows………………..Mbps speed in modem.
5. To load factory setting in modem ………………….can be used.
Qu.2 Mark True or False
1. Green LED shows 10Mbps speed for communication in modem.
2. Broad band is also known as ADSL modem.
3. Broad band modem cannot be reset by web interface.
4. IP address of Broad band modem is 192.168.1.2.
5. For broad band modem configuration goggle chrome can be used.

Qu.3 Write down description of LED shown below?

Qu. 4 Write steps to check proper logical connectivity of PC with Modem?

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Qu.5 Write steps to troubleshoot problem if LAN icon in PC is showing red cross(i.e.
disconnection)?

Notes:

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National Skill Development

Corporation

BROADBAND TECHNICIAN

BROADBAND INSTALLATION

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8. BROADBAND INSTALLATION

8.1 Overview
8.2 Lying the cables at customer premises -conectivity of dsl-cpe.
8.3 Establishing connectivity between pc and adsl modem.
8.4 Configuration of dsl modem in bridge mode.
8.5 Configuration of broad band dialer at computer.

8.6 Configuration of dsl modem in router mode.

8.7 Configuration of wifi router for wifi services.
8.8 How To Secure Your Wireless Broadband Network
8.9 Summary
8.10 Key Learning
8.11 References and further readings

8.1 OVERVIEW
In telecommunications, broadband is a wide bandwidth data transmission with an ability to
simultaneously transport multiple signals and traffic types. The medium can be coaxial
cable, optical fiber, radio or twisted pair.
In the context of Internet access broadband is used much more loosely to mean any high-speed
Internet access that is always on and faster than traditional dial-up access.
Modes of configuration of modem- There are two ways to configure an ADSL modem for
broadband connection. One in PPPoE (Point to Point Protocol over Ethernet) and the another is
Bridge mode.
PPPoE Mode
In this mode the modem works as router and the PPPoE session terminates on WAN port of
router. The PPPoE client is in built in the modem and allocated by BRAS server gets assigned to
WAN port of modem. The Internal network has to use the private IP and for Internet access
NATing happens in modem. In PPPoE mode the modem is configured in such a way that the user
id and password are stored inside the Modem. Internet connection will be established as you
switch on the Modem.
Bridge Mode
In this mode the modem works as transparent Ethernet bridge and therefore you need to run the
PPPoE client software ( for login authentication) on your PC/server. WIN XP systems have this
feature inbuilt ti

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Both the modes can be used as per the requirement and application. Here enumerating the main
differences
PPPoE mode
1. User id and password stored inside the Modem.
2. Multiple PCs can be connected. For example most of the basic ADSL Modems having at
least one ADSL port and one USB port. In PPPoE mode, can connect one PC to Ethernet
port and one PC to USB port which enable simultaneous internet usage in both the PCs.
3. PPPoE mode is more secured.
4. For Torrents download, appropriate ports need to be forwarded.
Bridge Mode
1. In bridge mode user id and password to be entered in the dialer of computer.
2. Only single PC can be connected.
3. For torrents download port forwarding is not required.
4. Less secured because all the ports are open need good firewall to avoid virus infection.

8.2 LYING THE CABLES AT CUSTOMER PREMISES- CONECTIVITY

OF DSL-CPE
DSL-CPE is located at customer premises and connected to Digital Subscriber Line Access
Multiplexer (DSLAM). Various types of DSL-CPEs are available depends on the DSL technology
used. DSL-CPE is connected to DSLAM through the wire line. It is extended to PSTN via
telephone exchange and towards data network by the DSLAM splitter. Following figure describes
the connectivity of DSL-CPE.

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STB

Splitter CPE PC

Telephone Exchange
230V
OFC
Telephone

DSLAM MDF

At the customer premises the equipments consists of: -

 Splitter
 ADSL equipment (ADSL Modem or ADSL Router )
 PC
 Telephone
A typical DSL-CPE connectivity at customer premises is shown below.

The DSL-CPE connectivity is provided with single user or multiusers. In case of ADSL Router it
is possible to connect the user PCs with the help of hub or switch.

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8.1

8.3 ESTABLISHING CONNECTIVITY BETWEEN PC AND ADSL

MODEM
Steps To Configure the PC :-
Use the following IP Address radio button.
1. IP Address 192.168.1.5
2. Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0
3. Default Gateway 192.168.1.1
4. Preferred DNS server 192.168.1.1
5. Click OK and close.
6. open command prompt by following procedure
7. click on START button
8. select Accessories
9. click on Command prompt.

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Type command ping 192.168.1.1

The above result shows that there is good connectivity between the PC and ADSL Modem

8.4 CONFIGURING MODEM IN BRIDGE/DIAL-UP/SINGLE-USER

MODE
Steps to Configure Modem:-

Open Internet Explorer and type http://192.168.1.1 in the web browser, the following Window
appears:-

Type Username admin and Password admin and click OK.

click on Advanced Setup and then select WAN

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Enter the VPI and VCI as VPI=0 and VCI=35

Steps Configure Modem in Bridge Mode on mode :-
Select Connection type as Bridging and finish the wizard by clicking NEXT button (Remember
here NAT setting, username and password are not required i.e. username and password will be
provided by computer after making Broad Band Dialer)

How To Reboot The Modem :-

1. Go to Management menu.
2. Select Save/Reboot submenu
3. click on Save/Reboot.

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8.5STEPS FOR MAKING BROAD BAND DIALER AT COMPUTER

 Open the network properties

 Select Setup new connection and start configuration wizard

 Select connect to internet option and click next

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 Select create new connect and select Broad Band connection and click next

 Select Broad Band dialer that requires username and password and click next

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 Enter user name and password given by ISP for your Broad Band connection and click on
connect button.

8.6 Configuring Modem in Always on mode

1. Open Internet Explorer and type http://192.168.1.1 in the web browser, the following
Window appears:-
a. Type Username admin and Password admin and click OK.

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2. click on Advanced Setup and then select WAN

3. Enter the VPI and VCI as VPI=0 and VCI=35

4. Select PPPoE radio button
5. Encapsulation mode as LLC and click Next.

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6. Type username and password as given to the customer for broadband access.

7. click on Enable NAT function box as

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8. Click on next
9. click on save.
10.Click on Save/Reboot.

8.7 .Configuration of WiFi router for WiFi services

Steps to configure wireless connectivity

1. Logon to modem .
2. Click on wirless option.

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3. Click on basic and give the ssid name .

4. click on security tab and enter the wep key

5. save and reboot the system.

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Key points

 Note that while using wifi the modem should be configured in multiuser mode/ pppoe
/router mode.
 The wifi should not be left open. It should be protected all time to prevent unauthorized
access.

8.8 . HOW TO SECURE YOUR WIRELESS BROADBAND NETWORK

 Changing the Configuration Page's Password

Every wireless router or access point comes with a built-in configuration page, this will
look like an internal web page that is accessed from your web browser. Usually, the
password is either blank or says something along the lines of ?admin.? Changing both the
username as well as the password is an important step in keeping your wireless broadband
connection secure.

 Disabling the Broadcasting of Your SSID

Most wireless broadband access points and routers make their SSID public. While this
makes it easy to connect to the network, it also announces to everyone that you are using a
wireless network. Disabling this broadcasting prevents others from easily knowing that
you are using a wireless network for your broadband connection.

 Changing the Default IP Number of the Wireless Access Point or Router

Change the default IP number to something different so hackers cannot easily find the
configuration menu. The default IP number is something the manufacturer's put in to make
the system easy to use. All hackers are familiar with the default IP number, so changing it
will help secure your wireless system.

 Enabling WEP or WPA Encryption

With the WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) or WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) box options
checked off, a user has to have a correct encryption key to connect to the wireless
network. WEP comes with different encryption levels, and the higher the level, the more
difficult it is to break the encryption code.
8.9 SUMMARY
Broadband modem is combination of hardware and software. The configuration of modem can
be done through web interface of modem. If we follow the steps of configuring the modem in
the order as discussed in the above paragraph, then hardly we will face any problem related to
configuration of modem.

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8.10 KEY LEARNING

Q .1 Explain bridge mode and router mode.

………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………….........

………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………....

…………………………………………………………………………………

Q.2 What is NAT ?

………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………....

…………………………………………………………………………………

Q.3 Write few points to protect wireless broadband network?

…………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………..

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Q.4 explain creating dialer in bridge mode? Also mention the advantages of bridge mode?

………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………….

8.11 REFRENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

1. http://www.internetworldstats.com/articles/art096.htm
2. http://bsnlbroadband.in/bsnl-adsl-modem-configuration-d-link-dsl-2730-u-n-150-adsl2-type-4/

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VERSION 1 - MAY 2016

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9 FIBER OPTICS CONCEPTS

9.1 INTRODUCTION

9.2 OBJECTIVE

9.3 FIBER-OPTIC APPLICATIONS

9.4 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

9.5 FIBER OPTICS BASICS: PRINCIPLES OF OPTICAL TRANSPORT

MEDIA AND OFC COMMUNICATION:

9.5.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - THEORY

9.5.2 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE

9.6 GEOMETRY OF FIBER

9.7 SUMMARY

9.8 KEY LEARNING

9.9 WORKSHEET

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9.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of light for transmitting information from one place to another place is a very old
technique. In 800 BC., the Greeks used fire and smoke signals for sending information like
victory in a war, alerting against enemy, call for help, etc. Mostly only one type of signal was
conveyed. During the second century B.C. optical signals were encoded using signaling lamps so
that any message could be sent. There was no development in optical communication till the end
of the 18th century. The speed of the optical communication link was limited due to the
requirement of line of sight transmission paths, the human eye as the receiver and unreliable
nature of transmission paths affected by atmospheric effects such as fog and rain.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, light was guided through bent glass rods to illuminate
body cavities. Alexander Graham Bell invented a 'Photophone' to transmit voice signals over an
optical beam. By 1964, a critical and theoretical specification was identified by Dr. Charles K.
Kao for long-range communication devices, the 10 or 20 dB of light loss per kilometer standard.
Dr. Kao also illustrated the need for a purer form of glass to help reduce light loss. By 1970
Corning Glass invented fiber-optic wire or "optical waveguide fibers" which was capable of
carrying 65,000 times more information than copper wire, through which information carried by a
pattern of light waves could be decoded at a destination even a thousand miles away. Corning
Glass developed fiber with loss of 17 dB/ km at 633 nm by doping titanium into the fiber core. By
June of 1972, multimode germanium-doped fiber had developed with a loss of 4 dB per kilometer
and much greater strength than titanium-doped fiber.
In April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics tested and deployed the world's first live
telephone traffic through a fiber-optic system running at 6 Mbps, in Long Beach, California. They
were soon followed by Bell in May 1977, with an optical telephone communication system
installed in the downtown Chicago area, covering a distance of 1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers). Each
optical-fiber pair carried the equivalent of 672 voice channels. Today more than 80 percent of the
world's long-distance voice and data traffic is carried over optical-fiber cables.
An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to
transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic
communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths
(data rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because
signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to electromagnetic interference.
With increase in population struggle for survival increased Its impacts on appearing in human life
in many ways. There have been shortage of utilizes resources. The resources consist of materials,
technology, money, human recourse, information, interconnectivity etc.
Due to consistent pressure there has been different ways of innovations in almost every
stream of life. In the field of telecommunication also development are happening in the fields of
client terminals access technique, aggregation technique, multiplexing technique, transport
technique. There has been different access technique and different type of client terminals as per
respective access technique. The basic contents were limitations of transmission media and low
order multiplexing and switching. The initial transmission started with attaching information
leaflet with visions. The same concept was utilized on building semaphore. That came the
evolution telegraphs lines after the invention of more score in which use of guided media has got
important. In this era use of open wire communications having overhead line with minimal
multiplexing was the latest things. However has the requirement of reliable telecommunication
has increased need was well to have proper voice communications and switching like manual,

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electro mechanical, fully digital involving automatic increasing order of multiplexing were
implemented. In this era the main access network comprised of cable network made up of copper
and transmission network was predominately of over head lines. Later on, seeing the limitations
of over-head lines, like deterioration weather due to electro magnetite interference less carrying
capacity etc. were found. Use of optical fiber as a transmission media got thrust due to less cost,
improve technology in multiplexing, virtually infants capacity and immunity to electro-magnetic
interference. Requirement of bandwidth which was around 20Kbps have reached to around
1Gbps. The accesses network is also converging with the development of IP & MPLS
technologies of dada communication. Multiplexing is also migrating in TDM, FDM to packet
base statistical multiplexing. Client terminals are also converging having all capabilities of voice,
video, text, web and multimedia. The network is converging to one by using architecture of IMS
and Next Generation network. Applications which were accesses network depended are also
becoming universally accessible and a accesses network agnostic. The human interface is also
improve presentably because of manufacturing line terminal incorporating signals of sensory
organs like touch, vision, mind etc.. Today client terminals have improve GUI based web
interface having faster processing multimedia capacity and capability to communicate to multiple
secessions over multiple windows having full mobility as well as portability.

Due to competitions and rapid growth of innovation, the world are become faster and expectations
of prominent service delivery are also been increased. Delay in providing services has also been
reduced and overall connectivity in becoming P-P i.e. pair to pair.

9.2 OBJECTIVE
After reading this unit, you should be able to understand:
 Fiber-Optic Applications
 Basic optical fiber communication system:
 The Structure of an Optical Fiber
 Principle of Operation – Theory

9.3 FIBER-OPTIC APPLICATIONS

The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber applications are
numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from global networks to
desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice, data, or video over distances of less
than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few standard fiber designs in one of several
cable designs.
 Long distance communication backbones
 Inter-exchange junctions
 Video transmission
 Broadband services
 Computer data communication (LAN, WAN etc.)
 High EMI areas

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 Non-communication applications (sensors etc…)

9.4 ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

Fiber Optics has the following advantages:
Wider bandwidth: The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is directly
proportional to the carrier frequency of the transmitted signals. The optical carrier frequency is in
the range 1013 to 1015 Hz while the radio wave frequency is about 106 Hz and the microwave
frequency is about 1010 Hz. Thus the optical fiber yields greater transmission bandwidth than the
conventional communication systems and the data rate or number of bits per second is increased
to a greater extent in the optical fiber communication system. Further the wavelength division
multiplexing operation by the data rate or information carrying capacity of optical fibers is
enhanced to many orders of magnitude.
Low transmission loss: Due to the usage of the ultra low loss fibers and the erbium doped silica
fibers as optical amplifiers, one can achieve almost lossless transmission. In the modern optical
fiber telecommunication systems, the fibers having a transmission loss of 0.2dB/km are used.
Further, using erbium doped silica fibers over a short length in the transmission path at selective
points; appropriate optical amplification can be achieved. Thus the repeater spacing is more than
100 km. Since the amplification is done in the optical domain itself, the distortion produced
during the strengthening of the signal is almost negligible.
Dielectric waveguide: Optical fibers are made from silica which is an electrical insulator.
Therefore they do not pickup any electromagnetic wave or any high current lightning. It is also
suitable in explosive environments. Further the optical fibers are not affected by any interference
originating from power cables, railway power lines and radio waves. There is no cross talk
between the fibers even though there are so many fibers in a cable because of the absence of
optical interference between the fibers.
Signal security: The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate. Further the signal
cannot be tapped from a fiber in an easy manner. Therefore optical fiber communication provides
hundred per cent signal security.
Small size and weight: Fiber optic cables are developed with small radii, and they are flexible,
compact and lightweight. The fiber cables can be bent or twisted without damage. Further, the
optical fiber cables are superior to the copper cables in terms of storage, handling, installation and
transportation, maintaining comparable strength and durability.

9.5 FIBER OPTICS BASICS: PRINCIPLES OF OPTICAL TRANSPORT

MEDIA AND OFC COMMUNICATION:
Optical Fiber is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is transmitted through
a glass or plastic fiber, in the form of light, following the transmission sequence give below:
(1) Information is encoded into Electrical Signals.
(2) Electrical Signals are converted into light Signals.
(3) Light Travels down the Fiber.
(4) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.
(5) Electrical Signals are decoded into Information.

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Inexpensive light sources available. Repeater spacing increases along with operating
speeds because low loss fibres are used at high data rates.

Fig : 1 Fiber Optic System

9.5.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - THEORY

Speed of light is actually the velocity of electromagnetic energy in vacuum such as space.
Light travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass. Light travelling from one
material to another changes speed, which results in changing its direction of travel. This
deflection of light is called Refraction. The amount that a ray of light passing from a lower
refractive index to a higher one, is bent towards the normal, but light going from a higher index to
a lower one, refracting away from the normal, as shown in the figures.
The basics of light propagation can be discussed with the use of geometric optics. The
basic law of light guidance is Snell’s law (Fig. 3a). Consider two dielectric media with different
refractive indices and with n1 >n2 and that are in perfect contact, as shown in Figure 7. At the
interface between the two dielectrics, the incident and refracted rays satisfy Snell’s law of
refraction—that is,
n1sin1= n2sin2
In addition to the refracted ray there is a small amount of reflected light in the medium
with refractive index n1. Because n1  n2 then always 21. As the angle of the incident ray
increases there is an angle at which the refracted ray emerges parallel to the interface between the
two dielectrics (Figure 3(b)). This angle is referred to as the critical angle, crit, and from Snell’s
law is given by
Sincrit = n1/n2

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Fig : 2 Snell’s law

If the angle of incidence increases amore than the critical angle, the light is totally reflected back
into the first material so that it does not enter the second material. The angle of incidence and
reflection are equal and it is called Total Internal Reflection.

9.5.2 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE

The optical fiber has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding. The inner core
is the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the difference refractive index that
allows total internal reflection of light through the core. 4. The index of the cladding is
approximately 1% lower than that of the core. Typical values for example are a core refractive
index of 1.47 and a cladding index of 1.46. Fiber manufacturers control this difference to obtain
desired optical fiber characteristics. Most fibers have an additional coating around the cladding.
This buffer coating is a shock absorber and has no optical properties affecting the propagation of
light within the fiber. Figure shows the idea of light travelling through a fiber. Light injected into
the fiber and striking core to cladding interface at greater than the critical angle, reflects back into
core, since the angle of incidence and reflection are equal, the reflected light will again be
reflected. The light will continue zigzagging down the length of the fiber. Light striking the
interface at less than the critical angle passes into the cladding, where it is lost over distance. The
cladding is usually inefficient as a light carrier, and light in the cladding becomes attenuated
fairly. Propagation of light through fiber is governed by the indices of the core and cladding by
Snell's law.
Jacket Jacket

Cladding
Core

Cladding (n2) Cladding

Core (n2) Jacket

Light at less than Angle of Angle of
critical angle is incidence reflection
absorbed in jacket
Light is propagated by
total internal reflection

Fig. Total Internal Reflection in an optical Fibre

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Fig : 3 Propagation of light through fiber

Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation through a optical fiber. This
analysis consider only meridional rays- those that pass through the fiber axis each time, they are
reflected. Other rays called Skew rays travel down the fiber without passing through the axis. The
path of a skew ray is typically helical wrapping around and around the central axis. Fortunately
skew rays are ignored in most fiber optics analysis.
The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fiber depends on many factors,
including
- The size of the fiber.
- The composition of the fiber.
The light injected into the fiber

9.6 GEOMETRY OF FIBER

The optical fibers used in communications have a very simple structure. A hair-thin fiber
consist of two concentric layers of high-purity silica glass the core and the cladding, which are
enclosed by a protective sheath as shown in Fig. 2. Core and cladding have different refractive
indices, with the core having a refractive index, n1, which is slightly higher than that of the
cladding, n2. It is this difference in refractive indices that enables the fiber to guide the light.
Because of this guiding property, the fiber is also referred to as an “optical waveguide.” As a
minimum there is also a further layer known as the secondary cladding that does not participate in
the propagation but gives the fiber a minimum level of protection, this second layer is referred to
as a coating. Light rays modulated into digital pulses with a laser or a light-emitting diode moves
along the core without penetrating the cladding.

(a) Cross section and (b) longitudinal cross section of a typical optical fiber
The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive index—a measure
of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along with the development of new lasers
and diodes, may one day allow commercial fiber-optic networks to carry trillions of bits of data
per second.
The light stays confined to the core because the cladding has a lower refractive index—a measure
of its ability to bend light. Refinements in optical fibers, along with the development of new lasers
and diodes, may one day allow commercial fiber-optic networks to carry trillions of bits of data
per second.
The diameters of the core and cladding are as follows.

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Core (m) Cladding ( m)

8 125

50 125

62.5 125

100 140
Fibre sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed by the cladding size. Thus
50/125 means a core diameter of 50m and a cladding diameter of 125m.

125 8 125 50 125 62.5 125 100

Core Cladding

Typical
Fig : 4Core and Cladding
Typical Core and Diameters
Cladding Diameter

9.7 SUMMARY
Fiber optic technology is a revolutionary technological departure from the traditional
copper wires twisted-pair cable or coaxial cable. The usage of optical fiber in the
telecommunications industry has grown a few decades ago. Today, many industries particularly
telecommunications industry chooses optical fiber over copper wire because of its ability to
transmit large amount of information at a time.
An optical fiber is a flexible filament of very clear glass capable of carrying information in
the formof light. Optical fibers are hair-thin structures created by forming pre-forms, which are
glass rodsdrawn into fine threads of glass protected by a plastic coating.

9.8 WORKSHEET
Qu.1 Fill in the blanks:
1. An optical fiber is a thin, flexible, transparent fiber that acts as a ………………..
2. Propagation of light through fiber is governed by the indices of the…….
3. The optical fiber has two concentric layers called the………...
4. The index of the cladding is approximately …….. % lower than that of the core.
5. Propagation of light is based on the principle of………………………………..
Qu.2 Mark True or False
1. Core and cladding have same refractive indices.
2. The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate.

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3. In the modern optical fiber telecommunication systems, the fibers having a

transmission loss less than 0.2dB/km are used.
4. A Detector Changes the Electrical Signals into Light Signals.
5. Light travelling from one material to another changes speed.

Qu.3 Write down the different Fiber-Optic Applications?

Qu. 4 Write down the advantages of optical fiber communication?

Qu.5 Draw a general block diagram of fiber optic system?

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Notes:

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National Skill Development

Corporation

BROADBAND TECHNICIAN

UNINTERRUPTED POWER
SUPPLY & EARTHING

VERSION 1 - MAY 2016

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10 UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY & EARTHING

10.1 INTRODUCTION

10.2 OBJECTIVE

10.3 NEED OF UPS

10.4 TYPES OF UPS

10.5 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF AN UPS SYSTEM

10.6 STEPS OF UPS INSTALLATION

10.7 UPS MAINTENANCE

10.8 HEALTH & SAFETY

10.9 EARTHING

10.10 MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE

10.13 SUMMARY

10.14 REFERENCES & FURTHER READING

10.15 KEY LEARNING

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10.1 INTRODUCTION
A UPS is a device that provides backup power when utility power fails, either long enough for
critical equipment to shut down gracefully so that no data is lost, or long enough to keep required
loads operational until a generator comes online. It also conditions incoming power so that all-
too-common sags and surges don’t damage sensitive electronic gear.
An uninterrupted power supply is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load
when the input power source or mains power fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency
power system or standby generator in that it will provide near-instantaneous protection from input
power interruptions, by supplying energy stored in batteries, supercapacitors, or flywheels. The
on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short (only a few minutes)
but sufficient to start a standby power source or properly shut down the protected equipment.
In electricity supply systems, an earthing system or grounding system is circuitry which connects
parts of the electric circuit with the ground, thus defining the electric potential of the conductors
relative to the Earth's conductive surface. The choice of earthing system can affect
the safety and electromagnetic compatibility of the power supply. In particular, it affects the
magnitude and distribution of short circuit currents through the system, and the effects it creates
on equipment and people in the proximity of the circuit. If a fault within an electrical device
connects a live supply conductor to an exposed conductive surface, anyone touching it while
electrically connected to the earth will complete a circuit back to the earthed supply conductor and
receive an electric shock.

10.2 OBJECTIVE
After reading this unit, you should be able to understand:
 UPS system & types
 Need of UPS
 Selection of UPS for the given situation
 Earthing need & types

10.3 NEED OF UPS

No company can afford to leave its IT assets unprotected from power issues. Here are just a few
of the reasons why:
• Even short outages can be trouble. Losing power for as little as a quarter second can trigger
events, that may keep IT equipment unavailable for anywhere from 15 minutes to many hours.
And downtime is costly. Some experts believe the U.S. economy loses between $200 billion and
$570 billion a year due to power outages and other disturbances.
• Utility power isn't clean. By law, electrical power can vary widely enough to cause significant
problems for IT equipment. According to current U.S. standards, for example, voltage can legally
vary from 5.7 percent to 8.3 percent under absolute specifications. That means that what utility
services promising 208-phase voltage actually deliver can range from 191 to 220 volts.
• Utility power isn't 100 percent reliable. In the U.S., in fact, it's only 99.9 percent reliable,
which translates into a likely nine hours of utility outages every year.

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• The problems and risks are intensifying. Today’s storage systems, servers and network
devices use components so miniaturized that they falter and fail under power conditions earlier-
generation equipment easily withstood.
• Generators and surge suppressors aren’t enough. Generators can keep systems operational
during a utility outage, but they take time to startup and provide no protection from power spikes
and other electrical disturbances. Surge suppressors help with power spikes but not with issues
like power loss, under-voltage and brownout conditions.
• Availability is everything these days. Once, IT played a supporting role in the enterprise.
These days it’s absolutely central to how most companies compete and win. When IT systems are
down, core business processes quickly come to a standstill.
• Availability is everything, but power costs must be managed. The cost of power and cooling
has spiraled out of control in recent years. Data center managers are typically held responsible for
achieving high availability while simultaneously reducing power costs. Highly-efficient UPS
systems can help with this goal, and products are available today that were not an option even a
few years ago.

10.4 Types of UPS

Single-conversion systems
In normal operation, these feed incoming utility AC power to IT equipment. If the AC input
supply falls out of predefined limits, the UPS utilizes its inverter to draw current from the battery,
and also disconnects the AC input supply to prevent backfeed from the inverter to the utility. The
UPS stays on battery power until the AC input returns to normal tolerances or the battery runs out
of power, whichever happens first. Two of the most popular single-conversion designs are
standby and line-interactive:
 Standby UPSsallow IT equipment to run off utility power until the UPS detects a
problem, at which point it switches to battery power. Some standby UPS designs
incorporate transformers or other devices to provide limited power conditioning as well.
 Line-interactive UPSsregulate input utility voltage up or down as necessary before
allowing it to pass through to protected equipment. However, like standby UPSs, they use
their battery to guard against frequency abnormalities.
Double-conversion systems
 As the name suggests, these devices convert power twice. First, an input rectifier converts
AC power into DC and feeds it to an output inverter. The output inverter then processes
the power back to AC before sending it on to IT equipment. This double-conversion
process isolates critical loads from raw utility power completely, ensuring that IT
equipment receives only clean, reliable electricity.
 In normal operation, a double-conversion UPS continually processes power twice. If the
AC input supply falls out of predefined limits, however, the input rectifier shuts off and
the output inverter begins drawing power from the battery instead. The UPS continues to
utilize battery power until the AC input returns to normal tolerances or the battery runs out
of power, whichever occurs sooner. In case of a severe overload of the inverter, or a
failure of the rectifier or inverter, the static switch bypass path is turned on quickly, to
support the output loads.

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Multi-mode systems

 These combine features of both single- and double-conversion technologies while

providing substantial improvements in both efficiency and reliability:
 Under normal conditions, the system operates in line-interactive mode, saving energy and
money while also keeping voltage within safe tolerances and resolving common anomalies
found in utility power.
 If AC input power falls outside of preset tolerances for line-interactive mode, the system
automatically switches to double-conversion mode, completely isolating IT equipment
from the incoming AC source.
 If AC input power falls outside the tolerances of the double-conversion rectifier, or goes
out altogether, the UPS uses the battery to keep supported loads up and running. When the
generator comes online, the UPS switches to double-conversion mode until input power
stabilizes. Then it transitions back to high-efficiency line-interactive mode.
 Multi-mode UPSs are designed to dynamically strike an ideal balance between efficiency
and protection. Under normal conditions, they provide maximum efficiency. When
problems occur, however, they automatically sacrifice some efficiency to deliver
maximum levels of protection. The end result is that data centers can save tens of
thousands a year on energy without compromising data center performance or reliability.

Choosing the right UPS

Topology

Question number one is should you get a single-conversion, double-conversion or multi-mode

UPS? The answer depends largely on how important energy efficiency is for your organization
relative to protection.
Single-conversion UPSs are more efficient than double-conversion devices, but offer less
protection. That makes them a good fit for loads with a higher tolerance for failure. More
specifically, standby UPSs (the most basic type of single conversion UPS) are generally the best
option for smaller applications, like desktop and point-of-sale solutions, while line-interactive
UPSs are typically preferable for smaller server, storage and network applications located in
facilities with access to relatively trouble-free AC utility power.
Double-conversion UPSs, which provide the highest levels of protection, are less efficient but are
usually the standard choice for protecting mission-critical systems.
Multi-mode UPSs, although they may be more expensive than either single or double conversion
systems, are the best choice for companies looking to achieve an optimal blend of both efficiency
and protection.

10.5 BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF AN UPS SYSTEM

Lightning and surge protection: The unit should meet the requirements of IEEE standard 587
Category A or B. These requirements require the unit to withstand surges of 6000 V without
damage to itself, and preventing the surge from reaching the protected load.

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Isolation: The UPS should have grounding and bonding provisions to reduce neutral-to-ground
noise to zero, thereby preventing common mode noise from reaching the protected equipment.
Line noise can cause possible malfunction to equipment.
Voltage regulation: Equipment voltage requirements must be maintained within the limits
prescribed by the manufacturer.
Continuous, no-break power: A true UPS continuously serves the load through the UPS support
battery, and the load never sees a power break when utility power is lost. Some units are standby
power systems, whereby the load is transferred to the UPS only when utility power is lost or
deviates from prescribed power quality parameters. A continuous no-break power unit must be
used if no power interruption, even of a momentary nature, can be tolerated by the load.
Output power waveform: Electronic equipment and computers are designed with the assumption
that input power is an ac sine wave. All UPSs transform dc battery power from a constant output,
straight line, to a variable output, sine wave, or a reasonable approximation of a thereof. With
some low cost units, a "reasonable approximation" may be an abrupt square wave. It is important
to adhere to the requirements prescribed by the manufacturer of the protected equipment.
Load rating basis. More than 90 % of computer equipment employs input switching-mode power
supplies. The UPS load rating should be based on a switching-mode power supply load, rather
than some unrelated load such as lighting or motors.

10.6 STEPS OF UPS INSTALLATION

1.Size up your battery capacity

The first step in any UPS installation would be to first size up your requirements and identify the
devices that you intend to connect to the UPS. While trying to match the correct UPS model to
your devices is not that complicated, it can be overwhelming if you are not a hardware type of
person.Some manufacturers like APC will gladly field such enquiries and give you exact
recommendations if your devices are fairly mainstream brands, and you are able to furnish them
with the model number of your devices.
UPS installation can be grouped into three "sizes" — small, medium, and large.
 Small: Low-capacity UPS that is normally used to power a couple of desktops or a single
server. These can be easily purchased off-the-shelf.
 Medium: Any UPS that is designed to serve more than a single server, yet still plug-and-
play. These have to be purchased from IT equipment vendors.
 Large: Any UPS that cannot be directly powered off of an unmodified wall socket is
classified as "large." Also, unless you have prior experience with electrical matters, you
should get the engineer from your UPS manufacturer to come in, or else engage the services
of a qualified electrician. These UPSs tend to be available only from the manufacturers
themselves, or from select vendors.
Most server rooms will probably consist of a number of medium-size UPSs. They might run
independently, or are cascaded with battery packs to prolong runtime. I am generalizing here, but
two or three of these is usually sufficient to support a rack of equipment.

2. Determine the best location

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Unless you have a very good reason not to, you should always install your UPS at the bottom-
most section of your server racks. The primary reason is that UPS are heavy beasts, and it makes
sense to place them as low as you can.
Some UPSs come with adjustable rails, allowing you to easily slide the UPS in and out of your
server rack. Should you use them? Well, feel free to go ahead if your vendor offers free
installation. Otherwise, my advice is — don't bother, assuming that you can replace the UPS
battery even when it is mounted directly into the server rack.
I have not experienced any particular benefits from having the rails. It could mean a lot of time
wasted trying to get them adjusted correctly. This is especially true if you are doing it yourself,
have not done it before, or are just not confident. In these scenarios, just install it in place without
the adjustable rails.
3. Prepare for installation
A very important point to bear in mind is that you should never attempt to install a UPS by
yourself, unless you are handling a simple, small UPS. The weight of most UPSs is substantial.
Even if you can carry your eight-year-old on your shoulder just fine, you must remember that the
weight of a UPS is condensed into a relatively small package with an extremely poor weight
distribution — the dense battery is normally located in one end, and it has hard metal edges on
most sides to boot.
In addition, keep in mind that you are dealing with electrical equipment, and there is always the
chance of an accident. While you might like the peace and quiet of installing it over a weekend or
late at night, to be safe, make sure there is someone else around.

10.7 UPS Maintenance

Maintenance of the UPS consists of preventive and corrective maintenance. Preventive
maintenance consists of a scheduled list of activities. Performing these activities keeps the UPS in
good working order and helps to prevent failures. Corrective maintenance is performed as a result
of a failure. Corrective maintenance fixes the problem and gets the unit working again.
A general guide for the maintenance requirements of the UPS systems modules, static switches,
and controls is provided. Although electronic components are not subject to wear in the same
degree as electromagnetic (EM) components, they do require systematic maintenance.
 Preventive maintenance

Periodic maintenance is required to maintain the integrity and lifetime of the battery. Power
electronic equipment also requires scheduled maintenance even though solid-state devices are
used. Preventive maintenance may require that the UPS system be shut down. A transfer of the
critical load which may not provide the power enhancement capabilities of an UPS system is
something that the user must tolerate in order to obtain maximum reliability and minimize
downtime and repair costs.
 Equipment record

This record should list the basic information on the equipment itself, e.g., manufacturer’s
identification, style, serial, size, location, etc., and incorporate inventory-control data for spare
parts. Warranty requirements covering uninterruptible operating conditions should be abstracted
from the user’s manual.

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 Repair cost record

This record should provide a history of repair and associated costs of maintenance for the UPS
system. It is an essential diagnostic record for avoiding future difficulties, especially for systems
determined to be of poor quality, misapplied, or marginal for the application.
 Inspection check list

This list should provide necessary and pertinent information on points to be checked and establish
the recommended recurring dates when these checks should be made. Since shutdown may
require a sliding window period, the amount of time for which this request must precede the
shutdown window should also be stated.
 Periodic maintenance schedule

This schedule provides a complete listing of the day-to-day, weekly, monthly, and annual duties
which should be reviewed on the same periodic time basis so that potential trouble situations can
be investigated and corrected as soon as possible.
 Maintenance inspection and repair records

These necessary and vital documents should be completed in detail by the inspector or an
assigned individual in the maintenance department. Maintenance personnel usually report their
findings and corrective action on assignment sheets or job cards. Permanent records are a useful
guide to each UPS system’s general condition and reliability. It is important to know the
frequency and type of repair and how often there is a need for a complete overhaul.
 Use of records

These records provide for a workable preventive maintenance program. The information obtained
from the necessary periodic inspections can be quickly lost. This is particularly true when test
results are required. Unless records and data on the test and performance of equipment are
retained, the maintenance program will be defeated. Unless records are updated at each
succeeding test period, valuable information is lost. Comparative test data materially assists an
UPS specialist in defining problems, especially when test results differ from manufacturers’
recommended settings or actual factory test data. Significant changes in comparative test data can,
in general, be related to the equipment’s condition.
 Scheduling

Scheduling of UPS and battery maintenance is normally based on the manufacturers’

recommendations. Since an UPS system is vital to the operation of critical loads, it may be
considered advisable to provide more inspections than those the manufacturer recommends.
Certain items on the UPS should be inspected daily or weekly. This inspection can be done by
operating personnel, but data should be recorded and sent to the appropriate maintenance point
not more than 5 days after being recorded. Battery maintenance should be done by maintenance
personnel. Visual monitoring data should be recorded daily for the UPS, and if recorded for the
battery, the recorded data should be handled and sent on to the maintenance department on a
weekly basis.
 Periodic system status checks

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The continued monitoring of the operating status of any electronic equipment greatly enhances the
probability that failure of that equipment will be prevented. Daily observation is advised but do
not provide less than weekly checks. Personnel involved in status monitoring should be those
most concerned with the equipment’s proper functioning.
UPS Maintenance Checklist
Regular equipment testing should be part of a facility’s UPS maintenance schedule. Such a
schedule might include the following elements:
 Quarterly:

Visually inspect equipment for loose connections, burned insulation or any other signs of wear.
 Semiannually:

Visually check for liquid contamination from batteries and capacitors.

Clean and vacuum UPS equipment enclosures.
Check HVAC equipment and performance related to temperature and humidity.
 Annually:

Conduct thermal scans on electrical connections to ensure all are tight and not generating heat,
which is the first and sometimes only indication of a problem. A non-evasive diagnostic tool helps
technicians identify hot spots invisible to the human eye. Technicians should retorque if thermal
scan provides evidence of a loose connection. Provide a complete operational test of the system,
including a monitored battery-rundown test to determine if any battery strings or cells are near the
end of their useful lives.
 Biannually:

Test UPS transfer switches, circuit breakers and maintenance bypasses. If a generator is part of
the building’s emergency-power system and feeds the UPS, it also will need to be tested monthly
or quarterly. Most facilities have a generator-maintenance schedule in place in which testing
frequency is defined. A UPS typically is sized to carry the load for a short period of time. Longer
outages require backup-power generation to maintain critical services. Each facility is unique, and
managers need to develop a maintenance schedule to suit each site’s specific needs.

10.8 Health & Safety

In the interests of health and safety, when installing, using or servicing the equipment the
following instructions must be noted and adhered to:
(1) Only skilled or instructed personnel, with relevant technical knowledgeand experience, who
are familiar with the safety procedures requiredwhen dealing with modern electrical/electronic
equipment, are to beallowed to use and/or work on this equipment.
(2) Such personnel must take heed of all relevant notes, cautions andwarnings in the Document or
Handbooks associated with the equipment.
(3) The equipment must be correctly connected to the specified incomingpower supply.
(4) Mains voltages may be present within traffic system. Before anymaintenance work within the
system is carried out, any mains supply to itmust be isolated or switched off.

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(5) Mains voltages may still be present within traffic equipment even whenthe site mains supply
has been isolated or switched off. The UPSSolution must be completely off to ensure no mains
power is supplied toconnected traffic equipment.
(6) Only trained / competent persons should work on this equipment.
(7) Surfaces within the associated traffic equipment get hot, e.g. lamp, lensand reflector.
Therefore care should be taken when working in suchareas.
(8) Any power tools must be regularly inspected and tested.
(9) Any ladders used must be inspected before use to ensure they aresound and not damaged.
(10) When using a ladder, before climbing it, ensure that it is erected properlyand is not liable to
collapse or movement. If using a ladder near acarriageway, ensure that the work area is properly
signed and coned.
(11) Any personnel working on site must wear the appropriate protectiveclothing with high
visibility jackets and safety boots as a minimum.

10.9 EARTHING
Earthing is an essential part of any electric /electronic system. Utmost care is required to be taken
for provision of proper and effective earthing for various telecom installations. This chapter
discusses about various types of earthing which are used in telecom installations.
The objective of Earthing system may be summarized as follows:-
 Reduction of Crosstalk and Noise is achieved through proper Earthing System in the
Telecom Network.
 Earthing is used to afford convenience & reliability, in the operative path of the circuits
involved in the switching apparatus of telecom circuits.
 Used as return path in telegraph and voice circuits.
 Earthing is used for protection of costly apparatus and persons against foreign voltages and
leakage currents.
 Earthing is used for protection of buildings and equipment from lightning strikes.
 Earthing in power supply systems is used to affect reliability of power as it helps to provide
stability of voltage regulations, preventing excess fluctuations and provides a measure for
protection against lightening.
 To divert stray RF energy from sensitive audio, video control and computer equipment.

10.9.1 REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE EARTHING

An earthing system must meet the following specifications:-

The resistance to the earth must be within allowable limit for the particular application.
The electrode buried in ground must be:
 Having good electrical conductivity to carry highest specified load current.
 Immune to the corrosive action of the soil all along its path.

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 Of sufficient mechanical strength to enable them to install without any damage.

 Inert i.e. must not be a source of corrosion within the system to be protected.
 The earth electrode must provide as much as area of contact as possible with the soil to
reduce the resistance of the current path.
 The resistance of the earth connection must remain within the allowable limits.

10.9.2 EARTHING SYSTEM FOR ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION

Earthing or grounding means to connect the equipment or electrical system to the general mass of
the earth. There are two types of earthing.
 System earthing.
 Equipment earthing.

10.9.3 SYSTEM EARTHING

It means connecting to the earth, the neutral point i.e the star point of generator, transformer,
rotating machines, and of grounding transformer. If neutral point of a system is earthed, the phase
to ground voltage under earth fault condition do not rise to high value
Let us consider a system in which neutral is not earthed. If there is Earth fault on B-phase, the
voltage of R and Y (wealthy) phases to the earth becomes equal to the line voltage. The rise in
voltage causes stress on the insulation. Earthing provides protection against such rise.

It constitutes the connecting of non-current carrying metal parts of a equipment to the earth. It
provides protection to operating personnel and equipment by ensuring operation of protective
control gear.
Advantages of Neutral Earthing:-
 Connecting the neutral of an electrical system to earth has following advantages.
 Arcing grounds are eliminated.
 Voltage of healthy phases with respect to earth does not rise √3 times to normal value.
 Insulation is prevented from stress of high surge voltage and hence provides long life to
insulation & equipment.

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 Stable neutral point.

 Earth fault relay function becomes simple & reliable.
 Greater safety to personnel & equipment.

10.9.4 EQUIPMENT EARTHING:-

The various types of earthing practices adopted for earthing the Telecom Equipment as per the
relevant Engineering instructions are listed below:
 Ring earthing
 Plate earthing
 Spike Earthing
 Mesh earthing
 Static earthing

10.10 MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE

The measurement of earth resistance is done using Earth Resistance Tester. The procedure for
measuring the earth resistance is as follows:
 Drive two spikes into ground in a straight line at an equal distance of 15 meters in-
between spikes.
 Connect the spikes to the terminals.- the first to C2, the second to P2 and loop the terminal
P1 and C1 and connect the same to earth strip point, whose resistance is to be measured.
 Rotate the handle of the generator slowly and watch the deflection of the detector.
 Rotate the handle of the generator at about 160 to 180 R.P.M. and the tester will display
the value of earth resistance in ohms. The value should be less than or equal to 0.5 ohms.

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10.11 SUMMARY
A UPS is typically used to protect hardware such as computers, data
centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an unexpected power
disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or data loss. UPS units range
in size from units designed to protect a single computer without a video monitor (around 200volt-
ampere rating) to large units powering entire data centers or buildings. In electrical power
distribution systems, a protective ground conductor is an essential part of the safety Earthing
system. Electrical circuits may be connected to ground (earth) for several reasons.
In mains powered equipment, exposed metal parts are connected to ground to prevent user contact
with dangerous voltage when electrical insulation fails. Connection to ground also limits the
build-up of static electricity when handling flammable products or electrostatic-sensitive devices.
In some telegraph and power transmission circuits, the earth itself can be used as one conductor of
the circuit, saving the cost of installing a separate return conductor.

10.12 REFERENCES & FURTHER READING

 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uninterruptable_ power_ supply
 www.apc.com/products
 www.ups.com/tracking
 www.tec.gov.in
 www.tnd.bsnl.co.in
 intranet.bsnl.co.in/digital library

10.13 KEY LEARNING

1. System Earthing means connecting neutral point to earth ( T /F )
2. Arcing grounds are eliminated due to_____ (System Earthing/ neutral Earthing)

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3. The resistance of Earth Electrode shall not be more than (10 Ohms/5 Ohms)
4. ________type of earthing is mainly used for tower earthing(Mesh/Plate/Ring)
5. The output of the UPS System is___
6. When output voltage becomes high UPS will be tripped and ______ alarm comes.
7. The Input given to the UPS System is ________ ( 220V/230V/440v).
8. The objective of Earthing system is Reduction of _____________ & _____________.
(Crosstalk/Noise/Protection)
9. Basic requirement of a UPS is to provide protection from _____________ & _________
(Lightning/Surge/Power/Current).

10. UPS system provide _, _________ &

________________. (Isolation/Voltage regulation/No-break power/high voltage/low
current).

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10.14 WORKSHEET
Q.1 Answer the following questions by referring to the UPS available in the lab:

a. What are the lamp indications available in the front panel of UPS?

b. Locate the UPS ON/ OFF button

c. Locate the UPS reset button. What is the use of this button?
d. Locate the AC mains input supply point
e. Locate output supply point
f. Locate the battery termination point
g. What is the protection arrangement available for AC input and battery supply.?

Q.2 Answer the following questions

a. Measure the earth resistance with the help of earth tester.
b. Locate the earth distribution plates at power room, switch room .
c. Identify the main earth plate
d. How many distribution cables are leaving ?
e. Identify the antistatic floor earthing
f. What is the value of resistance used in this earthing
g. What precaution is to be taken while measuring earth?

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a. Draw the measurement circuit.

b. What are the points that should be checked while inspection of earthing.?

c. Explain why it is not safe to work on an equipment which is not earthed ?

4.6.3 Visit to the earth pit and record your observation

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Notes:

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National Skill Development

Corporation

BROADBAND TECHNICIAN

TESTING & OPERATIONAL TOOLS

VERSION 1 - MAY 2016

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11. TESTING & OPERATIONAL TOOLS

11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.2 OBJECTIVES

11.3 MULTIMETER

11.4 DIRECT CURRENT & ALTERNATING CURRENT

11.5 MEGGER

11.6 ETHERNET CRIMPING TOOL

11.7 PUNCH DOWN TOOL

11.8 DSL TESTER

11.9 ETHERNET CABLE TESTER

11.10 SUMMARY

11.11 KEY LEARNING

11.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

11.13 WORKSHEET

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Any sytem cannot be made perfect till its components are interconnected to match
perfection in all respect so that any incompatibility or loopholes between them can be removed.
For e.g. DSL modem cannot be given power supply using any power adapter connecting it to AC
supply. It is because DSL or broadband modem have their own specification with respect to
power requirement. The modem input voltage and current should match with output voltage and
current of its power adapter otherwise either modem will not work properly or its circuit may get
damaged permanently.

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Similarly, preparation of ethernet cable is one aspect while whether that cable is working
perfectly in LAN is another aspect because if the cable is not prepared using proper colour codes
as defined for the cable, there is no chances that the cable provides you LAN services. Therefore,
once cable is prepared, it is better to check it with a tool, so that we can identify whether the cable
is prepared properly or not. In the same fashion, sometimes we need to check or measure output
voltage or current of a power source just to ensure that our equipment with a specific power
requirement can work perfectly with that source.
Here, we shall deal with all such measurement tools and their usage and will study how
they are helpful to us in setting up broadband connection and trouble shooting any problem
.
11.2 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this session is to understand the functions and usage of different
measurement tools like :-
 Multimeter
 Meager
 Crimping tool
 Punching tool
 DSL tester
 LAN cable fault locator

11.3 MULTIMETER
A multimeter is a handy tool that you use to measure electricity, just like you would use a
ruler to measure distance, a stopwatch to measure time, or a scale to measure weight. The neat
thing about a multimeter is that unlike a ruler, watch, or scale, it can measure different things —
kind of like a multi-tool. Most multimeters have a knob on the front that lets you select what you
want to measure. Below is a picture of a typical multimeter. There are many different multimeter
models

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Almost all multimeters can measure voltage, current, and resistance.Some multimeters have
a continuity check, resulting in a loud beep if two things are electrically connected. This is
helpful if, for instance, you are building a circuit and connecting wires or soldering; the beep
indicates everything is connected and nothing has come loose. You can also use it to make sure
two things arenot connected, to help prevent short circuits.
Some multimeters also have a diode check function. A diode is like a one-way valve that only
lets electricity flow in one direction. The exact function of the diode check can vary from
multimeter to multimeter. If you're working with a diode and can't tell which way it goes in the
circuit, or if you're not sure the diode is working properly, the check feature can be quite handy. If
your multimeter has a diode check function, read the manual to find out exactly how it works.
Advanced multimeters might have other functions, such as the ability to measure and identify
other electrical components, like transistors or capacitors.
Remember that voltage, current, and resistance are measurable quantities that are each measured
in a unit that has a symbol, just like distance is a quantity that can be measured in meters, and the
symbol for meters is m.
 Voltage is how hard electricity is being "pushed" through a circuit. A higher voltage means
the electricity is being pushed harder. Voltage is measured involts. The symbol for volts is V.
 Current is how much electricity is flowing through the circuit. A higher current means more
electricity is flowing. Current is measured in amperes. The symbol for amperes is A.
 Resistance is how difficult it is for electricity to flow through something. A higher resistance
means it is more difficult for electricity to flow. Resistance is measured in ohms. The symbol
for ohms is Ω (the capital Greek letter omega).

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A simple analogy to better understand voltage, current, and resistance: imagine water flowing
through a pipe. The amount of water flowing through the pipe is like current. More water flow
means more current. The amount of pressure making the water flow is like voltage; a higher
pressure will "push" the water harder, increasing the flow. Resistance is like an obstruction in the
pipe. For instance, a pipe that is clogged with debris or objects will be harder for water to flow
through, and will have a higher resistance than a pipe that is free of obstruction.

11.4 DIRECT CURRENT (DC) AND ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

Direct current (abbreviated DC) is current that always flows in one direction. Direct current is
supplied by everyday batteries—like AA and AAA batteries—or the one in your cell phone.
Different multimeters have different symbols for measuring direct current (and the corresponding
voltage), usually "DCA" and "DCV," or "A" and "V" with a straight bar above or next to them.
Alternating current (abbreviated AC) is current that changes direction, usually many times in
one second. The wall outlets in our house provide alternating current that switches directions 50
times per second (in the U.S. frequency is 60Hz). (Warning: Do not use a multimeter to measure
the wall outlets in your home. This is very dangerous) If you need to measure alternating current
in a circuit, different multimeters have different symbols to measure it (and the corresponding
voltage), usually "ACA" and "ACV," or "A" and "V" with a squiggly line (~) next to or above
them.

11.5 MEGGER
Megger is the device used to measure earth resistance. Earth/soil resistance value plays a very
critical role in providing proper earthing to the electrical equipments/instruments to make them
shock free.
Nothing is quite so common or abundantly available throughout the world as the earth’s soil. We
are more apt to think of earth as something to be tilled for planting or to be excavated for a
building foundation. Yet, it also has an electrical property -- conductivity (or low resistance) --
that is put to practical use every day in industrial plants and utilities. Broadly speaking, “earth
resistance” is the resistance of soil to the passage of electric current. Actually, the earth is a
relatively poor conductor of electricity compared to normal conductors like copper wire. But, if
the area of a path for current is large enough, resistance can be quite low and the earth can be a
good conductor. It is the earth’s abundance and availability that make it an indispensable
component of a properly functioning electrical system.
Earth resistance is measured in two ways for two important fields of use:
1. Determining effectiveness of “ground” grids and connections that are used with electrical
systems to protect personnel and equipment.
2. Prospecting for good (low resistance) “ground” locations, or obtaining measured resistance
values that can give specific information about what lies some distance below the earth’s surface
(such as depth to bed rock).
Consider three factors that can change the earth electrode requirements from year to year:
■ A plant or other electrical facility can expand in size. Also, new plants continue to be built
larger and larger. Such changes create different needs in the earth electrode. What was
formerly a suitably low earth resistance can become an obsolete “standard.”

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■ As facilities add more modern sensitive computer-controlled equipment, the problems of

electrical noise is magnified. Noise that would not effect cruder, older equipment can cause
daily problems with new equipment.
■ As more nonmetallic pipes and conduits are installed underground, such installations become
less and less dependable as effective, lowresistance ground connections.
■ In many locations, the water table is gradually falling. In a year or so, earth electrode systems
that formerly were effective may end up in dry earth of high resistance. These factors
emphasize the importance of a continuous, periodic program of earth-resistance testing. It is
not enough to check the earth resistance only at the time of installation.
Resistance to earth can vary with changes in climate and temperature. Such changes can be
considerable. An earth electrode that was good (low-resistance) when installed may not stay that
way; to be sure, you must check it periodically.
What your maximum earth resistance should be, cannot be defined because it varies from
application to application. For specific systems in definite locations, specifications are often set.
Some call for 5 Ω maximum; others accept no more than 3 Ω. In certain cases, resistances as low
as a small fraction of an ohm are required.
Resistance to current through an earth electrode actually has three components :
1. Resistance of the electrode itself and connections to it.
2. Contact resistance between the electrode and the soil adjacent to it.
3. Resistance of the surrounding earth.
Measurements of earth resistivity are useful also for finding the best location and depth for low
resistance electrodes. Such studies are made, for example, when a new electrical unit is being
constructed; a generating station, substation, transmission tower, or telephone central office.

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11.6 ETHERNET CRIMPING TOOL

AnEthernet crimping tool is used to terminate / crimp RJ45 connectors onto ethernet cables / UTP
/ STP and are normally used in network connections.The tool can also terminate RJ11 connectors
which is commonly used in telephony products.

The crimping tool has three major parts : cable stripper, cable cutter & crimping slot. Cable
stripper is used to remove insulation from the cable. Cable cutter can be used for cutting a
particular portion of the cable. It is very helpful in cases when a connector crimped to the cable
has stopped functioning and needs to be replaced. In such cases, the portion of the cable having
the connector crimped can be cut down with the help of cutter. The crimping slot can be used to
place the cable along with the connector so that whenever the tool is pressed, the connector gets
crimped to the cable.

11.7 PUNCH DOWN TOOL

Apunch down tool, also called apunchdown toolor akrone tool(named after theKRONE LSA-
PLUSconnector), is a smallhand toolusedbytelecommunicationandnetworktechnicians. It is used
for inserting wire intoinsulation-displacement connectorsonpunch down blocks/ tag blocks,patch
panels,keystone modules, and surface mount boxes (also known as biscuit jacks).

Most punch down tools are of the impact type, consisting of a handle, an internal spring
mechanism, and a removable slotted blade. To use the punch down tool, a wire is pre-positioned
into a slotted post on a punch block, and then the punch down tool is pressed down on top of the
wire, over the post. Once the required pressure is reached, an internal spring is triggered, and the
blade pushes the wire into the slot, simultaneously cutting the insulation and securing the
wire. The tool blade does not cut through the wire insulation to make contact, but rather the sharp
edges of the slot in the contact post itself slice through the insulation.
However, the punch down tool blade also is usually used to cut off excess wire, in the same
operation as making the connection; this is done with a sharp edge of the punch down tool blade
trapping the wire to be cut against the plastic punch block. If this cutoff feature is heavily used,

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the tool blade must be resharpened or replaced from time to time. Tool blades without the sharp
edge are also available; these are used for continuing a wire through a slotted post to make
connections with another slotted post ("daisy-chained" wiring).
Thus a punch down tool or krone tool can be used to connect the telephone line or DSL line of
user to one of the slot of the tag block available in its DP (Distribution point). This type of
connectivity creates the flexibility of changing a particular section of telephone line in case of
break or failure, rather than replacing the complete line. Thus punch tool plays an important role
in maintenance of telephone or DSL line.

11.8 DSL TESTER

Reliable results from DSL layer testing are fundamentally important for link turn-up and
maintenance operations. DSL tester provides comprehensive statistical reporting of the ADSL
link performance, including a full display of the allocation of bits per tone. All major DSLAM
and chipset vendors are supported for both ADSL over POTS and ADSL over ISDN bandplans.
Selection of any of the three DSL modems or data cards is via the graphical user interface - one of
the many reasons why the Aurora Presto is regarded as the most flexible xDSL test solution on the
market today.

DSL technologies are robust and highly suited for use over existing poor-quality copper. However,
degradation of the local loop can lead to physical layer problems which cannot be found using
conventional service test measurements. A typical xDSL service from customer modem to ISP
consists of several different layered technologies. DSL tester quickly and correctly locates and
identifies fault conditions on the DSL, ATM, AAL5, PPP, IP and Application layers. DSL tester
allows effective fault finding at the physical layer on the local loop.

11.9 ETHERNET CABLE TESTER

A cable tester is an electronic device used to verify the electrical connections in a cable or other
wired assembly. Generally a cable tester consists of:
 A source of electric current,
 A volt meter,
 A switching matrix used to connect the current source and the voltmeter to all of the
contact points in a cable.
In addition to these parts a cable tester may also have a microcontroller and a display to automate
the testing process and show the testing results. Below shows a typical ethernet cable tester:-

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A cable tester is used to verify that all of the intended connections exist and that there are no
unintended connections in the cable being tested. When an intended connection is missing it is
said to be "open". When an unintended connection exists it is said to be a "short" (ashort circuit).
If a connection "goes to the wrong place" it is said to be "miswired" (the connection has two
faults: it is open to the correct contact and shorted to an incorrect contact). The cable tester can be
used as continuity tester to identify whether ethernet cable is properly crimped or not.
A continuity tester is an item of electrical test equipment used to determine if an electrical path
can be established between two points; that is if an electrical circuit can be made. The circuit
under test is completely de-energized prior to connecting the apparatus.
The tester consists of an indicator in series with a source of electrical power - normally a battery,
terminating in two test leads. If a complete circuit is established between the test-leads, the
indicator is activated.
The indicator may be an electric light or a buzzer. This led to the term "buzzing out a circuit"
(which means to test for continuity). Audible continuity buzzers or beepers are built into some
models of multimeter.

11.10 SUMMARY
Different measuring tools are required by technicians to prevent any incompatibility that may
develop in a system due to different parameters or factors like voltage, current, distance, speed
etc. Some tools are totally mechanic like crimping tool and crone tools. Crimping tool can be used
to prepare ethernet cable or RJ-11 cable. Crone tools are used to fix telephone line or DSL line to
a particular slot of permanent structure (which may contain number of slots.). While most of
measuring tools are electrical tools like multimeter, meager, DSL tester and LAN/ethernet cable
tester.

11.11 KEY LEARNING

 Summarize the utility of multimeter?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
 Which tool is used for identifying wheter ethernet cable is properly prepared or not?.
………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………..

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 Describe the usage of DSL tester?

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
 Which tool is helpul is preparation of Ethernet Cable?
………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
 Write the utility of Krone tool?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
11.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS
 http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punch_down_tool
 http://www.globalguideline.com/

11.13 WORKSHEET

11.13.1 Title:Measurement of voltage and current using multimeter and testing DSL line using
DSL tester

11.13.2Set up/Equipments Required:

Multimeter
DSL tester
DSL line
AC/DC supply

11.13.3Exercise:
 Measuring voltage using multimeter
Let us measure voltage on a AA battery:
 Plug the black probe into COM and the red probe into mAVΩ. Set the multimeter to “2V”
in the DC (direct current) range. Almost all portable electronics use direct current),
not alternating current.
 Connect the black probe to the battery’s ground or ‘-’ and the red probe to power or ‘+’.
Squeeze the probes with a little pressure against the positive and negative terminals of the
AA battery. If you’ve got a fresh battery, you should see around 1.5V on the display (this
battery is brand new, so its voltage is slightly higher than 1.5V).

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 If you’re measuring DC voltage (such as a battery) you want to set the knob where the V
has a straight line. AC voltage (like what comes out of the wall) can be dangerous, so we
rarely need to use the AC voltage setting (the V with a wavy line next to it). If you’re
messing with AC, we recommend you get a non-contact tester rather than use a digital
multimeter.

 Testing DSL line using DSL tester

First identify the following components of the xDSL tester:-
 LCD Display
 LED’s for alarms/faults etc.
 Keypad
 Interface connectors (on the bottom)
 Water Resistent Cover
 External Power Supply/Battery charger
 Serial Port connector
 Battery pack cover
 On/Off switch
 Volume Switch

Switch on the tester using On/Off switch.

a) Examine all the 6 LEDs being tested by tester during booting, that may help you identify
any LED which is not working.

b) Wait till the tester completely boots up.

c) Once the tester is booted, you will find SYNC LED is blinking.

d) This LED will blink till the tester gets connected to a DSL line.

e) Connect the DSL line you want to test to the interface connector labeled “ADSL modem”
at the bottom of tester.

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f) Wait till the SYNC LED gets stable.

g) If SYNC LED is stable it means the line is DSL line otherwise it is not.

h) Select the auto test option available on the main screen display of tester using the enter
key available on the keypad.

i) Now select the DSL layer option by pressing the enter key. If it is already selected, no
need to press the enter key.

j) Press F1 Key to start the test.

k) As soon as the test is started, the tester tries to resynchronize with the line and you may
find SYNC LED starts blinking.

l) At the same time, on the top right corner of screen display, you may find label “Seeking”
and after some time “training” label will appear. This indicates that the
tester is finding and learning the parameters of the line.

m) The test gets completed hardly within 30 seconds. The completion of test is identified by
label on the screen as “auto test finished”. Also the tester gives three or more beeps to
convey the completion of test.

n) Now press F1 to view the test results.

o) The result will contain different parameters like Sno, DSL technology, upstream data rate,
downstream data rate, Power in upstream and downstream, Noise Margin in upstream and
downstream, ATU-R(ADSL Terminal Unit- Remote) pass or fail.

p) This result is identified by the sno which is randomly given by tester and it is hard to
be remembered.

q) To save the session with other name, come back to home screen of tester.

r) Press F2 (Cp/Rv) key and select review result option.

s) You will get a list of last 20 session saved in the tester.

t) The last test you performed is available at the last of list.

u) Select the last test you want to name.

v) Press F1 to name the test and enter the name by using the keypad. Usually the name
should be the telephone number where the tested line was being used.

w) Press F1/F4 to save the name.

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11.13.4 Notes:

……………………………………………………………………………………

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National Skill Development

Corporation

BROADBAND TECHNICIAN

TROUBLESHOOTING LAN

VERSION 1 - MAY 2016

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12. TROUBLESHOOTING LAN

12.1 OVERVIEW

12.2 DIAGNOSE AND REPAIR BASIC NETWORK CONNECTION

PROBLEMS

12.3 SUMMARY

12.4 KEY LEARNING

12.5 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGS

12.1 OVERVIEW
When you’re troubleshooting a network environment, a systematic approach works best. Define
the specific symptoms, identify all potential problems that could be causing the symptoms, and
thensystematically eliminate each potential problem (from most likely to least likely) until the
symptomsdisappear.
Figure 1-1 illustrates the process flow for the general problem-solving model. This process flow
isnot a rigid outline for troubleshooting an internetwork; it is a foundation from which you can
builda problem-solving process to suit your particular environment.

Figure 1-1 General Problem-Solving Model

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The following steps detail the problem-solving process outlined in Figure 1-1:

Step 1 When analyzing a network problem, make a clear problem statement. You should
definethe problem in terms of a set of symptoms and potential causes.
To properly analyze the problem, identify the general symptoms and then ascertain whatkinds of
problems (causes) could result in these symptoms. For example, hosts might notbe responding to
service requests from clients (a symptom). Possible causes mightinclude a misconfigured host,
bad interface cards, or missing router configurationcommands.
Step 2 Gather the facts you need to help isolate possible causes.Ask questions of affected users,
network administrators, managers, and other key people.Collect information from sources such as
network management systems, protocolanalyzer traces, output from router diagnostic commands,
or software release notes.
Step 3 Consider possible problems based on the facts you gathered. Using the facts yougathered,
you can eliminate some of the potential problems from your list. Depending on the data, you
might, for example, be able to eliminate hardware as aproblem, so that you can focus on software
problems. At every opportunity, try to narrowthe number of potential problems so that you can
create an efficient plan of action.

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Step 4 Create an action plan based on the remaining potential problems. Begin with the most
likely problem and devise a plan in which only one variable is manipulated. Changing only one
variable at a time allows you to reproduce a given solution to a specific problem. If you alter more
than one variable simultaneously, you might solve the problem, but identifying the specific
change that eliminated the symptom becomes farmore difficult and will not help you solve the
same problem if it occurs in the future.
Step 5 Implement the action plan, performing each step carefully while testing to see whetherthe
symptom disappears.
Step 6 Whenever you change a variable, be sure to gather results. Generally, you should use
thesame method of gathering facts that you used in Step 2 (that is, working with the keypeople
affected in conjunction with utilizing your diagnostic tools).
Step 7 Analyze the results to determine whether the problem has been resolved. If it has, thenthe
process is complete.
Step 8 If the problem has not been resolved, you must create an action plan based on the nextmost
likely problem in your list. Return to Step 4, change one variable at a time, andreiterate the
process until the problem is solved.

12.2 DIAGNOSE AND REPAIR BASIC NETWORK CONNECTION

PROBLEMS

Ping (Windows command)

The ping tool, one of the simplest network troubleshooting tools available, is present in most
common operating systems. It provides the ability to monitor attempts to transfer and return a
network packet from one point in the network to another, thus proving that basic communication
is possible.

Tracert (Windows command)

A command line tool which allows the user to trace the route taken by a packet from the source
host to the target host. The IP address and hostname of each host are listed, along with the return

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time in milliseconds, allowing the user to find the source of delays in their network infrastructure,
good sources for download mirrors and deciding which DNS server to use. A similar tool is
available for Linux and MacOS and is known as traceroute.

ipconfig (Windows command)

A Windows tool which displays IP configuration information via the command line. A robust
version of the network configuration options available via the Control Panel, ipconfig also allows
for forced DHCP lease renewal via the /release and /renew switches. Some of the information
display features of ipconfig are available on MacOS and Linux distrubutions using a tool called
ifconfig.

iperf

Iperf is an open source, cross-platform tool which measures network throughput from one host to
another, allowing the user to confirm that their network is transferring at the expected rate.

Angry IP Scanner

Angry IP Scanner is an open source application used for traversing a subnet and providing
information on each of its active hosts. Helpful for finding unwanted devices on your network,
confirming that your DHCP is performing as expected and finding the IP for a lost device. For
more advanced purposes, nmap is available for most major operating systems.

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Windows 7 Network Troubleshooting

Surprisingly enough, the troubleshooting tool provided with Windows 7 does an impressive job of
automatically resolving common networking problems. It achieves this by performing tasks such
as refreshing its lease with the DHCP server, resetting the network adaptor and confirming
connection to its listed default gateway.

Confirming Basic Connectivity

All network troubleshooting is predicated on the assumption that your basic network connectivity
is working as expected. The following are some simple checks that you can perform to confirm
the presence of staple network connectivity.

Check Your Link Lights

On a cabled network, the simplest way to confirm a physical connection is to check that the link
lights on the devices at each end of each cable are lit. If a light isn’t lit, check the plugs at each
end to ensure that they’re securely pressed into the network sockets. Link lights are usually found
on the network socket, or on the front of devices such as switches or LAN-capable routers.

Confirm Your IP Address

By default, your router will act as a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) server. The
advantage of using a DHCP server is that it will automatically manage the distribution of IP
addresses to every device connected to your network. In Windows, check that your IP address is
correctly configured by bringing up a command prompt (Windows Key+R, cmd, Enter) and
typing ipconfig. Your router most likely defaults to providing addresses in either the
192.168.xxx.xxx, or 10.0.x.x ranges. If the IP address for your primary network adaptor is listed

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as something other than these ranges use ipconfig /release, then ipconfig /renew to renew your IP
lease with the DHCP server.

Ping Internal and External Hosts

Using your Ping tool, attempt to confirm your connection to an internal host. Your router is a
good option because if you can ping it, there is nothing between it and you that should be causing
Internet connectivity issues. To do so, bring up a command prompt and enter ping [the IP address
of your router]. By default, your router will most likely be found at 192.168.0.1, or 10.0.0.1.
Having successfully pinged an internal host, attempt to ping a host external to your network using
the command "ping google.com".

Confirm Standard Network Services

Having proven that a physical and logical connection exists for your network, it’s time to check
the higher functioning services such as file sharing and media streaming. Attempt to copy a file
from your current machine to another on the network. Use a small, but reasonably sized file for
this to ensure that transfer rates are performing as expected. Next, attempt to stream media in
much the same way. This time, use a large file like HD video to confirm that the network is able
to maintain the transfer at a steady rate. Using iperf to confirm your network transfer rates is also
suggested.

Loss of Internet Connectivity

The most common and arguably the most frustrating problem that faces users of any network is
loss of access to the Internet. Right in the middle of an important IM conversation, gaming
session or video stream, access can evaporate without warning or reason. There are a plethora of

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potential causes for this sort of outage, so the best approach is a systematic one. Check your local
machine’s network connectivity. Is the operating system reporting that your machine is still
connected to your local network? Check your physical cable or wireless connection to confirm
whether or not local network access has been affected.
If you are still connected to your local network, the next step is to confirm connectivity to your
router. Do this by attempting to navigate to its administration panel using a web browser. Simply
type the IP address of the router into your address bar. Note that some brands of routers require
the user to specify the network port for access to the admin panel. Do this by appending the
necessary port number to the IP address in your address bar using a colon. Most routers that
require a defined port will default to :8080.
Now that you’ve logged into your router’s admin panel, it is possible to determine whether
external hosts are accessible from that point. Most good routers will have a ping tool built into the
admin panel, often included in a diagnostics tab. If your router can successfully ping external
hosts, while you cannot from your local machine the you can confirm that the problem exists
within your network and can subsequently be fixed. As opposed to problems which exist outside
of your network, and thus are out of your control.

If you’re unable to access external sources at all, it’s time for one last ditch effort--reboot your
router. Even good quality routers can require a reboot from time to time, cheaper products, or
those provided for free from some ISPs can require rebooting on a much more regular basis. This
can solve a surprising number of problems from external connectivity problems, to spotty wireless
performance.
Having failed all of these tests, it’s time to get your Internet Service Provider involved. Firstly
you should check to see if they have any current advisories which are affecting your area and
might be causing the problem. These are often listen on ISP websites, so use a 3G device or call a
friend to get the info. Most ISPs will provide a time frame for these advisories which should give
you a rough idea when it will be likely for your service to resume. If no advisories exist, call
through to your ISP’s tech support and ask them for help. They’ll probably try to take you through
a number of the steps listed above, but that’s ok. At least you’ll know what they’re asking you
now!

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Tips for Regular Network Maintenance

 Keep at least one spare network cable around for testing or as a replacement.
 Either repair or replace network cables with broken plug clips to reduce accidental
disconnections.
 Have a backup plan for infrastructure failure.
 Don’t rely on a wireless connection for critical services.

*Some important definitions:

Ping: It stands for Packet InterNet Gopher. (Gopher = Status). For more help on PING open a
command windows in your computer and type in PING/? and check the options.

Tracert: It is a command used to display the number of routers on the path to the destination
host. You can get more on the Tracert command by typing tracert/? in a command window in
your computer.
IPConfig: It shows you the IP address configuration of your computer on a network. (It
also shows you your computer’s IP address on a network.

12.3 SUMMARY
In this chapter we have studied various proactive local area network problem
troubleshooting techniques.

12.4 KEY LEARNING

Q.1What are the steps taken to Diagnose and Repair Basic Network Connection Problems ?

………………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………………………………………………………………

Q.2 Explain ping and tracert commands.?

………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………
Q.3 What are the key points of general problem solving model?
………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………………………………………………………………

National Skill Development

Corporation

BROADBAND TECHNICIAN

TROUBLESHOOTING BROADBAND

VERSION 1 - MAY 2016

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13. TROUBLESHOOTING BROADBAND

13.1 LED LIGHTS ON BROADBAND MODEM

13.2 COMMON ERRORS IN THE BROADBAND AND THEIR

RESOLUTION
13.3 BROADBAND UTILITIES

13.4 TROUBLESHOOTING BROADBAND MODEM

13.5 DO'S AND DON'T’S FOR BROADBAND CUSTOMERS

13.6 SUMMARY

13.7 KEY LEARNING

13.1 LED LIGHTS ON BROADBAND MODEM

There are three main LED light available on Broadband modem whose description is
given below:

S.No. LED Status Meaning

of
1 Power Green/Orange Modem is receiving
Stable power supply
2 DSL Green/Orange DSL/Broadband line
stable is working ok
3 Internet Green/Orange Modem is sending
blinking and receiving data

1. If DSL LED does not glow?

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If DSL LED does not glow, then do following actions in this order:-
1. Check whether the DSL line is terminated properly at splitter side. If it is terminated
on port labeled as “phone” or “Line” then this could be the problem because DSL line
should be terminated on port labeled as “Modem” on splitter.
2. Modem may be faulty. Connect another modem with the same line and see the status
again for DSL LED. If the status remains same, then problem is with the line.
3. Check whether the line is physically ok at customer side. You can also check the line
physically by dialing number through telephone of customer. If any available number
can be dialed, it means line is physically ok.
4. The telephone line may not properly terminated on DSLAM side. In that case, ask the
SDE of DSLAM to check the DSL line at his end.
Note:- In order to save your time and of that customer as well, the reasons should be identified
starting from step 1 and then using next step, if the previous step reason does not exit.
2. If the internet LED does not glow?
If the internet LED does not glow/blink, then there perform following actions in
correct order :-
1. Check that Ethernet cable is properly terminated on Ethernet card. In most of
the cases, the cable is loose and needs to be tightened. Ensure the cable is
tight.
2. Check the LED status of Ethernet card. If there is a stable link on Ethernet
card, that means Ethernet cable is physically ok.
3. Check another LED of Ethernet card which shows activity on network. (Also
known as ‘ACT’ Link). If it is glowing/blinking, it means traffic is being
detected by card.
4. Replace modem by another modem and find the statud. If internet LED is
glowing/blinking, it means that modem was faulty. If still the LED is not
glowing, then check whether driver of network card is working properly.
5. If driver is not working properly, reinstall the driver.
6. After reinstallation of driver, you should get the correct status of Internet
LED. If it is not glowing , then check whether modem has received IP
address or not from broadband network.
7. If IP address not receieved then contact nearest NIB node.
3. If power LED of modem does not glow
If power LED does not glow then follow following steps in order given below:-
1. Ensure the power switch of modem is on.
2. Ensure the power adapter is tightly connected to modem.

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3. Ensure the power rating of adapter matches with the rating of modem. If not, replace
adapter by correct power rating adapter.
4. Modem may be faulty. Replace it by some other working modem.

13.2COMMON ERRORS IN THE BROADBAND AND THEIR

RESOLUTION

Problem Error-678

Description This is most common problems. It is due to poor connectivity.

Problem can be anywhere between B.RAS - Tier 2 - DSLAM -
Modem - PC of the customer.

Remedy Switch off / Switch on Modem (Power Switch at the back of

modem ) and wait for 2 minutes. Then retry.

If problem is not solved then Reset Modem [Back pin (in the
hole) to be pressed in switched ON condition]
[Note : Link PC in black type Modem or WAN / LAN in white
type Modem will go Off and then ON and system may be stable.
Then retry.

If problem is still not solved then

a) Check link lamp in Black type Modem or WAN lamp in White
Modem. If it is blinking, then it is line problem.
b) Check Modem to splitter connectivity.
i) Jack in & Jack out the cable of / to the modem and to the
splitter
ii) Jack in & Jack out the telephone connection of the splitter.

If lamp is still blinking - then it is due to poor line condition /

fault.
The case has to be referred to Area Broadband Team for
attending the fault.

Problem Error-691

Description User id and Password problem.

Remedy The case is to be referred to Central Broadband Team (08.00 AM

to 08.00 PM). Central Broadband Team will reset the password
and intimate that password has been reset.

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Problem Error-769

Description LAN not enabled.

Remedy The LAN Card has to be enabled by following the steps given
below.
i)Go to Desktop.
ii)Click "My Network Place".
iii)Select Properties.
iv)Click "Enable the local network".

Problem Error- 797

Description Modem or LAN driver problem

Remedy Reset the Modem (in on condition ) by pressing button available

in the backside hole of the modem and wait for 2 mintues and
then log on. If the problem is not solved then call your vendor to
check computer LAN Card driver.

Problem Error-718

Description i)Peak Hour - This problem occurs if loading is high on the

system and number of customers exceed the call handling
capacity of B.RAS.
ii)Slack Hour -This problem occurs if PPPoE is corrupted.

Remedy i)Peak Hour - Please try after some time.

ii)Slack Hour - Please load PPPoE again.

Problem Error - 630-633

Description Computer LAN Card problem.

Remedy LAN Card has to be changed.

Problem Site not opening from Data One

Description From Broadband connection, sites are not opening. Probable

reasons i)Internet explorer is not supporting the Pop (may be

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pirated OS). ii)Virushas corrupted theInternet explorer.

Remedy Theuserhastosetitrightbyre-
installingtheO/SorInternetBrowser(I.E. etc).

Problem BSNL BB DNS server may be having problem.

Description DNS is not responding.

Remedy Ping-61.1.96.69 or 61.1.96.71 and check up whether DNS is

responding.

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13.3 BROADBAND UTILITIES

To see  Log in to selfcare.wdc.bsnl.co.in.

usage
 Enter the username and password of the user to login into
details
portal.
 (This username and password is entirely different from
username and password of ADSL line).
 Click on + sign in front of option My services available in
the left panel. Then click on View Broadband Usage.
 Select the UserId for which broadband usage is to be
checked.
 Here you can see the downloaded and uploaded data
volume of the current month.
 To see day wise usage, click on view usage details.

To  Log in to selfcare.wdc.bsnl.co.in.
change
 Enter the username and password of the user to login into
password
portal.
 (This username and password is entirely different from
username and password of ADSL line).
 Click on + sign in front of option My profile available in
the left panel. Then click on Change Password.
 Give your details i.e UserId, Current Password, New
Password and Confirm new password.

13.4 TROUBLESHOOTINGBROADBANDMODEM

Failure Instructions
s
Power  Ensurepower adapter iswellconnected;
light is
 Ensurethe right power adapteris used.
out.

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ADSL  Ensurethe ADSLlineiswellconnected;

LINK
 Ensurethetelephonelinebeforeenteringthehouseisvalid,try
light is totestwitha telephone;
out.
 Checkthatthereisnojunctionboxbeforeconnecting Modem,which
hassuch componentslikecapacitorsordiodesthatcouldhinder
backhighfrequency signals;
 Ensurethe Modem and telephones are connectedin the right way.

LANL
 Ensure you use the right cables from the Modem to your PC;
INK Ensure the connection is secured;
light  Check if the NIC LED lights up;
is out.
 Ensure your Network Adapter works normally by examining
whether the item of “Networking Adapters” is labeled with “? or
“!”. If it is, you may delete it and then click “Refresh” to reinstall.
Otherwise, you may try the NIC in another slot. As a last resort, you
have to replace the NIC.

 Take the most common access mode as an example, in which a

Can’t dial-up application is installed onthe user‟s computer:
access  Ensurethat anyof theproblems aboveis not thereason;
theInt  Ensurethat the dial-upapplication is correctlyinstalled and set
ernet. onyour PC; Ensurethatyou haveentered theright user nameand
password;
 Ensure“UseProxyServer”issetproperlyforIE,iftheproblemstillremain
s even afteryou haveloginto successfully;
 Trymorethan one Web sites, in caseof someWebserver‟s beingin
failure.

Stepsfor troubleshooting if Useris notable to Browse.

 CheckthatADSLlineisproperlyconnected,CPEispoweredonandADSLlink LED isglowingin

stablecondition.

 CheckthatLANcableisproperlyconnectedtoPCandLANlinkLEDisglowing instable
condition.IfLANLED isnotstable then checkthatLANcable is connectedproperly
orreplacethecableandcheck.IncasetheLANcableis connectedtoLAN switchor
HUB,youhave to use a crosscable.IftheLANLED
isstillnotglowing,thenveifythatLANcardisproperly installedwithsuitable driverorget
thehelp ofyour computer serviceperson fordoingso.

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Broadband Technician Troubleshooting Broadband

 Ifallthephysicalinstallationiscorrectbutstillyouarenotabletobrowse.Then check that-

 TheTCP/IPsettingareconfiguredasdesiredwithcorrectgatewayaddress
andDNSserverIPaddresses.Toverify opentheDOSwindowandtypeping
 192.168.1.1 it should give output „Reply from 192.168.1.1: bytes=32 time<1ms
TTL=64‟.
 EnsurethatnoproxysettingisconfiguredinBrowser.InInternetexplorer you can
verifyas following–
 Open theInternet explorer and Click on Tools and selectInternet Options.
 ClickonConnectionstabandselectLANSettings.Seeifanyproxysetting
areconfigured. Uncheckthe proxysettings boxand click OK.
 Ifstillitisnotworking,thenlogintoCPEconfigurationpage(http://192.168
.1.1) throughInternet Explorer.

 ObservetheinformationdisplayedonSummarypage.NotewhethertheADSL linkspeedfor
upstream/downstreamisdisplayed.ADSLstateshouldbe„Show Time’.The SNRvalue
shouldbe 10or more.TheCRC value shouldbe zero ora low figure and itshould not be
increasing.
 ScrolldownthepageandseetheWANChannelinformation.AgainstPVC0,it shoulddisplay
IPaddress(59.92.xx.xx)andGatewayaddress,Encapsulation should be PPPoEand
Statusshould inGREEN colour. If thisinformation isnot appearing, then check for
correctness of PPPoE configuration inHome->Wan Settingspage. Check whetheryou
haveenteredcorrect usernameand password and Default Gatewayisenabled.

13.5 DO's and DON'T’s FOR BROADBAND CUSTOMERS

Hope that you are enjoying the DataOne broadband service of BSNL. We are now at your service
every day and night. In a bid to provide a better broadband experience some more tips for you
here under:
Your user Id and password provided by BSNL for your broadband connection is an important
document and keep it secret.

Do's

1. Change your password regularly.

2. Pl. remembers / write down your password after every change of password.
3. Check your usages detail regularly. You can see usages of current month and last 5
months in system.
4. Please contact concern DE/Internal of your Telephone Exchange for any discrepancy
found in your usages details immediately without waiting for your bill. For any
billing.complains, send your complain letter or contact your DE/Internal along with Xerox
copy of disputed bill without delay.

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Broadband Technician Troubleshooting Broadband

5. Your computer must be loaded and enabled with Java (J2RE) and also be loaded with
licensed version of operating system for opening the usage details as well as change
password page.
6. You can download free version of Java (J2RE) from www.java.com or any other available
location.
7. Please note that the Surfing, Listening Live Music, Chatting, Online Gaming, Internet
Telephony, E-mail, Anti-virus and any other software updates through Internet etc. are
part of download/upload.
8. Please keep disable automatic updates of your computer software (e.g. Windows update,
Anti-virus update, different Driver update) to avoid unanticipated high usage.
9. Please update your computer software manually.
10. Please clean your computer virus regularly.
11. Please log off from broadband connection and switch off modem when not in use.

Dont’s
1. Please do not disclose your DataOne User Id and Password to any body
2. Please do not disclose your User Id and Password to computer vendors coming to your
office/home for repair.
13.6 SUMMARY
Broadband troubleshooting is very crucial aspect these days. Internet has become part and parcel
of customers life routine. And so the need of broadband troubleshooting is very
important.similarly speed is also an important parameter of concern.we have seen that how our
system parameters can also be a cause of slow broadband speed.

13.7 KEY LEARNING

Q.1 What to do if powers led in modem does not glow?

………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………..
Q.2 Write few common errors in broadband?

………………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………..

Q.3 What are the Stepsfor troubleshooting if Useris notable to Browse.

………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………..

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