applied

sciences
Article
Chalcogenide–Tellurite Composite Photonic Crystal
Fiber: Extreme Non-Linearity Meets Large Birefringence
Amir Ahmadian 1 and Yashar Esfahani Monfared 2, *
1 Department of Electrical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Azad University,
Tehran 1477893855, Iran; [email protected]
2 Department of Physics and Atmospheric Science, Dalhousie Univeristy, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 25 September 2019; Accepted: 15 October 2019; Published: 19 October 2019


Abstract: In this paper, we propose a novel design of a photonic crystal fiber (PCF) with
tellurite-cladding, three rings of air-holes and elliptical concentration of As2 S3 in the fiber core.
The combined effect of tight mode confinement (an effective mode area of nearly 0.6 µm2 ),
large non-linear refractive index of As2 S3 and significant variation between the effective modal index
values of the two orthogonal states of the fundamental guided mode leads to extreme non-linear
coefficient and birefringence values, all achieved at the zero dispersion wavelength (ZDW) of 1550 nm.
The corresponding birefringence and non-linear coefficient (7 ×10−3 and 28 W−1 m−1 , respectively)
are more than three orders of magnitude larger than that of the regular silica-based highly non-linear
PCFs. In addition, we numerically demonstrate that by modifying the core and air-hole dimensions
one can easily control the dispersion curve and tune the ZDW of the proposed fiber to any excitation
wavelength ranging from near-infrared to short-wave-infrared, including optical telecommunication
windows close to 1550 nm. The superior characteristics of the proposed elliptical-core composite PCF
including extreme non-linearity, nearly-zero confinement loss (2.47 × 10−12 dB/cm), the ability to
maintain polarization of light, and tunable ZDW can open the door to new possibilities in non-linear
optics, optical telecommunications, optical signal processing, and sensing devices.

Keywords: photonic crystal fiber; chalcogenide glass; nonlinear optics

1. Introduction
The design and development of compact non-linear devices based on highly non-linear photonic
crystal fibers (HNL-PCFs) have attracted much attention in both academia and industry over the
last decade [1]. HNL-PCFs can be used as a non-linear medium to realize all-optical wavelength
conversion [2], supercontinuum generation [3], pulse compression [4], and parametric amplification [5].
According to Miller’s rule [6], third-order optical non-linearity of the glass strongly depends on the
linear refractive index. As silica glass does not exhibit large linear and non-linear refractive indices
(nearly 1.45 and 2.9 × 10−20 m2 /W, respectively, at optical communication wavelengths near 1550 nm),
a long fiber length and/or huge power levels are usually required to utilize non-linear effects [7].
These requirements render the silica-based HNL-PCFs limited in most of the non-linear applications,
especially in terms of costs and practicality.
To realize non-linear processes with low powers and in short interaction lengths, non-silica
photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) made of high-index glasses such as tellurite [8], bismuth-oxide [9],
and chalcogenide glasses [10] as well as PCFs filled with high-index liquids such as
carbon-disulfide [11,12] are designed, studied and fabricated. Among different materials, chalcogenide
glasses with a large refractive index of around 3, ultra-high non-linear refractive index of
3 × 10−18 m2 /W, and a high transmission window from 0.6 to 15 µm, open up new possibilities

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4445; doi:10.3390/app9204445 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4445 2 of 12

to design and develop compact non-linear devices [13]. However, this great potential of chalcogenide
fibers is limited in real-world applications due to the relatively large material dispersion of chalcogenide
glasses in visible and near-infrared regions. Chalcogenide nano-fibers or nano-wires [13] can solve
the problem by shifting the zero dispersion wavelength (ZDW) of chalcogenide from mid-IR to near
optical telecommunication bands [14]. Unfortunately, nano-wires are fragile and the degradation in
their surface is a crucial challenge that has not been resolved yet. For example, in the environment of
a conventional optics laboratory the air cladding nano-wires fail completely within a few weeks [13,14].
PCFs can solve the dispersion problem of chalcogenide glasses by shifting the ZDW from mid-IR
to a near-IR band using an appropriate material selection and array of air-holes in the cladding.
The composite PCF with As2 S3 core and tellurite cladding, with a ZDW in near-IR and stable optical
properties has been fabricated successfully before [13,14]. The use of tellurite glass in the cladding
region can protect the core glass from the degradation over time and also can minimizes toxicity
concerns about As2 S3 .
Furthermore, highly birefringent PCFs have been developed during the last few years for
applications in temperature, pressure and refractive-index sensing [15,16], single-polarization-
single-mode communications [17], polarization-sensitive optical modulators [18], and polarization-
maintaining linear and non-linear devices [19]. Birefringence appears due to the asymmetry in fiber
structure, which causes a huge difference between the effective refractive index of x-axis and y-axis
polarized modes [19]. If this difference is greater than 1 × 10−4 , the modes are quite separated and the
fiber is considered to be highly birefringent.
In this paper, we design extremely non-linear composite tellurite-chalcogenide PCFs with circular
holes and study the optical properties of PCF (nonlinear coefficient, dispersion, loss, and birefringence)
in detail. To achieve polarization maintaining, we introduce an asymmetry in the PCF structure
by using an elliptical core to induce a large birefringence in the fiber. We then compare all of
the optical characteristics of the proposed elliptical-core PCF with a regular circular-core PCF to
highlight the differences between two designs. The proposed elliptical-core composite PCF has a small
effective area, extremely large non-linear coefficient, controllable dispersion, and a huge birefringence
of 7 × 10−3 near optical communication windows. The combined effect of huge non-linearity,
tunable dispersion and large birefringence can lead to interesting applications of our proposed PCF
in ultra-compact non-linear devices, in future optical signal processing devices, sensors, and optical
telecommunication networks.

2. Fiber Design
Our proposed composite PCF has a tellurite glass cladding with three rings of air holes in
a hexagonal lattice, surrounding an As2 S3 -core in the center of the fiber. We use Sellmeier’s equation [7]
to find the amount of linear refractive index of materials in different excitation wavelengths,

k A j λ2
n2 ( λ ) = 1 + ∑ λ2 − B2 (1)
j =1 j

where A j and Bj are Sellmeier’s coefficients, λ is the excitation wavelength in micrometers and n(λ) is
the wavelength-dependent linear refractive index of material [7]. The Sellmeier’s coefficients for As2 S3
are A1 = 1.8983678, A2 = 1.9222979, A3 = 0.8765134, A4 = 0.1188704, A5 = 0.9569903, and B1 = 0.15,
B2 = 0.25, B3 = 0.35, B4 = 0.45 and B5 = 27.3861 (µm−2 ) [13]. Therefore, one can find the refractive index
of As2 S3 as a function of wavelength using the following equation,

1.8983678λ2 1.9222979λ2 0.8765134λ2 0.1188704λ2 0.9569903λ2

n2 = 1 + 2
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + . (2)
λ − 0.0225 λ − 0.0625 λ − 0.1225 λ − 0.2025 λ2 − 750

The composition of the tellurite glass is considered to be 76.5TeO2 -6Bi2 O3 -11.5Li2 O-6ZnO
(mol%), which is the same as that of the tellurite glass in [13,14]. The Sellmeier’s coefficients for
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4445 3 of 12

this tellurite glass are A1 = 1.67189, A2 = 1.34862, A3 = 0.62186, and B1 = 0.0216, B2 = 0.23971 and
B3 = 6.8356 (µm−2 ) [13]. Similar to As2 S3 , one can find the refractive index of tellurite as a function of
wavelength using the following equation

1.67189λ2 1.34862λ2 0.62186λ2

n2 = 1 + + 2 + 2 . (3)
λ2 − 0.00046656 λ − 0.0574608841 λ − 46.72542736
The material dispersion of As2 S3 and tellurite glass can be easily calculated using the dispersion
λ 2 material
formula, Dmaterial = − d ndλ 2 [20]. The linear refractive index and material dispersion of As2 S3
c
and tellurite from visible (500 nm) to mid-infrared (3000 nm) are shown in Figure 1a,b as a function
of wavelength.

Figure 1. Linear refractive index and material dispersion of (a) As2 S3 and (b) tellurite glass as a function
of wavelength. The solid blue curve and left vertical axis represent refractive index values, and dotted
red curve and right vertical axis represent material dispersion.

The design parameters of the circular-core composite PCF (C-PCF) are the hole diameter d,
hole pitch Λ, and core diameter dc . In the case of elliptical core composite PCF (E-PCF), instead of core
diameter we have two new parameters: width a, and height b of the ellipse. The cross sections of the
proposed PCFs are shown in Figure 2.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4445 4 of 12

Figure 2. The cross-section of the proposed composite photonic crystal fiber (PCF) with tellurite in
cladding, three rings of air-holes and As2 S3 in (a) a circular core and (b) an elliptical core.

3. Results and Discussion

Using a numerical finite difference time domain (FDTD) method [21,22], we calculate the effective
modal index of fundamental guided mode (ne f f ) and study the effective mode area, non-linear
coefficient, birefringence, confinement loss, and dispersion properties of our proposed PCFs. In the
numerical analysis, we consider the case of mode confinement in the PCF core through total internal
reflections (TIR). The calculated ne f f is strongly dependent on the design parameters, especially air
hole arrangement in the cladding of the PCF. Note that the design parameters of PCFs in this paper are
optimized for optical telecommunications windows near 1550 nm (1100 nm to 1900 nm).

3.1. Dispersion
Fiber dispersion is a key player in determining the efficiency of non-linear processes in optical
fibers as it usually determines the phase-matching conditions [2,7]. The dispersion is calculated as
the sum of wave-guide and material dispersions (D = Dmaterial + Dwaveguide ) [20]. In our simulations,
the material dispersion of As2 S3 and tellurite glass (as illustrated in Figure 1) has been taken into
account. Due to large material dispersion of As2 S3 in near-infrared and short-wave-infrared, we
should compensate material dispersion using the wave-guide dispersion of the PCF. The wave-guide
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4445 5 of 12

dispersion in PCFs can be easily controlled by modifying the air hole dimensions, numbers and
center-to-center pitch. The dispersion characteristics of a fiber is usually calculated in terms of the
dispersion parameter D, defined as [2,7]

λ d2 n e f f
D=− (4)
c dλ2
where ne f f is the effective modal index of guided mode in the PCF core. The dispersion curve of
C-PCF and E-PCF with different core dimensions and d = 0.692, Λ = 0.867, a = 1 µm as a function of
wavelength is illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Dispersion of (a) circular-core fiber (C-PCF) and (b) elliptical-core fiber (E-PCF) with different
core dimensions as a function excitation wavelength. The C-PCF parameters are: d = 0.692, Λ = 0.867,
and E-PCF parameter is a = 1 µm.

As seen in Figure 3, by changing the core dimension ZDW can be tuned to different excitation
wavelengths near 1550 nm. In particular, by increasing dc /Λ from 0.93 to 1.01 in C-PCF (Figure 3a),
ZDW shifts from 1.61 µm to 1.53 µm. This tunability of ZDW exists in a wide range of wavelengths
in our proposed composite PCF (ZDW can be tuned from 1100 nm to 1900 nm). The same trend
exist in E-PCFs. For example, as seen in Figure 3b, by increasing b/a from 0.71 to 0.79, ZDW shifts
from 1.57 µm to 1.52 µm. In Figure 4, we study the effect of air-hole dimensions on the dispersion
characteristics of C-PCFs and E-PCFs.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4445 6 of 12

Figure 4. Dispersion of (a) C-PCF and (b) E-PCF with different air-hole dimensions as a function
excitation wavelength. The C-PCF parameters are: dc /Λ = 0.876, Λ = 0.867, and E-PCF parameters are
b/a = 0.79 and a = 1 µm.

ZDW is sensitive to hole-dimensions in the cladding of the PCF. As seen in Figure 4a, by increasing
d/Λ from 0.676 to 0.692, the ZDW shifts from 1.61 µm to 1.51 µm. In E-PCFs this shift in ZDW is
even more sensitive to hole dimensions. As seen in Figure 4b, increasing d/Λ from 0.576 to 0.754 can
result in a shift in ZDW from 1.77 µm to 1.45 µm. We confer that ZDW in both E-PCFs and C-PCFs is
totally controllable by modifying the hole and/or core dimensions. Additionally, for a E-PCF with
d/Λ = 0.692, Λ = 0.867µm, b/a = 0.75 and a = 1 µm, the ZDW is at 1550 nm, which is the wavelength
of interest in optical communications.

3.2. Confinement Loss

The loss in optical fibers, especially PCFs, can have different origins including intrinsic material
absorption, structural imperfection, micro or macro bending losses or confinement loss [22,23].
The periodic cladding of PCFs causes a decrease in optical confinement, which is called the confinement
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4445 7 of 12

loss (CL) [23,24]. The imaginary part of the effective modal refractive index of guided modes Im(ne f f )
is related to CL through the following equation [23,24]

40π Im(ne f f )106

CL = . (5)
λLn(10)

CL is determined by the geometry of the PCF, especially the number (and size) of air holes in the
cladding [23]. We investigate the relationship between CL and the number of air-hole rings in the
cladding of the PCF with a 1550 nm excitation. As seen in Figure 5, by increasing the number of air-hole
rings from one to three, the CL decreases significantly in both E-PCF and C-PCF. In E-PCF, the CL
decreases from 0.002 dB/cm to 2.47 × 10−12 dB/cm, which is equal to nearly nine orders of magnitude.
We saw the same pattern at different excitation wavelengths and with different air-hole dimensions.
However, after N = 3, further increases in the number of air-hole rings does not have a significant
impact on the magnitude of CL. Therefore, we confer that three rings of air-holes in a hexagonal-lattice
PCF (in our excitation wavelengths) is the optimal number of air-holes, as more air-hole rings would
increase the fabrication difficulty and fabrication-induced imperfections without any significant gain.
However, the total loss in our proposed PCF is strongly dependent on absorption, fabrication-induced
losses, and scattering losses of As2 S3 and tellurite glass, which is estimated to be less than 1 dB/m at
1550 nm [13,14]. Excess losses during the fabrication are related to the interface between the capillaries,
which is discussed in detail in [25].

Figure 5. Confinement loss (CL) of PCF with circular-core and elliptical-core as a function of the
number of air-hole rings at 1550 nm. The C-PCF parameters are: d/Λ = 0.692, dc /Λ = 0.876 and
Λ = 0.867 µm, and E-PCF parameters are b/a = 0.75 and a = 1 µm. The insets show the trend of CL for
N > 2 (top inset) and N > 3 (bottom inset).

3.3. Birefringence
In a highly birefringent PCF, there is a significant variation between propagation constants of the
two orthogonally polarized modes [23]. Due to this difference, the coupling between x-polarized and
y-polarized modes decreases significantly [23]. Under these circumstances, the state of polarization of
incident light can be maintained along the PCF provided that the light is coupled to only one of the
polarized modes [26,27]. The birefringence is defined as [26,27]

B = n x − ny (6)
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4445 8 of 12

where n x and ny are the effective modal index values of the two orthogonal states of the fundamental
guided mode in the PCF core. To investigate polarization dependent and birefringence characteristics
of our proposed PCF, we first investigate the fundamental guided mode in the fiber core with
circular and elliptical core structures. The fundamental guided modes at 1550 nm for a C-PCF with
d/Λ = 0.692, dc /Λ = 0.876 and Λ = 0.867 µm , and E-PCF with b/a = 0.75 and a = 1 µm are illustrated
in Figure 6a,b, respectively.

Figure 6. Intensity distribution of fundamental guided mode in (a) C-PCF with d/Λ = 0.692 ,
dc /Λ = 0.876 and Λ = 0.867 µm, and (b) E-PCF with b/a = 0.75 and a = 1 µm with a 1550 nm excitation.

According to Figure 6, we expect to see a nearly equal coupling for x-polarized and y-polarized
light in the case of circular-core. We investigate the effective modal index for x-polarized and
y-polarized light and the values of birefringence for circular-core and elliptical-core PCFs in different
excitation wavelengths ranging from 1.1 to 1.9 µm in Figure 7.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4445 9 of 12

Figure 7. Birefringence of C-PCF with circular-core and elliptical-core as a function of wavelength.

The C-PCF parameters are: d/Λ = 0.692, dc /Λ = 0.876, Λ = 0.867 µm, and E-PCF parameters are
b/a = 0.75 and a = 1 µm. The inset show effective modal indices of fundamental guided mode of E-PCF
for x-polarized and y-polarized light. Note that the birefringence of circular-core PCF is enhanced by
three orders of magnitude to facilitate visualization.

As seen in Figure 7, the elliptical-core PCF clearly shows a superior birefringence (more than three
orders of magnitude larger than that of circular-core) due to structural asymmetry induced by the
ellipse. The magnitude of birefringence in E-PCF at 1550 nm is nearly 7 × 10−3 , which is much larger
than threshold value for high-birefringence fibers (1 × 10−4 ). This fact clearly shows the ability of the
proposed PCF to maintain the polarization of light, which can lead to different applications ranging
from sensors to optical signal processing and optical communications.

3.4. Effective Mode Area and Non-Linear Coefficient

In most non-linear optical processes, one of the key factors to determine the efficiency of the
non-linear medium is the non-linear coefficient [2]. The non-linear coefficient γ in an optical fiber is
defined as [2,7]
2πn2
γ= , (7)
λAe f f
where n2 is a non-linear refractive index of the core material and Ae f f is an effective mode area of the
fundamental guided mode in the fiber core, defined as [2,7]

(| E|2 dA)2
RR
Ae f f = RR . (8)
(| E|4 dA)

The effective area and non-linear coefficient of a C-PCF and E-PCF with d = 0.692, Λ = 0.867,
a = 1 µm is shown in Figure 8.
As seen in Figure 8, the effective mode area increases gradually with an increase in excitation
wavelength and consequently, the non-linear coefficient decreases with an increase in excitation
wavelength. It is evident that extremely large non-linear coefficients of 15 to 45 W−1 m−1 can be
achieved in our proposed composite PCFs with both circular and elliptical cores. These values are more
than three orders of magnitude larger than that of a regular silica-based HNL-PCF and more than one
order of magnitude larger than that of a liquid-filled HNL-PCF [7]. The combined effect of tight mode
confinement in an As2 S3 core and large n2 of chalcogenide glasses, particularly 3 × 10−18 m−1 W−1
for As2 S3 [13], leads to the large non-linear coefficients in our proposed PCFs. The proposed fiber
with such a huge nonlinearity, tunable dispersion, and large birefringence can have applications in
different nonlinear processes where phase matching is important (for example wavelength conversion
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4445 10 of 12

via four-wave mixing), and applications where the polarization maintaining is important (like sensing
via a Sagnac interferometer).

Figure 8. Non-linear coefficient (main plots) and effective mode area (inset plots) of PCFs with
(a) circular-core, and (b) elliptical-core, with different core dimensions as a function of excitation
wavelengths. The C-PCF and E-PCF parameters are: d = 0.692, Λ = 0.867, a = 1 µm.

4. Conclusions
We designed a novel composite chalcogenide-core tellurite-cladding photonic crystal fiber (PCF)
with high non-linearity, high birefringence, and a tunable zero dispersion wavelength using a numerical
approach. By utilizing an elliptical-core, three rings of air-holes, and realistic hole dimensions,
we obtained an ultra small effective mode area of nearly 0.6 µm2 , a huge non-linear coefficient
of 28 W−1 m−1 , a large birefringence of 7 ×10−3 , nearly-zero confinement loss of 2.47 × 10−12 dB/cm,
and a zero dispersion at 1550 nm. We compared all of the optical characteristics of the proposed
elliptical-core PCF with a regular circular-core PCF to highlight the differences between the two
designs. We further showed that by modifying the core and air-hole dimensions one can easily control
the dispersion curve and tune the zero dispersion wavelength of the proposed fiber to any excitation
wavelength ranging from near-infrared to short-wave-infrared, including optical telecommunication
windows close to 1550 nm. The proposed PCF with large non-linearity, polarization-maintaining
capabilities, and the possibility of tuning zero dispersion wavelengths, could have important
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4445 11 of 12

applications in non-linear optics, optical telecommunications, optical signal processing and even
sensing devices.

Author Contributions: A.A. (investigation, data curation, software, methodology, formal analysis); Y.E.M.
(visualization, formal analysis, validation, writing–original draft, writing–review and editing, project
administration
Funding: This research received no external funding. Y.E.M. acknowledge the support of the Dalhousie University
and Killam trusts.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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