The Capacitor Handbook PDF

THE
CAPACITOR HANDBOOK
THE
CAPACITOR HANDBOOK
Cletus J. Kaiser
~ VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD

~ _ _ _ _ New York
Copyright © 1993 by Cletus 1. Kaiser
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1993
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 92-35798
ISBN 978-94-011-8092-4 ISBN 978-94-011-8090-0 (eBook)
DOl 10.1 007/978-94-011-8090-0
All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon
may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic,
electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or
information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission
of the publisher.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kaiser, Cletus J.
The capacitor handbook / Cletus J. Kaiser
p. cm.
Originally published: 1st ed. Olathe, KS: CJ Pub., 1990.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-94-011-8092-4
1. Capacitors. 1. Title.
[TK7872. C65K35 1993]
621.31'5-dc20 92-35798
CIP
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Chapter 1 Fundamentals For All Capacitors 1

Application Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Chapter 2 Ceramic Capacitors 27

Chapter 3 Plastic Film CapaCitors 41

Plastic Film Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Metallized Film Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Chapter 4 Aluminum Electrolytic CapaCitors

Production Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
The Anode (Positive Plate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
The Electrolyte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The Spacer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
The Cathode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Electro-mechanical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Table of Contents v
Chapter 5 Tantalum Capacitors 71
Tantalum Foil Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Wet Tantalum Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Solid Tantalum Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Application Information .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Tantalum Foil Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Wet-Electrolyte, Sintered Anode Tantalum Capacitors ... 81
Solid Tantalum CapaCitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Chapter 6 Glass Capacitors 89

Application Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 92
Chapter 7 Mica Capacitors 95

Glossary 99
Bibliography 109
Appendix A Capacitor Selection Guidelines 111

Ceramic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Paper/Plastic Dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Aluminum Electrolytic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Tantalum Electrolytic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Mica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Trimmer Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Appendix B Equations and Symbol Definitions 117

Basic Capacitor Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Metric PrefIXes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Index 121
vi Table of Contents
Acknowledgments
The author is deeply indebted to The Lord and his family for their
guidance and support.
Through the courtesy of Matthew Pobursky, with his publishing skills,

the author gratefully acknowledges his professional help and services in
making this book possible.
Appreciation is expressed to the many friends, both in the technical and

publishing communities, who made specific suggestions concerning
content and organization of this book.
Acknowledgments vii
Preface
A long and varied experience in many areas of electronic circuit design

has convinced me that capacitors are the most misunderstood and
misused electronic component. This book provides practical guidance
in the understanding, construction, use, and application of capacitors.
Theory, combined with circuit application advice, will help to under-
stand what goes on in each component and in the final design.
All chapters are arranged with the theory of the dielectric type discussed
first, followed by circuit application information. With all chapters
arranged in the same manner, this will make reading and using this book
for reference easier. A practical glossary of terms used in the capacitor
industry is included.
The first chapter covers basic information that applies to all types of
capacitors. Each following chapter addresses a different capacitor
dielectric. This book could have been titled: 'Everything You Wanted
To Know About Capacitors, But Were Afraid To Ask .. .'
ix Preface
THE
CAPACITOR HANDBOOK
Chapter 1
Fundamentals For All Capacitors
For all practical purposes, consider only the parallel plate capacitor as
illustrated in Fig. 1.1-two conductors or electrodes separated by a
dielectric material of uniform thickness. The conductors can be any
material that will conduct electricity easily. The dielectric must be a
poor conductor-an insulator.
Conductor (Electrode)
Dielectric
,;~;...--~ Conductor (Electrode)
1..----- Wire to Outside World

Fig. 1.1 The Parallel-Plate Capacitor
Fig. 1.2 illustrates the symbol for a capacitor used in schematic diagrams
of electronic circuits. The symbol resembles a parallel-plate model.
Fig. 1.2 Capacitor Symbol
Fundamentals For All Capacitors 1

Fig. 1.3 is a sample circuit that contains all the components normally
called "passive", plus a battery. The battery is an "active" component
because it can add energy to the circuit. Passive components may store
energy momentarily, but they cannot add energy on a continuous basis.
The three main passive devices are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
J
RESISTOR
BATTERY
-
T~-----~~------~
INDUCTOR
CAPACITOR
Fig. 1.3 Passive Series Circuit with Battery
A favorite analogy, compares the flow of electric current with the flow
of water out of a tank as in Fig. 1.4. A capacitor stores energy when it
is charged. The water tank would be the capacitor and it would be
charged by a pump (a battery) that fills it up. The amount of charge in
the capacitor would be analogous to the amount of water in the tank.
The height of the water above some reference point would be the
voltage to which the battery had pumped up the capacitor, and the area
of the tank would be the capacitance. A tall, skinny tank might contain
the same amount of water as a shallow, flat tank, but the tall, skinny tank
would hold it at a higher pressure. Other possibilities are tall,skinny
capacitors (high voltage, low capacitance) and shallow, flat capacitors
(low voltage, high capacitance).
T =
- -
Height Produces Pressure

Water
Tank
I
Fig. 1.4 Water Flow Analogy
2 Fundamentals For All Capacitors

When the valve of Fig. 1.4 is opened, water runs out. The valve is both
a switch and a resistor. If the valve is opened only partially, it causes
enough friction so that the water runs slowly from the tank. It is thus
like a variable resistor. When resistance is high, the water runs slowly,
but if resistance is made small, the water can run more freely. Once the
water is running, it can be stopped by closing the valve. The water in the
pipe, already in motion, must stop. When closing the valve very quickly,
the water must stop flowing very quickly. The energy in the moving
water suddenly has no place to go. In some plumbing systems, a distant
"chunk" is heard when a valve is closed quickly. The energy in the
moving water suddenly has no place to go, so it bangs a pipe against its
support somewhere. This is called "water hammer". The moving water
has acted like the inductor in the electronic circuit of Fig. 1.5. The
battery is the pump, the capacitor is the tank, the resistor and the switch
are the valve, and the inductor is the moving water in the pipe.
~H
J
RESISTOR
BATIERY
T-
CAPACITOR
INDUCTOR
~-------~------~
Fig. 1.5 Passive Series Circuit with Battery
Fig. 1.6 illustrates what happens inside a capacitor. When charged by a

battery, one electrode of the capacitor will obviously become positively
charged and the other one will be correspondingly charged negatively.
Battery
Fig. 1.6 Charged Capacitor

Magnifying the diagram of the capacitor a little bit, Fig. 1.7 illustrates
that the presence of electrical charges on the electrodes induces charges
in the dielectric. These induced charges determine something called
permittivity. Each different dielectric material has its own value of
permittivity. Permittivity introduces a more practical and better known
value called ''K.'', or dielectric constant. K is the ratio of the permittivity
of the dielectric in use to the permittivity of free space-a vacuum.
Therefore, all the capacitance values are related to the permittivity of
vacuum.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Fig. 1.7 Charges Inside the Capacitor
In a vacuum, K = 1, while K in every material has some value greater

than 1. The higher the K, the more capacitance with all other variables
being equal.
Fig. 1.8 is the expression of capacitance. The constant, 8.85 x 10-12, is

the permittivity of vacuum.
C = (8.85 x 10-12)K A
o
Fig. 1.8 The Capacitance Equation

With this equation, the units must be: capacitance in farads (named for
Michael Faraday), the area (A) in square meters and the distance
between electrodes (D) in meters. Kis simply a ratio and a pure number
without dimensions. When units other than farads and meters are used,
different constants are used: microfarads and inches for example.
To get an idea of what a farad is, calculate the area which would be
necessary in a capacitor built to have one farad, to operate in a vacuum,
and to have a spacing between electrodes of one millimeter. First, tum
the equation around to solve for the area and then plug in the known
values. This calculates to 113 million square meters that would be a field
about 6lh miles on a side.
or A= CD
(8.85 x 10- 12)K
Given: K =1
C = 1 farad
D = 1 millimeter (or 0.001 meters)
A= 1 xO.001 = 113,000,000 sq. meters

(8.85 x 10- 12)K
That is why one farad capacitors aren't made very often and when they
are, they are never made with a vacuum dielectric and a one millimeter
spacing. Industry does 'make vacuum capacitors, but the market is
limited to laboratory standards. All commercial capacitors use some
different dielectric material with a higher value of K.
Fig. 1.9, shown on the following page, is a table for dielectric materials
that are generally used today. Note a tendency toward the higher values
of K for reasons that are now obvious. (With a K of 10, that one farad
capacitor area can be reduced to a mere 11.3 million square meters!).
The wide range of values for barium titanate, which is the basis for most
ceramic capacitors, is an unfortunate fact of nature which will be
discussed more completely later. A typical question is why industry
makes commercial capacitors with any-of the materials having lowvalues
of K. The answer generally lies with other capacitor characteristics such
as stability with respect to temperature, voltage ratings, etc. These will
all be explored as we proceed with particular dielectric systems in the
following chapters.

Dielectric Constants for Common Insulators at 25°C
, : Insulator .:-",:::.:. KVaJue "-::'"
Air or Vacuum 1.0

Paper 2.0-6.0
Plastic 2.1 -6.0
Mineral Oil 2.2 -2.3
Silicon Oil 2.7 -2.8
Quartz 3.8 - 4.4
Glass 4.8 -8.0
Porcelain 5.1-5.9
Mica 5.4 -8.7
Aluminum Oxide 8.4
Tantalum Oxide 26
Ceramic 12 -400000
Fig. 1.9 Table of Dielectric Constants
To understand the behavior of capacitors when connected in a circuit,

probably the simplest is the RC timing circuit shown in Fig. 1.10. It is
called an RC circuit because the combinations of resistance (R) and
capacitance (C) determine its operation.
~H R
- BATTERY
T-
Fig. 1.10 The RC Timing Circuit
When the switch is closed, current from the battery flows through the
circuit, charging the capacitor. When the capacitor is completely
charged, it is like a closed tank which is completely filled up, and no
further current flows. At that time, the voltage across the capacitor
would be equal to the supply voltage of the battery. Voltage across the
capacitor advances from zero (fully discharged) to the supply voltage
along some predetermined path with respect to time. If the resistor is
small, current flows easily and the capacitor is charged more quickly. If
the resistor is very large, the charging process follows a different path
and will take longer to complete.

The behavior of voltage versus time is also influenced by the size of the
capacitor. If the capacitor's capacitance is very large, it will require more
total energy to fill (the tank is larger in diameter), and current flowing
through the resistor will require a longer time to charge it. Fig. 1.11
illustrates three charging curves, each approaching the same end point
but along different paths.
TIME------+
Fig. 1.11 Voltage Across Capacitor in RC Circuit
By adjusting the value of resistance in R and the capacitance in C,

formation of curves 1,2,3 and many others can be obtained. A typical
application of this circuit might be to leave the lights on in your car and
have them go off automatically after you are inside the house. The
voltage across the capacitor can be used to· operate a switch when it
reaches some predetermined value. If other considerations in this
circuit required that the switch be operated on a decreasing voltage
rather than an increasing voltage, the voltage which appears across the
resistor in the circuit can be used, as shown in Fig. 1.12.
LU
"....<
e:>
TIME-----
Fig. 1.12 Voltage Across Resistor in RC Circuit

The instant the switch is closed, all the voltage of the battery would
appear across the resistor and none across the capacitor. The voltage
across the resistor would decrease with time just as the voltage across
the capacitor increases with time.
The timing circuit is a good example of a DC application. Note that the

capacitor blocks flow of DC once it is charged. Current would flow once
more if another switch was connected to discharge the capacitor, as in
Fig. 1.13. If switch 1 is opened and then close switch 2, the stored energy
in the capacitor would flow as current through the resistor until the
voltage across the capacitor reached zero. The capacitor can thus be
compared to a storage battery, although the principles of operation are
entirely different.
~Hl
- BATIERY
T-
Fig. 1.13 Discharge Through Switch 2
The storage capability of the capacitor is used to good effect in filters.

A typical DC power supply offers a good case for an example. Basic DC
power supplies provide an output (that is, the voltage across a load,
shown in Fig. 1.14 as a resistor) which is fluctuating.
POWER
SUPPLY LOAD
Fig. 1.14 Measuring Voltage From A Power Supply

Fig. 1.15 shows a situation where the voltage drops completely to zero.
What is really wanted is a straight line across this graph representing a
steady DC voltage.
! DosI.... Steody DC
w
()
oCt
~
o
>
TIME
Fig. 1.15 Fluctuating DC Voltage From A Power Supply
To approach the desired straight line, add a capacitor to the circuit to

smooth these fluctuations as shown in Fig. 1.16.
POWER
SUPPLY c LOAD
Fig. 1.16 Filter Capacitor Added
With the voltage at zero and the capacitor discharged, tum the supply
on. As the voltage begins to rise, some current will flow to charge the
capacitor while the rest passes through the resistor. Some time before
the capacitor is completely charged, the voltage from the supply will
begin to decline. As soon as the supply voltage is below the capacitor
voltage, the capacitor will begin to discharge, and current will flow from
the capacitor, tending to maintain the voltage across the resistor. If the
value of capacitance is chosen correctly, the capacitor cannot be totally
discharged during the time available, and the capacitor will be charged
once more as the supply voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage.

The result of a simple filter of this sort will not produce the desired
steady DC voltage (a perfectly straight line on the graph), but it will
produce a wave form something like that seen in Fig. 1.17.
TiME - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , ; ; . . : ; .
Fig. 1.17 Filtered DC
The condition can be improved further by adding a series resistor and

another capacitor as shown in Fig. 1.18.
R
POWER
SUPPLY C1 C2 LOAD
Fig. 1.18 Improved Filtering
An even better result can be obtained if an inductor is used instead of

the series resistor as shown in the circuit of Fig. 1.19. (Remember the
water in the pipe which wanted to keep running?)
L
POWER
SUPPLY C1 C2 LOAD
Fig. 1.19 Even Better Filtering

Alternating current must also be considered. Here, the voltage goes
from zero to some maximum value, back down to zero, and then in the
negative direction before returning to zero once more. Alternating
current frequently does look like that in Fig. 1.20, which is a sine wave.
L
""'
t:)
<{
~
TIME
Fig. 1.20 Alternating Current - The Sine Wave
When a capacitor is subjected to alternating current, to the capacitor,

it looks just like DC which is flowing in and flowing out again. The
capacitor is alternately being charged, discharged, and then recharged
in the opposite direction before being discharged again. One important
fact to note is that the capacitor can never block the flow of AC but
instead permits a steady flow of current. This throws the timing circuit
out the window, of course, but it opens up a lot of new possibilities.
Consider how much current flows through the circuit shown in Fig. 1.21.
If the generator's sine wave voltage and the resistance, R, don't change,
current flow depends upon only capacitance and frequency.
R
AC
GENERATOR c
A 1------'
Fig. 1.21 Current Flow In An AC Circuit

H it is a large capacitor, there will be insufficient time for it to be charged
more than a small amount before the current direction reverses and it
is discharged again. Current flows very easily when the capacitor is near
its discharged state, as we noted with the timing circuit. If the capacitor
is small, it might approach the completely charged state before the
current reverses direction and discharges it. The smaller capacitor
would thus offer much more hindrance to the passage of current.
The second factor affecting current flow is the frequency of the

alternating current. If, instead of the previous wave form, the wave form
is one in which current reversal takes place iIi half the time (double the
frequency) as in Fig. 1.22, the amount of energy which flows into the
capacitor before current reversal will be be much less. In effect, the
capacitor will stay closer to its discharged state than when the frequency
of the wave form which the capacitor offers will be less.
W TIME -+----+---t--..;..
~
~
§?
Fig. 1.22 Higher Frequency AC
The capacitor, in an AC circuit, is acting something like a resistor in a

DC circuit with the additional dimension of frequency to take into
consideration.
The two effects of frequency and capacitance are combined in an

expression known as capacitive reactance and is expressed as "Xc".
Note that Xc is express in ohms (0), which is the unit of resistance.
Reactance acts something like resistance, and uses the same unit in order
to combine the two later. The frequency is expressed as the number of
alternations (complete cycles) which occur in one second, abbreviated
cps for "cycles per second" or Hz for "Hertz". Note that capacitive
reactance is inversely proportional to both frequency and capacitance.
This fits exactly with the earlier explanation concerning the ease of

charge and discharge of a capacitor when is was operating near its
discharge state.
The formula for determining Xc can be expressed as follows:

X _ 1
C- 2nfC
Where: Xc = capacitive reactance, ohm

1C= 3.14
f = frequency, Hertz (cycles per second)
C = capacitance, Farads
There is a comparable expression for inductance which yields inductive

reactive reactance. The unit of inductance is the Henry. It follows that
inductance in an AC circuit impedes the flow of the current just as a
capacitor does. The difference is that XL is directly proportional to both
frequency and inductance. The larger the inductor and the higher the
frequency, the greater is the reactance to current flow: just the opposite
of the behavior of a capacitor's Xc.
The formula for determining XL can be expressed as follows:

XL=2nfL
Where: XL = inductive reactance, ohm
1C = 3.14
f = frequency, Hertz (cycles per second)
L = inductance, Henries
Unfortunately, capacitors include both resistance and inductance,

because it is not possible to make practical devices completely lacking
in these factors.

Fig. 1.23 is a series circuit with all three passive component properties:
resistance, inductance and capacitance, and all capacitors actually look
something like this. Of course, if the capacitor is a good one, the amount
of resistance and inductance is very small compared to the amount of
capacitance. In an AC circuit, all three components act to decrease the
flow of current. The sum effect of all three is termed "impedance".
Impedance is expressed in ohms just like resistance, and it would be nice
if we could simply add XL, Xc, and R to get impedance, Z.
L R
n AC C
UL--.._G_EN_E_R_A_TO_R_ _ ~
Fig. 1.23 Passive Elements in a Series AC Circuit
Unfortunately, it isn't quite that simple, Xc and XL can be added or

subtracted directly, but they must be combined with R by the squaring
and square root process indicated here.
Many capacitor catalogs show graphs of impedance versus frequency.

Impedance becomes a very useful consideration at higher frequencies
because the capacitive effect disappears at some frequency, dependent
on capacitor design. Remember, Xc decreased as frequency was
increased. Also remember that XL increased as frequency increased. So,
capacitors are built which have very little inductance and a lot of
capacitance, but if the frequency is raised to a high enough value, Xc is
eventually overtaken by XL and the capacitive device now acts like an
inductor.

By plotting impedance with logarithmic scales, we get a graph which
looks like Fig. 1.24. The capacitive reactance is equal to the inductive
reactance, this is called the "self-resonant" point. If there were no
resistance in the circuit, the impedance would drop to zero at this point.
r-.
Capacitive Inductive
Q)
o
u
tfl
Q)
u
c
o
"0
Q)
a.
E
Frequency (Log Scale)
Fig. 1.24 Impedance With Logarithmic Scales
Practical capacitors frequently look more like Fig. 1.25 because they do
include resistance. Exactly at the self-resonant point, in fact, they act
entirely like a resistor.
Mixed Including
Capacitive Resistance Inductive
<l>
U
C
o
""0
<l>
0..
E
Frequency
Fig. 1.25 Impedance VS. Frequency

Pure resistance does not change with frequency. In practical capacitors,
however, the simple series circuit does not exist, but rather there is a
fairly complex mixture of resistance, capacitance and inductance. The
result is that, as measured at the terminals of the capacitor, a resistance
which declines with frequency. Because it really is not a pure resistance,
it is called ESR or "Equivalent Series Resistance". Manufacturers'
capacitor catalogs give graphs of ESR for many capacitors.
Inductance, which arises primarily from the fact that lead wires are
attached to the capacitors, is seldom a problem at low frequencies. As
clock rates increases, the designing of capacitors to minimize inductance
has begun. Resistance, however, is quite often a problem because it
limits the power handling capability of the capacitor. An ideal capacitor
(or an ideal inductor for that matter) would produce no heat when
current passes through it. The heat which is produced in practical
devices comes from the resistance which manufacturers are unable to
eliminate completely. Because it has this importance, a measure of the
resistance is frequently specified. We could use ESR directly, but it has
been found much more convenient to use an expression called "DF"
(dissipation factor). The expression for DF is the ratio of resistance to
capacitive reactance. The higher the resistance, the higher the DF and
generally the worse the capacitor. Because in good capacitors the DF
is rather small, it is frequently expressed in percent. Most people would
rather read 3% than 0.03.
The dissipation factor of a capacitor can then be expressed as:
OF =.B.-
Xc
By using DF rather than ESR, we can have one factor which represents
a measure of capacitor quality applicable to a fairly wide range of
capacitance values. If ESR was used, it would be necessary each time to
specify the value of capacitance.
You may also see the expression for DF written this way. This is simply
the result of substituting the component factors of Xc which we saw
earlier.
OF = 2.7rfC R

Capacitors in electronic circuits are normally not subjected to very large
AC currents. Upon occasion, however, the power-handling capability
of electronic capacitors must be considered. It frequently comes up in
filter design where the expression "AC ripple" is used. DC power
supplies, as we saw earlier, attempt to make pure direct current by
filtering out fluctuations. These fluctuations are like ripples on the
surface of a pond and represent AC passing through the capacitor. All
would be well except that industry cannot build capacitors which have
zero resistance.
To calculate power, the expression requires that the AC voltage across

the capacitor and the AC current flowing through the capacitor be
known. (There might be a DC voltage at the same time, but remember
that there cannot be a steady DC current through a capacitor. If there
is a pulsating DC, it must be treated like AC). There is nothing wrong
with this expression except its inconvenience. If a capacitor is working
in a circuit, it would be relatively easy to measure the voltage across it,
and not too difficult to measure the current through it, but designers
would like to know ahead of time what is going to happen based upon
ratings in catalogs.
The power equation is therefore expressed as:

P = EI
Where: P = Power in Watts
E = Potential in Volts
I = Current in Amperes
The first step towards understanding of what is going to happen is Ohm's

Law. Ohm's Law is expressed in the following equation:
E= IR
Where: E = Volts
I = Amperes
R=Ohms
Take Ohm's Law and substitute IR for E in the power equation, the
result allows calculation of power if the current and the resistance is
known. The resistance which dissipates heat in capacitors is the ESR

for which typical values exist. The only variable to be found is the AC
current, I.
P = EI
P = (I R) 1
P = 12R
Returning to Ohm's Law, which Mr. Ohm developed for DC circuits
originally, and substitute impedance, Z, for R. Alternating current is
impeded in three ways, all of which are combined in the expression, Z.
Ohm's Law for AC circuits may then be expressed as:
E
E=IZ or 1=-
Z
Take the new expression for I and return to the power equation and
substitute for I.
Manufacturers have manipulated themselves into a state where they can

write specifications most useful for designers. Manufacturers establish
experimentally how much power each physical size of capacitor can
handle without getting too hot. (If it gets too hot, its failure rate goes
up, and that is bad.) They then consult the catalog impedance curves to
get the value of Z, the ESR curves curves to get the value of R, and
calculate the ripple voltage which would be allowed. The expression for
Ripple Voltage is as follows:
P = E2 R or E2 = P Z2
Z2 R
E = ZVP/R

This AC voltage is known as the "rms" voltage. Fig. 1.26 illustrates the
relationship between the peak and rms voltage.
w TIME
Cl rms
«
~
-I
o
>
Fig. 1.26 Root Mean Square Voltage
With sine wave AC voltage, the voltage will have some peak voltage but
the average voltage will be zero. People can get killed with averages,
though, so someone figured out the AC voltage which produces the
same heating effect as direct current. This is called the "root mean
square" or rms voltage. It is equal to the square root of two divided by
two, or about 0.7 times the peak AC voltage.
The peak voltage is important for another reason. All capacitors have
a rated voltage which should not be exceeded by anything-not by DC
nor by the peak AC-so the peak value must be calculated as a second
restriction in AC applications. Film capacitors and ceramic capacitors
are not polar devices. That is, they will work equally well with either
positive or negative polarity applied. Electrolytic capacitors, however,
are not so flexible, and cannot allow much reverse voltage. If pure AC
were applied, of course, the voltage would be in reverse half the time.
The answer to this dilemma is called bias voltage.

In Fig. 1.27, both AC and DC voltage are applied to the capacitor, the
value of DC being chosen to raise the AC sufficiently above zero to
prevent reversal. At the same time, do not raise it too high and exceed
the rated voltage with the peak AC.
ae peak
r
w
C>
«
I- de bios
-l
0
>
0
TIME ,.
Fig. 1.27 AC Voltage Plus DC Bias Voltage

Application Information
The most important thing a user must decide is which of the numerous
types of capacitors will be best for use in the equipment he is designing.
Proper selection is the first step in building reliable equipment. To select
properly the capacitors to be used, the user must know as much as
possible about the types from which he can chose. He should know their
advantages and disadvantages; their behavior under various environ-
mental conditions; their construction; and their effect on circuits and
the effect of circuits on them; and what makes capacitors fail.
Where more than one type of capacitor may be used in a given applica-
tion (i.e. molded mica or glass types), consideration should be given to
cost and availability (use of strategic materials, multiple sources, etc.).
Capacitors are used as energy storage components to accumulate

energy through long periods of time and to discharge the energy over
longer or shorter periods. Parallel RC circuits will maintain bias on the
grid of a tube for long periods and, as in filter circuits, will smooth out
pulsating direct current. Bypass capacitors are used to prevent the flow
of direct current without impeding the flow of alternating current and
the attenuate low frequency currents while permitting higher frequency
currents to pass. In combination with resistors, capacitors are used to
reduce radio interference caused by arcing contacts, and to increase the
operational life of the contacts.
The temperature at which the dielectric operates is a function of the

ambient temperature in which the capacitor is located; the heat which
is radiated or conducted to the capacitor; the internal heating of the
capacitor due to power losses in the conductors and dielectric; the
physical construction and thermal conductivity of the materials inside
the capacitors; the transfer of heat internally by conduction and
convection to the container; and the heat lost from the container by
convection, conduction, and radiation.
The insulation resistance decreases as the temperature increases. The

power factor is a complex function of temperature. With polarized
dielectrics, temperature-frequency combinations exist where there are
large increases in power factor. This may not present any difficulties at
low temperatures, since internal heating will raise the dielectric

temperature and lower the the power factor. An increase in power
factor at high temperatures may cause thermal instability and must be
considered.
The capacitance of polarized dielectrics is a complex function of the

temperature, voltage, and frequency; non-polarized dielectrics exhibit
less change than polarized materials. As the ambient temperature is
decreased, many dielectrics will exhibit a large decrease in capacitance
with a relatively small change in temperature. The increased power
factor at this lower temperature may raise the dielectric temperature
sufficiently to recover the lost capacitance. Consideration must be given
to the fact that when the capacitor is initially energized at low ambient
temperatures, the capacitance will be a small percentage of its nominal
value. If the internal heating is effective, the thermal time constant on
the capacitor must be considered. A change in the distance between the
conductors and the effective area of the conductor due to dimensional
changes will cause a change in capacitance.
The dielectric strength of the dielectric decreases as the temperature

increases.
The life of a capacitor, in general, decreases with an increase in ambient

temperature. Life as a function of operating temperature is a complex
function and should be determined from life-test data. In the absence
of this data, the familiar lOoC rule for a chemical reaction may be used
as a rough approximation. This rule states that the life decreases by a
factor of two for each lOoC rise in temperature. This rule, however,
should never be used outside of the temperature range specified by the
manufacturer, since chemical reactions of an entirely different nature
may take place at extreme temperatures. This rule should not be applied
to liquid and gaseous dielectric without further investigation.
The operating temperature and changes in temperature also affect the

mechanical structure in which the dielectric is housed. The terminal
seals utilizing elastic materials or gaskets may leak due to the set
temperature characteristics. The expansion and contractions of
materials with different thermal coefficients may cause leaks at joints.
Electrolysis effects in glass terminals increase as the temperature
increases. The increase in internal pressure of liquids and gases may

cause leaks. A decrease in internal pressure due to the lowering of the
temperature may cause internal arc-over.
If the capacitor is operated in the vicinity of a component operating at

high temperature, the flashpoint of the impregnant should be taken into
consideration.
The dielectric strength of gases is a function of pressure, temperature,

frequency, and humidity. Hermetically sealed units must have terminals
designed to operate satisfactorily at the required pressure.
The heat loss by convection of a capacitor is a function of pressure and

must be considered.
Reduced pressure may produce leaks in hermetically sealed units. An

increase in pressure on the container of rolled capacitors in rectangular
containers may increase the capacitance by decreasing the distance
between the conductors.
The capacitors and mounting brackets, when applicable, must be of a

design which will withstand the shock and vibration requirements of the
particular application.
Moisture in the dielectric will decrease the dielectric strength, life and
insulation resistance, and increase the power factor of the capacitor. In
general, capacitors which operate in high humidities should be
hermetically sealed. The effect of moisture on pressure contacts which
are not gas-tight may result in a high resistance or open contact.
A capacitor may fail when subjected to environmental or operational

conditions for which the capacitor was not designed or manufactured.
The designer must have a clear picture of the safety factors built into
the units, of the safety factors he adds of his own accord, and of the
numerous effects of circuit and environmental conditions on the circuit
parameters. It is not enough to know only the capacitance and the
voltage rating. It is important to know to what extent the capacitance
varies with environmental conditions. It also must be recognized that
the internal resistance of the capacitor varies with temperature, current,
voltage, or frequency; the effects of all of these factors on insulation
resistance, breakdown voltage, and other basic capacitor characteristics

which are not essential to the circuit but which do invariably accompany
the necessary capacitance.
The designer, in selecting a capacitor type for a particular function to

be performed, must weigh several factors before a final decision is made.
Selection normally starts with the most important characteristic for the
application, then selecting and compromising other characteristics.
The capacitance specifications that the circuit designer uses in order to

design a circuit which will operate satisfactorily for the desired time
requires the following acceptable parameters:
• tolerances according to specification

• capacitance-temperature characteristics
• capacitance-voltage characteristics
• retrace characteristics
• capacitance-frequency characteristics
• dielectric absorption
• capacitance as a function of pressure, vibration, and shock
• capacitor aging in the circuit and during storage.
Capacitance that exists between the capacitor terminals and case may
be a consideration, as will stray capacitance and leakage currents. The
terminal connected to the outside conductor is often identified by the
manufacturer so that the circuit can minimize these effects.
The capacitance-temperature characteristic can be compensated for by

using more than one type of capacitor (dielectric) to obtain the required
capacitance. The characteristics of other circuit components may also
be used for compensation.
The peak voltage which is applied to the capacitor should not exceed
the rating on the applicable specification. The safety factor between the
peak applied voltage, the test voltage, and the breakdown voltage is of
a statistical nature. The same peak voltage, in general, may decrease
with (1) aging, (2) an increase in temperature, (3) an increase of area
of dielectric, (4) higher frequencies of applied voltage, (5) a decrease
in pressure, or (6) the entrance of moisture into the capacitor. In many
applications, it is necessary to derate the capacitor from the specified
voltage to provide the desired performance for the required time. It is

to be emphasized that short duration transient voltages cannot be
neglected in capacitor application.
The use of the self-healing properties of certain types of capacitors may

not be desirable in circuits where intermittent failures and noise would
be troublesome. Some types are not self-healing at low voltages.
Operation of capacitors above the corona starting voltage will reduce

the life and will produce noise. Liquid-impregnated dielectrics have a
higher corona-starting voltage than dry solid dielectrics.
When a capacitor is operated at high voltages above ground, and when

it is insulated from ground with supplementary insulation, one terminal
should be connected to the case, since the division of voltage depends
on capacitance between capacitor rolls and case and the capacitance
between case and chassis.
The peak charge and discharge currents must be considered on the basis
of the time constant of the circuit.
To determine the surface temperature rise of a capacitor, multiply the

volt-amperes supplied to the unit by the power factor. This gives the
watts lost in the capacitor. Dividing the watts lost by the surface area in
square inches will give the approximate surface temperature rise.
Internal heating and ambient temperature must be considered.
Environmental conditions such as corrosive atmospheres, humidity,

pressure, fungus growth, shock, and vibration must be considered.
The insulation resistance must be considered, especially when used at

higher temperatures.
Balancing resistors should be considered for series operation in DC

circuits.
The effective inductance of a large capacitor can be reduced by shunting

it with a small capacitor.
The inductance of various types of capacitors varies over wide limits.

Since capacitors have inductance, the operation of capacitors in parallel
in circuits with fast rise times or transients may result in transient
oscillations.
Poor electrical contacts may open at low voltages and be noisy.
The stored energy in capacitors can be dangerous to personnel and

equipment and suitable precautions should be taken.
Extended foil paper capacitors are generally considered superior to

inserted tab types, having less inductance and series contact resistance.
These are important factors in low voltage applications and in low
signal-to-noise ratio circuits.
Oil filled or acid filled capacitors should not be subjected to severe

mechanical stresses. Leakage of the fluid can destroy the capacitor
together with adjacent components.
Liquid filled units should not be used inverted because internal corona
may result.
Non-hermetically sealed capacitors may be pervious to moisture by the

process of "breathing".
Capacitors for AC and pulse operation require special ratings and tests.
Trimmer capacitors fall into three categories: multi-turn, single-turn,

and compression types. Multi-turn capacitors have either glass, quartz,
sapphire, plastic, or air dielectrics, while single-turn devices use ceramic,
plastic, or air dielectrics. Compression types use a mica dielectric.
For trimmer capacitor applications requiring low loss, high Q, stability,

and tuning sensitivity; glass, quartz, or air dielectric should be selected.
Glass and quartz devices are used at frequencies up to 300 MHz. Air
dielectrics are usable to about 1 GRz. For frequencies of 1 GHz or
above, sapphire dielectrics offer the best performance.
Trimmer capacitors with ceramic and plastic dielectrics are inexpensive,

with high grade plastic dielectric devices being usable at frequencies up
t02GHz.

Chapter 2
Ceramic Capacitors
The value for K comes from the selection of materials and from the
geometric arrangement of individual component parts. This chapter
covers the dielectric material in ceramic capacitors.
There is one form of ceramic which looks almost exactly like the classical
model of a parallel plate capacitor. A square or circular shaped ceramic
dielectric is prepared and coated with conductors on each flat face as
shown in Fig. 2.1. If the value of K is known for the dielectric, measure
the area of the conductors, the thickness of the dielectric, and directly
calculate the capacitance.
Electrode of
Silver Compound
Ceramic Dielectric
Fig. 2.1 Ceramic Disc Capacitor
In commercial practice, the dielectric is made from finely powered

materials, chief of which is barium titanate (K = 1000 to 3000). Disc
elements are pressed in dies and then fired at high temperature to
produce a very dense structure. Single-plate elements are usually cut
from larger sheets of fired ceramic material. Electrodes for both discs
Ceramic Capacitors 27
and single-plates are formed from a compound containing powered
silver, powered glass, and an organic binder. This material is screen
printed onto the discs or onto the sheets from which the single plates
will be cut. Another firing step removes the binder and melts the glass,
binding the silver glass matrix to the ceramic surfaces.
The outer surface is easily solderable, and wires are usually attached in
a radial configuration. The hairpin-shaped wires shown in Fig. 2.2 are
springy enough to hold the ceramic elements while the assembly is
dipped in solder. The lower end of the hairpin is cut off later. This
process can be mechanized readily, and dipped discs are among the
cheapest capacitors available.
Solder Coated Electrode
Fig. 2.2 Disc Ceramic with Lead Wires
Unless some special means is taken to remove the electrode compound

from the periphery of the single plate element, there is a hazard of
conductors bridging across the dielectric to short circuit the capacitor
as seen in Fig. 2.3. Single plates could be printed like discs, but the
feeding and locating problems increase cost and reduce accuracy of
capacitance achieved.
=. ~:z
~m~
providedr:
Fig. 2.3 Single Plate Shorting Hazard
28 Ceramic Capacitors
A much more sophisticated design is called the "monolithic" ceramic
capacitor. It offers much higher capacitance per unit volume. Fig. 2.4 is
a cross sectional view and in simplified form. The ceramic material acts
both as dielectric and as encapsulant of the basic element. Electrodes
are buried within the ceramic and exit only on the ends. The ends are
surrounded with a type of powdered silver-glass compound. Fig. 2.4
shows only two electrodes, but 20 or 30 electrodes are very common in
commercial practice and 60 or 80 might be used to obtain larger values
of capacitance.
Internal Electrode
End Metallization
C:==========~I- Ceramic Dielectric
Fig. 2.4 Monolithic Ceramic Element
Fig. 2.5 illustrates the use of three electrodes. The addition of the third
electrode has doubled the value of capacitance because of the two layers
of the dielectric. The equation for capacitance may be modified by the
addition of the term, N, to indicate the number of layers of dielectric in
use. The thickness of the layer represents the plate separation, D, in the
equation, while the area, A, is the area of dielectric which appears
between opposing electrodes. The dimension, L, shown in Fig. 2.5 is
representative of this area; the remainder of the electrode length does
not face electrodes of opposing polarity, and these portions of the
electrodes act only as conductors to the outside world.
C = (8.85 x 10-12 )K A x N
o
D
I D
I
l L J
1
-I
Fig. 2.5 Three Electrode Monolithic Ceramic Element
The manufacturing process for monolithic ceramic capacitors is much
more complicated and sophisticated than that needed for discs or single
plates. The powered ceramic material are mixed with a binder and cast
on moving belts into thin flexible sheets which are wound onto reels and
stored. The sheets are then printed with electrode patterns. The "ink"
used in this printing is pigmented with finely divided precious metals,
usually chosen from among platinum, palladium, and gold. Precious
metals are necessary because the electrodes must pass through the firing
kiln (above + lOOO°C) along with the ceramic, and an oxidizing atmos-
phere must be maintained in the kiln to develop the desired ceramic
properties. The use of precious metal electrodes represent a major cost
element in making monolithic ceramic capacitors.
After the ink is dried, pieces of the sheet are stacked above one another,
each piece representing one dielectric layer. Figure 2.6 shows the
electrode patterns are printed so that alternating electrodes exit from
opposite ends. Finally, cover layers which do not bear electrodes are
placed on top and bottom. The whole assembly is compressed and then
fired. During firing, the ceramic sinters together into one homogeneous
structure from which we get the name "monolithic".
Screen Printed
Electrode
Ceramic Sheet
Fig. 2.6 Expanded Monolithic Ceramic Capacitor
The volumetric efficiency of ceramics from the high values of K which

are possible. This result is in contrast with tantalum dielectrics and other
electrolytics which gain efficiency primarily from very close spacing of
electrodes. A 50 Volt ceramic dielectric, for example, would be about
60 times as thick as a 50 Volt tantalum oxide dielectric.
Basic to the ceramic capacitor are the properties of the dielectric
materials. There are many dielectric formulations in use to obtain
special characteristics of the finished capacitors. In general, stability of
capacitance with respect to temperature and voltage are sacrificed when
large values ofK are sought. While many special formulations are sold,
the industry is concentrating on three temperature compensating areas:
stable (NPO or COG), semistable (X7R), and general purpose (Z5U).
The COG or NPO is highly stable with respect to temperature and also
with respect to voltage and frequency. The others begin to develop
erratic deviations in capacitance versus temperature as the value of K
goes up. Nevertheless, they are very useful in applications where the
temperature changes little.
Multilayer ceramic capacitors are available in a wide range of operating

characteristics. Electronic Industries Association (EIA) and the military
have established categories to help divide the basic characteristics into
easily specified classes. The basic industry specification for ceramic
capacitors is EIA specification RS-198 and as noted in the general
section it specifies temperature compensating capacitors as Class 1
capacitors. These are specified by the military under specification MIL-
C-20. General purpose capacitors with non-linear temperature
coefficients are called Class 2 capacitors by EIA and are specified by the
military under MIL-C-l1015 and MIL-C-39014. The high reliability
military specification, MIL-C-123 covers both Class 1 and Class 2
dielectrics.
Class 1 - Temperature compensating capacitors are called Class 1

capacitors. They are usually made from mixtures of titanates where
barium titanate is normally not a major part of the mix. They have a
predictable temperature coefficient (TC), and in general, do not have
an aging characteristic. Thus, they are the most temperature stable
capacitor available. The TC's of Class 1 temperature compensating
capacitors are usually NPO (negative-positive 0 ppmfC). Other Class 1
extended temperature compensating capacitors are also manufactured
in TC's from PlOO through N2200 as illustrated on the following page
in Fig 2.7.
Fig. 2.7 EIA Temperature Compensating Capacitor Codes
Class 2 - General purpose ceramic capacitors are known as Class 2

capacitors and have become extremely popular because of the high
capacitance values available in very small size. Class 2 capacitors are
"ferro-electric" and vary in capacitance value under the influence of the
environmental and electrical operating conditions. Class 2 capacitors
are affected by temperature, voltage (both AC and DC), frequency and
time. Temperature effects for Class 2 ceramic capacitors are exhibited
as non-linear capacitance changes with temperature.
In specifying capacitance change with temperature for Class 2 materials,

EIA expresses the capacitance change over an operating temperature
range by a 3 symbol code. The first symbol represents the cold end of
the temperature range, the second represents the upper limit of the
operating temperature range and the third symbol represents the
capacitance change allowed over the operating temperature range. A
detailed explanation of the EIA system is provided in Fig 2.8.
EIACODE
Percent Capacity Change Over Temperature Range
X7 - 55°C to + 125°C
X5 - 55°C to +85°C
Y5 -3O"C to +85°C
Z5 +lO"C to +85°C
o ~3.3%
E ~4.7%
F ~7.5%
P ~10%
R ~15%
S ±20%
T +22%,-33%
U +22%,-56%
V +22%,-82%
Fig. 2.8 EIA Temp. Stable and General Codes
Effects of Voltage - Variations in voltage affects only the capacitance

and dissipation factor. The application of DC voltage reduces both the
capacitance and dissipation factor while the application of an AC
voltage within a reasonable range tends to increase both capacitance
and dissipation factor readings. If a high enough AC voltage is applied,
eventually it will reduce capacitance just as a DC voltage will.
Capacitor specifications specify the AC voltage at which to measure

(normally 0.5 or 1V AC) and application of the wrong voltage can cause
spurious readings. Applications of different frequencies will affect the
percentage changes versus voltages.
Effects of Frequency - Frequency affects capacitances and dissipation

factor. Variation of impedance with frequency is a very important
consideration for decoupling capacitor applications. Lead length, lead
configuration and body size all affect the impedance level over more
than ceramic formulation variations.
Effects of Time - Class 2 ceramic capacitors change capacitance and

dissipation factor with time as well as temperature, frequency, and
voltage. This change with time is known as aging. Aging is caused by a
gradual re-alignment of the crystalline structure of the ceramic and
produces as exponential loss in capacitance and decrease in dissipation
factor versus time.
If a ceramic capacitor that has been sitting on the shelf for a period of
time, is heated above its curie point, ( + 125°C for 4 hours or + 150°C for
1/2 hour will suffice) the part will de-age and return to its initial
capacitance and dissipation factor readings. Immediately after de-aging,
the capacitance changes rapidly. The basic capacitance measurements
are normally referred to a time period sometime after the de-aging
process. Various manufactures use different time bases but the most
popular one is one day or twenty-four hours after "last heat". Changes
in the aging curve can be caused by the application of voltage and other
stresses. Heating may cause changes in capacitance due to de-aging.
This is why MIL specifications allow capacitance changes after testing,
such as temperature cycling, moisture resistance, etc. The application
of high voltages, such as dielectric withstanding voltages also tends to
de-age capacitors and is the reason why re-reading of capacitance after
12 or 24 hours is allowed in MIL specifications after dielectric strength
tests have been performed.
Effects of Mechanical Stress - High K dielectric ceramic capacitors

exhibit some low level piezoelectric reactions under mechanical stress.
As a general statement, the piezoelectric output is higher, the higher
the dielectric constant of the ceramic. It is desirable to investigate this
effect before using high K dielectrics as coupling capacitors in extremely
low level application.
Reliability - Historically, ceramic capacitors have been one of the most

reliable types of capacitors in use today.
Ceramic capacitors are primarily designed for us.e where a small physical
size with comparatively large electrical capacitance and high insulation
resistance is required. Ceramic capacitors are substantially smaller than
paper of mica units of the same capacitance and voltage rating. Ceramics
can be used where mica or paper capacitors have too wide a capacitance
tolerance. The lead placement makes ceramic capacitors suitable for
printed circuit use.
General purpose ceramic capacitors are not intended for precision

applications but are suitable for use as bypass, filter, and noncritical
coupling elements in high frequency circuits where appreciable changes
in capacitance, caused by temperature variations, can be tolerated.
These capacitors are not recommended for use directly in frequency
determining circuits.
Typical applications for general purpose ceramic capacitors include

resistive-capacitive coupling for audio and radio frequency, RF and
intermediate frequency cathode bypass, tone compensation, automatic
volume control filtering, volume control RF bypass, antenna coupling,
and audio-plate RF bypass. All of these applications are of the type
where dissipation factor is not critical, and moderate changes due to
temperature, voltage, and frequency variations do not affect the proper
functions of the circuit.
Temperature compensating capacitors are designed for use primarily

where compensation is needed to counteract reactive changes, caused
by temperature variations, in other circuit components. However, they
can be used in any precision-type circuit where their characteristics are
suitable.
Temperature compensating capacitors are recommended for use in

frequency determining circuits. Typical applications include oscillator,
radio frequency (RF), and intermediate frequency (IF) circuits.
Frequency drift due to temperature effects can be compensated indi-
vidually in each circuit.
In IF stages where the frequency variation is uniform, satisfactory

operation can be obtained by designing the temperature-compensating
capacitor into the oscillator circuit. RF circuit reactive changes caused
by temperature variations cannot be compensated for in the oscillator
circuit. Where more critical tuning accuracy is required, it is necessary
that compensating capacitors be inserted directly into each circuit.
In RF circuits tuned by a variable capacitor, a shunt compensating

capacitor of low value and high compensating characteristics may be
used.
In slug-tuned circuits, the total capacitance required can be provided by

using a compensating capacitor having the desired temperature coeffi-
cient.
In oscillator circuits, more linear tuning can be obtained by using proper

temperature coefficients in both the series and the shunt capacitances
of the tank circuit.
If possible, the temperature/time curve of the selected capacitor should

be the exact opposite of the temperature/time curve of the coil (or other
component) being stabilized. Combinations of different capacitance
values and temperature coefficients provide the designer more precise
compensation than can be obtained from a single capacitor.
Disk and thin-plated subminiature types are extremely compact and

have an inherent low-series inductance due to their construction. The
placement of the leads facilitates making close-coupled low inductance
connections and are suitable for printed circuit applications.
High insulation resistance allows usage in electron vacuum-tube plate

and grid circuits. Their extremely low leakage and small physical size
make them suitable for transistor circuit design. They are also useful in
filter and bypass circuits.
During circuit design, consideration should be given to the changes in

dielectric constant caused by temperature, applied frequency, electric
field intensity, and shelf aging. Another consideration should be given
to the physical placement of compensating (and compensated for)
components. Locations near hot transistors will cause much greater
reactive variations than spots adjacent to a cool, external chassis.
Ceramic dielectrics are frequency sensitive; both the capacitance and
the capacitance change with temperature will be different at different
measuring frequencies. For extremely accurate compensation, the
capacitors should be measured at the proposed operating frequency.
When the silver electrodes in the ceramic capacitor are exposed to high
humidities and high dc potentials, silver ion migration may take place
and short circuit capacitors after relatively short periods of time. During
periods of storage, excessive moisture should be avoided since the
encapsulation material may absorb moisture and silver ion migration
may occur when the capacitors are later put into service.
Care should be used in soldering the leads. Excessive heat may damage
the encapsulation and weaken the electrode to terminal contact.
Sudden changes in temperature, such as those experienced in soldering,
can crack the encapSUlation or the ceramic dielectric. Leads should not
be bent close to the case nor should any strain be imposed on the
capacitor body to avoid fracturing the encapsulation of the ceramic
dielectric.
Capacitor aging is a term used to describe the negative, logarithmic

capacitance change that takes place in ceramic capacitors with time. The
more stable dielectrics have the lowest aging rates, however, all ceramic
capacitors with high dielectric constants display an aging characteristic.
General purpose dielectrics comprise this high dielectric constant
family. '
High K ceramic dielectrics with a barium titanate formula exhibit a

phenomenon known as Curie Point crystal-phase transformation.
Simply stated, most of the tiny crystals that make up the ceramic
microstructure are of cubic symmetry at a temperature of +120°C and
above. Below + 120°C, these same crystals take on a tetragonal shape.
The specific relationshiphetween this crystal-phase transformation and
aging is not clearly understood, but it is known that they are directly
related. As the crystals change from cubic to tetragonal shape, stresses
are set up in the dielectric and are subsequently relieved gradually. This
electrical "aging" phenomenon seems to follow the same logarithmic
patterns observed in mechanical models of stress relief. Each time the
capacitor is heated to approximately + 120°C (Curie Point), all of the
negative capacitance change that may have taken place is recovered.
Upon cooling, the aging cycle begins again. This recovery process is
commonly referred to as "de-aging". The entire process of aging and
de-aging is predictable and can be repeated infinitely.
Another important factor that affects capacitor aging is the application

of a polarizing voltage. The application of a DC voltage approximately
equal to the capacitor's rating will cause an abrupt negative capacitance
change; however, when the voltage is removed, the capacitor does not
return to its original polarized value. If this exercised were performed
on a capacitor with a known aging characteristic and the results were
plotted, the resultant curves would show that capacitance change is
negative and logarithmic in respect to time. The application of DC bias
voltages and subsequent dielectric polarization of the capacitor micro-
structure serve to relieve some of the stresses in the dielectric. This will
move a point on the aging curve forward in time.
Most general purpose state-of-the-art dielectrics found in industry have

aging rates varying from 1.5 percent to 4 percent. Wide capacitance
change, as a result of "shelf' aging and temperature cycling, is why
tight-tolerance, high K ceramics are not common in the electronics
industry.
Mixes of different temperature coefficients are made by varying the

percentages of high K dielectrics (such as titanium dioxide) in the
low-loss ceramic. The temperature becomes increasingly more negative
with the increase in dielectric constant. For example:
Titanium dioxide 85 -750

Low-loss ceramic 6 +100
As a result, for any given size of capacitor, the relative capacitance will
be high with a high negative temperature coefficient, and vice versa.
With present day manufacturing methods, a high degree of consistency
and reproducibility is obtained for the different coefficients.
Temperature coefficients are not linear with respect to temperature.

Measurements taken at + 25°C and +85°C will show a change of value
which, when divided by 60 (the temperature differential), does not
represent the change in capacitance to be expected for each degree
change in temperature. The coefficient is therefore not expressible by
a single number.
Ceramic chip capacitors are intended to be used in surface mount, and

in thin or thick film hybrid circuits.
Variable ceramic capacitors are small sized trimmer capacitors designed

for use where fine tuning adjustments are periodically required during
the life of the equipment. Normally they are used for trimming and
coupling in such circuits as intermediate frequency, radio frequency,
oscillator, phase shifter, and discriminator stages. Because of their low
mass, these capacitors are relatively stable against shock and vibration
which tend to cause changes in capacitance. Where a higher order of
stability is required, air trimmers should be used. The minimum rated
capacitance of the variable capacitor should not be greater than the
minimum design value specified; however, the minimum capacitance
value may be less than the minimum value specified. The maximum
capacitance should not be less than that specified and not greater than
50 percent more than the maximum value specified. Capacitance and
adjustment are relatively linear.
Variable ceramic capacitors principle of operation is similar to that of

an air-dielectric tuning capacitor where the overlap of the stator and
rotor determines the capacitance; however, the ceramic dielectric
replaces the air dielectric. Rotors may be rotated continuously; full
capacitance change occurs during each rotation.
Chapter 3
Plastic Film Capacitors
The original film capacitors did not use plastic film at all, but paper. The
pores in the paper, and also various chemical and physical contaminants,
all mitigated against very compact or reliable capacitors. The next step
was to impregnate the paper with some dielectric fluid such as an oil.
This really produced a mixed dielectric with the characteristics, such as
the value ofK, the breakdown voltage, and temperature stability, being
comprised of contributions from both paper and the impregnant. Such
capacitors still have advantages and are used in some electric as opposed
to electronic applications. As the various synthetic plastic materials-
particularly the thermoplastic materials-were developed, their
superiority over paper for most applications became apparent. Usually,
only one type of plastic film is used in any given capacitor, although
mixtures of two different plastics, or plastic and paper, or plastic and
impregnated paper, are all possibilities.
It is not difficult to move from the parallel-plate model to the design of

what is called the "film-foil" capacitor. The dielectric material is sand-
wiched between two pieces of metal foil which become the electrodes.
The thickness of the plastic film determines the separation between
electrodes, and the operating area of the capacitor is the area of the
electrodes opposing each other. To contain this structure in a practical
space, the sandwich is wound into a jelly roll and then tightly anchored.
Frequently, more than one piece of plastic film will be used to comprise
Plastic Film Capacitors 41

the dielectric because there are always chances of pinholes in the plastic.
The odds against having two pinholes line up opposite one another are
very small.
Once the jelly roll is wound up, the next step is connecting wires to the
two electrodes. One method is to wind the electrodes exactly opposite
each other with a margin of dielectric for safety in the edges. At one or
more points in the jelly roll, a metal tab would be inserted and bonded
by pressure as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Tab
Dielectric
Electrode
Fig. 3.1 Film-Foil With Tab
All the current flowing through the capacitor must be collected at the
one point of the electrode which is touching the tab. The tab would be
located about half way down the length of the electrode to minimize the
difference in conducting path over the entire electrode length. But both
resistance and inductance in this design will be higher than in the
--
"extended foil" design of Fig. 3.2.
- Electrode
Dielectric
---- ....
-
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
V- Electrode
Fig. 3.2 Overlap In Extended Foil Design
42 Plastic Film Capacitors

The foils overlap the dielectric on opposite edges. This technique
reduces the effective area, which is limited to that denoted "A" in Fig.
3.2. Only the area of an electrode which is opposed by the by the other
electrode is effective. After the jelly roll is wound up, it is possible to
gain connection the the entire length of each electrode. This connection
is usually made to the electrode edges by a special solder or sometimes
by sprayed molted metal. The electrodes are usually made of aluminum
foil because of its good conductivity and relatively low cost.
The present drive towards miniaturization, closer electrical tolerances,

and higher operating temperatures is being met by the use of thin plastic
film dielectrics in the construction of capacitors. The greatest advantage
of plastic film dielectrics over natural dielectrics (such as paper and
mica) is that the plastic film is a synthetic that can be made to meet
specific requirements, such as thickness of dielectric and high heat
resistance. Many plastic film capacitors are not impregnated but are
wound and encased "dry". Plastic dielectric capacitors have insulation
resistance values far in excess of those for paper capacitors and since
they are non-absorbent, their moisture characteristics are superior to
those of mica.
There are several types of plastic films available for use as a capacitor
dielectric. They may be used individually or in a combination with other
films in order to obtain the compromised advantages of the specific
electrical characteristics of each individual film. The more common
films include polyethylene terephthalate and polycarbonate. When
properly applied, plastic dielectric films lead to the solution of many
special capacitor problems.
Capacitors using polyethylene terephthalate as the dielectric are

perhaps the most common of the plastic film types on the market today.
Some manufacturers use only one sheet of plastic film for those with
low voltage ratings, whereas, at least two sheets of paper are used in
conventional paper types. The principal advantage of polyethylene
terephthalate dielectric capacitors is the higher order of insulation
resistance values available over the dielectric's temperature range.
Polyethylene terephthalate dielectric capacitors have an insulation
resistance that is normally about 100,000 MQ/.uF at room temperature
and about 25,000 MQ I.uF at +85°C. These insulation resistance values
decrease considerably when polyethylene terephthalate dielectric
Plastic: Film Capac:itors 43

capacitors are impregnated. However, a higher volt per rating is made
possible by impregnation and the possibility of corona and catastrophic
failures due to pinholes in the dielectric are minimized.
Another major class of plastic film capacitors is known as "metallized

film", which is shown in Fig. 3.3. This design is much newer and is
growing fast because it offers much higher volumetric efficiency. Instead
of using free-standing metal foil, the electrodes are vacuum-deposited
on the dielectric film, and their thickness might be 1/100 of that of foil
electrodes. The thinner electrodes save space, and the resistance of the
metallized electrode is correspondingly higher.
Deposited
Metal Electrode
Dielectric
Fig. 3.3 Metallized Film
Fig. 3.4 shows how resistance and inductance are minimized by using an
analog to the extended foil design.
De...... M...
1 """,,:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::"""1> o;~_"
Fig. 3.4 Metallized Areas Extending to Opposite Edges
A margin of un-metallized dielectric remains when the electrode is

deposited. Each piece of film is rolled together with a corresponding
piece having its margin on the opposite side. Connection to the edges

of the metallization by soldering is impractical, and only the sprayed-
metal technique is used.
The construction of metallized plastics capacitors shown in Fig. 3.4

differs from conventional plastic capacitors. Instead of having separate
layers of metal foil (capacitor plates) and plastic dielectric, the metal
comprising the capacitor plates is imposed directly on one side of the
plastic dielectric by means of a metallizing process. This technique
results in an overall size reduction for metallized plastic capacitors when
compared to conventional plastic-foil capacitor types of equal rating.
This space saving is the outstanding feature of the metallized plastic
capacitor.
Fig. 3.5 illustrates another advantage resulting from the metallizing

technique. The metallized capacitors have a self-healing characteristic
called "clearing". The metallic film imposed on the plastic is very thin
and jf a breakdown by either a hole or contaminant occurs, a tiny area
of the thin film surrounding the breakdown point bums away. This
leaves the capacitor operable, but with a slightly reduced capacitance.
In the conventional plastic-foil type (where the foil is thicker), sustained
conduction can occur on a breakdown causing a large area of the plastic
surrounding the breakdown to be carbonized resulting in a permanent
short-circuit.
Fig.3.5 Cleared Fault
The breakdown of the metallized plastic capacitor can be either of two

types; (1) a complete breakdown lasting for only a moment (momentary
breakdown) or (2) a sharp reduction in insulation resistance lasting for
an extended period of time, but eventually returning to normal (period
of low insulation). The general characteristics of the metallized plastic

type, aside from the breakdowns, are similar to the conventional plastic
type except for a significantly lower insulation resistance, approximately
in the order of 10 to 1. The self-healing characteristic has the good
features of increasing yield if all the faults can be removed during the
manufacturers in-plant bum-in. It may seem to be much better if the
fault did not cause trouble until the capacitor were in use. There would
only be a momentary flow of current and we would have a nearly whole
capacitor again. In analog circuits, this probably is true most of the time.
In digital circuits, however, it is very possible that the flow of current
during the clearing action would cause a spurious signal and upset the
logic of the circuit. Manufacturers have spent a considerable amount of
time in determining rates of clearings as they affect reliability.
Advances in technology have now allowed depositing plastic onto metal

instead of depositing metal onto plastic. With this process, both sides of
the foil are coated resulting in two layers of dielectric to guard against
pinholes in the formed jelly roll. Also, pinholes are extremely rare
because of the uncanny knack of the dielectric to find surfaces upon
which to grow. The dielectric can be deposited in very thin layers
resulting in very thin capacitors.

Plastic Film Capacitors
Plastic film capacitors are designed for use in circuit applications that
require high insulation resistance, low dielectric absorption, low loss
factor over wide temperature ranges, and where the AC component of
the impressed voltage is small with respect to the DC voltage rating.
Film capacitors are suited for filters, multivibrator timing capacitors,

AID converters, integrators, and other applications where capacitance
stability, which is obtained by locking the capacitor body in place with a
solid impregnant, is essential.
Film capacitors have many outstanding electrical characteristics and

excellent volumetric efficiencies, up to 20 times greater than mica, glass
and porcelain.
Polyethylene terephthalate (polyester) capacitors are intended for

high-temperature applications similar to those served by hermetically
sealed paper capacitors, but where high insulation resistance at the
upper temperature limits is required.
Paper and polyethylene terephthalate capacitors are intended for use

in applications where high insulation resistance is necessary.
Polycarbonate capacitors are intended for applications where minimum

capacitance changes with temperature are required; these capacitors
are especially suitable for use in tuned and precision timing circuits.
Polystyrene and foil.capacitors are for use in LC filters, particularly in

telephone equipment where high quality requirements are imposed on
precision, stability, humidity, dissipation factor, and reliability.
Polypropylene and foil capacitors are for use in tuned circuits, filter
networks, and timing circuits where precision, low losses, and reliability
are of prime importance.
Polypropylene series capacitors consist of a series constructed low

inductance wound cell of polypropylene film, aluminum foil and double

metallized polyester film. These capacitors are for applications where
high currents and steep pulses occur. They are commonly used for
deflection circuits in television receivers, to operate at line frequency
with high peak currents.
Plastic film trimmer capacitors permits calibration and adjustment of

capacitance. Typical dielectrics are polypropylene, polyethylene, or
polycarbonate. For high precision applications, polysulphone dielectric
is used.
Metallized Film Capacitors

Metallized polycarbonate film capacitors are designed for circuits that
require stable performance characteristics over a wide temperature
range, small size, and operational reliability.
Metallized polycarbonate film capacitors are primarily intended for use

in circuit applications which require non-polar behavior, high insulation
resistance, low capacitance change with temperature, low capacitance
drift over the temperature range, and low dielectric absorption.
Metallized film capacitors are rated for continuous AC operation, in

addition to continuous DC operation under conditions where the AC
component of voltage is small with respect to the DC voltage. These
capacitors can exhibit periods of low insulation resistance and should
only be used in circuits that can tolerate occasional momentary break-
downs. They should not be used in high impedance low voltage
applications.
Another advantage resulting from the metallizing technique is that the

capacitors are self-healing.
Metallized polycarbonate film capacitors are primarily intended for use

in power supply filter circuits, bypass applications, SCR commutating,
timing, and 400 Hz AC power circuits.
Metallized polyester (polyethylene terephthalate) film capacitors are

used for general purpose and industrial use in electronic equipment
requiring coupling and decoupling applications.

Metallized polyester and paper capacitors are used for interference
suppression in small household appliances (i.e., coffee grinders or
mixers), audio and TV circuits, and in general industrial applications
(i.e., test and measuring equipment).
Dry metallized polypropylene capacitors are for AC applications which

require operation in symmetrical sinewave circuits at 60 Hz or lower.

Chapter 4
Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors
The ability of a capaCitor to store electrical energy is a direct function

of its mechanical geometry and its chemical composition. The amount
of energy that it can store is given by the equation:
Q=CV
Where: Q = the magnitude of the stored charge

C = the capacitance in farads
V = the applied voltage
The capacitance is determined by the equation:
C = (K) ~
Where: K = dielectric constant of the material separating plates
A = directly opposing area of the plates
D = distance between plates
With this equation, the units are: capacitance in farads, the area (A) in
square meters, and the distance between electrodes (D) in meters. K is
simply a ratio and a pure number without dimensions. When units other
than farads and meters are used, different constants are used, i.e.,
microfarads and inches.
Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors 51

Engineers and scientists have been wrestling with these factors for
generations, in the perennial effort to pack more and more capacitance
into less and less space, in conformance with the unending trend of
equipment miniaturization.
Obviously, increasing the area (A) of the capacitor plates will increase
the capacitance of the device. This would tend to increase size, but since
only the area, not the thickness, of the plates is significant (in most
applications) the plates could be made thinner to offset the increase.
Ways were developed to produce ever thinner metal foils, and to deposit
thin metallic films directly on both sides of a paper or plastic ribbon
which then can be rolled up.
Reducing the thickness of the dielectric separator will also increase the
capacitance of the device by reducing the distance (D) between the
plates; this also reduces the size for a given capacitance, or allows more
capacitance to be installed in a given space. Advancements in the
production of high quality, homogeneous plastic films of very thin
gauges have enabled substantial reduction in capacitor size, combined
with worthwhile increase in capacitance per unit volume.
Use of dielectric materials having higher dielectric constants (K) will

also increase the capacitance of the device, hopefully with a decrease
(or at least no increase) in unit size. The search for better materials will
continue.
One of the major breakthroughs in this field occurred in the early 1900's;
the development of the electrolytic capacitor, a brilliantly ingenious
expedient for obtaining high capacitance in a small space. Essentially,
it consisted of an aluminum foil ribbon, on the surface of which a thin
film of aluminum oxide has been formed electro-chemically, and a
water-based electrolyte fluid which acts as the opposing plate. The
oxide-coated foil, a second strip of aluminum foil, and a porous strip of
paper interposed between them were rolled up together, and suspended
in the liquid electrolyte, which penetrated the porous spacer.
52 Aluminum ElectrolytiC Capacitors

The physical relationship as described in the previous paragraph is
diagrammed in Fig. 4.1.
Porous Spacer and Oxide Film Dielectric

Electrolyte (Cathode)
'oil Connection to Cathode
Fig. 4.1 Polarized Electrolytic Capacitor
The oxide coated foils is the positive plate (anode), the aluminum oxide
film is the dielectric, and the fluid electrolyte is the negative plate
(cathode). The second strip of aluminum foil serves only as a connection
in broad and intimate contact with the negative plate electrolyte, and is
usually bonded to the aluminum can that houses the capacitor. The.
porous strip prevents direct short circuits between the two foil strips.
The oxide dielectric has a thickness on the order of 0.01 micron; thus
the distance (D) between the "plates" has been reduced almost to the
vanishing point. Furthermore, the dielectric constant (K) of this oxide
is approximately 8, compared to 5 for paper, or 3 for polycarbonate film.
As a result, the capacitance per cubic inch in an electrolytic capacitor is
increased tremendously, compared to conventional capacitor designs,
even in the original electrolytic versions. Over the years since their
inception, there have been continuous improvements in electrolytic
capacitor designs, and advancements in their technology. One of the
most significant was that of etching the anode plate. The etching action
exposes the grain structure, enormously increasing the area of the
surface for a given area of foil. Etching of a given area of aluminum foil
results in a many fold increase in the actual surface area facing the
electrolyte plate, in the finished capacitor. Two major advancements
were the development of non-aqueous and solid electrolytes, and of
practical manufacturing techniques for the production of high-purity
aluminum foil. Both of these factors will be examined in detail later, in
conjunction with capacitor fabrication.

While the energy storage capabilities of the aluminum electrolytic
capacitors are impressive, electrolytic construction has certain inherent
limitations that affect the use and performance of these capacitors. Safe
operating voltages are limited to about 450 Volts. The oxide dielectric
has rectifier properties, blocking current flow in one direction but
offering low resistance in the opposite direction; it is therefore limited
to DC applications, and a voltage reversal of more than a volt or two
will cause breakdown of the film and destruction on the capacitor. (Non-
polarized types for AC applications are available. Their construction is
essentially the same as shown is Fig. 4.1, but both foils are coated with
oxide dielectric, constituting two capacitors connected back to back).
The power factor of electrolytics is considerably higher than those of
other capacitor types, and the broad plate area makes for appreciable
leakage.
54 Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors

Production Technology
The design and fabrication of an electrolytic capacitor is a complex
science. The physical principles involved, and their interlocking-and
occasionally mutually exclusive-relationships have been the subject of
continuous, heavy research for more than 80 years. Some of the major
developments that have evolved are discussed below.
The Anode (Positive Plate)

Capacitance is directly proportional to the surface area of the capacitor
plates. This factor has been uniquely exploited in electrolytic design by
etching the surface of the anode foil. This is accomplished either
chemically, by immersion in an acid bath such as hydrochloric acid, or
electro-chemically by immersion in a conductive, corrosive bath such as
a solution of sodium chloride, and applying an electric current to the
foil and solution. In both cases, the etching action exposes the grain
structure of the metal, enormously increasing the area of the surface for
a given area of foil. The degree of etch is controlled by immersion time
in chemical etching, and by the regulation of current flow in electro-
chemical etching.
The presence of impurities (principally copper, silicon, magnesium,

iron, and zinc), in the anode foil, can result in early failure of an
electrolytic capacitor. Particles of other metals do not form an oxide
barrier layer as aluminum does, hence constitute leakage paths. They
also form galvanic couples with aluminum and will produce hydrogen
gas in the presence of an electrolyte, besides reducing the efficiency of
the oxide-layer barrier and causing generation of excessive heat. For
these reasons, high-purity aluminum is used for foils, and the electro-
chemical etching process is the most suitable for use on this material.
Lower purity aluminum is used for the cathode foil.
In the electrochemical etching process, high etching-current density

produces a fine etch pattern, with a very high surface gain. However,
when this surface is anodized (as discussed later) to voltages above 100
Volts, the thickness of the oxide layer formed will bridge over some of
the fine depressions of the etch pattern, reducing the surface gain, and
the forming reaction will cause mechanical erosion of the peaks of the
etch, further reducing the effective area.
Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitol'$ 55

Using the lower etching-current density produces a coarser surface, but
the higher resistance to erosion and over-bridging results in a higher
final capacity, when anodized at higher voltages. Thus, there is a trade-
off relationship between etch coarseness and forming voltage in
achieving maximum capacitor of given size. It is possible to custom tailor
the etch for optimum capacity at a given voltage.
The foil is run as a continuous ribbon through the pre-cleaning bath,

then over a roller which supplies the current for etching, then down into
the etching tank, then through a series of baths that remove the etch
solution, neutralize residual salt, remove loose metal particles, and wash
away any remaining materials carried over from the processing tanks.
The foil is then dried and immediately rolled, and protected from the
atmosphere to prevent formation of "non-barrier" oxide prior to its
entry into the anodizing, or forming, process.
Two types of "anodized" films can be formed on aluminum. In contact

with moist air, the surface layer of aluminum forms a porous oxide of
regular structure and low resistance, known as non-barrier oxide. When
immersed in certain electrolyte solutions and connected to a DC power
source as an anode with the solution as a cathode, the surface layer of
aluminum forms an impervious, amorphous film of aluminum oxide
having the property of restricting the flow ofcurrent in one direction
and permitting it to flow in the opposite direction. This barrier oxide
layer has a thickness which is a function of the applied voltage-:-about
14 angstroms CA) pervolt-at room temperature. The forming voltage
must be considerably higher than the proposed operating voltage, to
provide adequate dielectric strength over a long operating life despite
aging effects. Leakage current increases rapidly as the operating voltage
approaches the forming voltage value, particularly in ''wet'' electrolytics.
Needless to say, the foil, the electolyte, and the tanks and apparatus
must all be of the highest purity and cleanliness. The presence of
impurities can result in porosity in the oxide film, and can cause some
dissolving of the film in the electrolyte-an effect that can double for
every lOoC rise in the temperature of the solution. Impurities remaining
in the elements of a finished capacitor will cause reactions that will result
in high leakage, early deterioration, and outright failure after a short
operating life.

The Electrolyte
In an electrolytic capacitor, the electrolyte forms the second electrode,
or plate. It is separated from the anode, or positive plate by the barrier
layer of oxide formed on the anode surface. Ideally, it must be chemically
inert, and have good temperature stability, and the proper conductivity.
If the conductivity is too low, a high ESR (equivalent series resistance)
results, with consequent high loss factor. If the conductivity is too high
for the rated operating voltage, electrolytic breakdown in the form of
sparking occurs (known as "scintillation"), resulting in failure of the
capacitor.
"Wet" electrolytic capacitors use a liquid electrolyte, composed of a

solvent (usually from the glycol family), some form of conductive salts,
and a controlled amount of water. A porous ribbon of a nonconductive
material such as a highly absorbent paper is wound as a separator
between the two foils, and this ribbon is saturated with the electrolyte.
The construction of such a capacitor is shown in Fig. 4.2. The rolled
element is installed in a cylindrical metal container which may be
connected to the cathode foil. A plastic sleeve is provided on some types,
to facilitate the use of off ground applications.
Cathode
Foil (-)
Anode
Foil (+)
Fig. 4.2 Basic Construction of Electrolytic Capacitor
Limiting the amount of water in the electrolyte limits gassing and

chemical activity, thereby increasing life expectancy. Low water levels
in electrolytes also increase the shelf life. Using solvents less viscous
than glycols, as an example amides, and more soluble salts, enables the

electrolyte to penetrate into the fine etch structure of the foil more
readily, thus contacting a greater surface area. This increases the ratio
of unit capacitance to contact area and further reduces ESR.
Low viscosity electrolytes have additional desirable characteristics, they

maintain more uniform conductivity at higher frequencies, enhancing
their utility as components in switching regulated power supplies. The
lower ESR also enables these units to handle higher ripple currents than
previously permitted.
The resistivity of electrolytes particularly with high water content, varies

with temperature especially below + 25°C. This results in high loss of
capacitance and increase in ESR at temperatures below -10°C. The high
water content in electrolytes limits their use to a maximum temperature
of +85°C. At these high temperatures they have limited life expectancy
and shelf life. Local sites in the aluminum foil are activated by water,
allowing exposure of bare metal. This results in high leakage current
when a stored capacitor is subjected to applied voltage. If this leakage
current can reach a sufficient magnitude from an unregulated source,
the unit may go into thermal runaway, with subsequent failure.
At extremely low temperatures, conventional glycol family electrolytics

lose in excess of 35% of their capacitance, and increase their ESR many
fold, in relation to their room temperature values. These effects are
caused by the increase in resistivity of the electrolyte, due to increased
viscosity or sometimes by crystallization, as well as its shrinkage from
the etch pattern of the foil. This results in poor contact between the
electrolyte and the foils. This type of capacitor becomes a practically
pure resistive device at -60°C due to these effects.
While it is a fact that amide based electrolytes produce capacitors with

superior low temperature characteristics, such as an 80% capacitance
retention at -55°C, they have several undesirable characteristics. The
vapor pressures of amide base electrolytes are much higher than for
glycols, thereby requiring superior sealing characteristics, and special
materials in their containers. The high vapor pressures affect the long
term life at high temperature operation. The toxicity of the amides is
also considerably greater than glycols and they may also have adverse
ecological effects.

The Spacer
The characteristics of the spacer that separates the foil ribbons influ-
ence the ESR of the capacitor. Each type of spacer has a resistance
factor dependent upon its density, type of fiber, and fiber shape. In the
design of low ESR capacitors, it is essential to use spacers with low
resistance factors. At present, the lowest resistance factor spacers are
the lowest" density types, and since this low density is associated with
minimum mechanical strength, special equipment is required to utilize
them effectively. Proper design sometimes involves use of more than
one spacer for optimum electrical characteristics and provides improved
manufacturability.
The Cathode
The cathode foil in an electrolytic capacitor selVes as a means of making
extended contact with the electrolyte throughout the length and
breadth of the separator strip. However, it also effectively forms an
additional capacitor with the electrolyte, in series with the anode
capacitor. The total effective capacitance is:
1
-:=----: = 1 + 1
C total C anode C cathode
Theoretically, the cathode foil has no insulation or oxide coating; its
capacitance therefore should be infinitely large, and total capacitance
would be governed by the anode alone. Actually, a thin oxide film of
some sort forms on the metal through exposure to the atmosphere and
to the electrolyte, reducing this capacitance. In all but low voltage
electrolytics, the cathode capacitance is considerably higher than the
anode capacitance because of the relative thinness of the cathode film.
Non-polar electrolytic capacitors are essentially two capacitors which

are connected back to back. Both foils are anodized to form oxide
barrier layers, and they share a common electrolyte. The system is
inefficient, having a high power factor due to the large ESR, but is an
effective and economical device in such 'AC applications as motor-start
capacitors where intermittent use allows time for dissipation of heat
between operations. The capacitor manufacturer is well equipped to
advise a customer on his specification and application, to maximize
performance at minimum cost, and to adjust his processes to produce
the idealized capacitor.

Electro-mechanical Considerations
Several mechanical innovations have been developed in electrolytic
capacitor design, aimed at improving the electrical performance as well
as the efficiency of these components. A very significant one is the
multi-tabbing of the foil windings. Since the foil cross-section is very
small, the foil resistance can be appreciable, especially in the larger
diameter units. An effective method for minimizing this resistance is to
install several connection tabs at equal distances along the length of the
foils. This has the effect of connecting the resistance of the segments in
parallel, thereby reducing the total resistance of the foil ribbon, and
lowering the ESR.
The coiled helices of foil, being effectively in series with the conductive
paths in the capacitor, also contribute some inductance to the ESL
(equivalent series inductance) of the unit. But multi-tabbing reduces
this effect significantly, not only by connecting the inductances of the
segments in parallel, but also by the bifilar action of the centered tabs.
For most effectively minimizing ESR and ESL, the tabs must be placed
in the exact mathematical center of each segment; this placement is now
accomplished by computerized techniques, which locate the tabs for
optimum electrical performance, and for mechanical ease of assembly.
Fig. 4.3 shows this multi-tabbed construction. Capacitors utilizing this
construction can attain ESR values of milliohms in the 120Hz - 40KHz
frequency range.
1 1
1- - - 1
(
--- :>
Fig. 4.3 Multi-Tabbed Doughnut-Wound Capacitor

Another benefit of the multi-tabbing techniques is greater realization
of capacitance in high capacitance, low voltage units. Since the unit
capacitance with its associated individual foil resistance is a strip-line
network, reduction of the resistance increases the effective capacitance
at the terminals of the device.
Another recent improvement is the elimination of potting compound.

This is available on special order when a higher than standard vibration
is a requirement. In previous designs, a bituminous compound was used
to anchor the capacitor element in its metal case to prevent damage or
failure due to mechanical vibration; this compound, which is a poor
thermal conductor, constituted a barrier to efficient heat dissipation
from the element.
Direct and firm contact between case and element provides excellent
thermal conductivity from the element to the ambient atmosphere and
chassis or frame support, resulting in cooler operation of the capacitor.
In addition, absence of potting material results in uniform gas expansion
space in each unit, increasing the operating life of the capacitor. Units
with this construction are the most suitable for mounting in any plane
during operation.
Further enhancement of the thermal efficiency of the unit is achieved

by winding the capacitor element with a large core opening as shown in
Fig. 4.2. The development of foils with higher capacitance per unit area
decreases the foil length required for a given capacitance rating. By
keeping the outer diameter constant, for efficient roll contact with the
case, and increasing the internal core size, a higher thermal efficiency
is realized.
Thermal efficiency can also be boosted by judicious use of forced-air

cooling in some applications. Occasionally, a power supply designer will
calculate the proper capacitance value for the filter, then find that the
ripple current requirements exceed the capability of the selected filter
capacitor. The need for adding more capacitance in this situation can
be avoided if forced air is used to increase the ripple current capability
of the capacitor.

As shown in Fig. 4.4, the thermal resistance from the case of the
capacitor to ambient can' be reduced to less than 30% of the still air
value. Another factor which is also shown is that the optimum air
velocity is from 300 to 400 feet per minute. Air flow greater than 400
feet per minute causes very little decrease in thermal resistance.
6
1\
\ '\
~
"~
--- --
-............
o 200 400 600 800

AIR VELOCITY (Ft./Min.)
Fig. 4.4 Thermal Resistance vs. Air Velocity
The case to ambient thermal resistance in °C/Watt can be approximated

by the following equation:
Oca= K
A
Where: 8ca = Thermal resistance case to ambient (OC/Watt)
K = 165 for still air
K = 64 for forced air at 300 ft./min. velocity
A = Surface area of metal case (in2)

The graph in Fig. 4.5 demonstrates how more power can be dissipated
in the components when forced air is used. The ratio of the two curves
is 2.6, which means that 2.6 times the still air power can be dissipated
with 300 ft./min. forced air. In aluminum electrolytic capacitors this gives
a 50% increase in ripple current capability.
20
Forced Air
18
16
/' (300 ft./min.)
14
/'
if) 12 /
~ /'
-
<{ 10
/'
-
~ 8
/ Still Air
--- ---
6
4
/'
2 V ~
£ V-
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
CASE SURFACE AREA (sq. in.)
Fig. 4.5 Power Dissipation vs. Case Surface Area
Useful life expectancy is a function ofthe rate of elecrolyte loss by means

of vapor transmission through the end seal, and the rate of loss is a
function of the operating or storage temperature. The electrolyte loss
rate is relatively insensitive to operating voltage, provided the operating
voltage does not exceed the rated voltage. Electrolyte loss is not related
to the failure rate during the useful life period.
The typical reliability life cycle for aluminum electrolytic capacitors is

shown in Fig. 4.6.
, ,
t 1/
,
Infa tFaii re
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, I
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~ Usef "I Life Perio
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Fig. 4.6 Reliability Life Cycle - Typical Bathtub Curve

The plot of failure rate follows a characteristic "bathtub" curve, covering
three periods in the typical capacitor life cycle.
The first period is the "Infant Failure" period, showing a decreasing

failure rate. The manufacturer conditions and screens all capacitors to
prevent or remove failures during this period. For all practical purposes,
infant mortality is not a factor in shipped units.
The second segment in the life cycle is the "Useful Life" period. Failures
occur at a constant rate on a random basis with relatively low frequency.
Failure modes are related to temperature and voltage stress on the
dielectric oxide film. Electrical parameters of capacitors are relatively
constant during this period.
Electrolyte vapor transmission through the end seal occurs continuously

throughout the useful life of the capacitor. This electrolyte loss has no
effect on reliability during the useful life period of the life cycle, but
when the electrolyte loss approaches 40% of the initial electrolyte
content of the capacitor, the electrical parameters deteriorate and the
capacitor is considered to have worn out.
The final period in the reliability life cycle is the "Wearout" period,
exhibiting a rapidly increasing failure rate.
When aluminum electrolytic capacitors were first developed, "on-the-

shelf'deterioration was a major problem and frequent replacement of
stock parts was necessary. Additionally, use of capacitors for extended
periods at small percentages of rated voltage permitted the dielectric
oxide film to "deform", just as it would "on-the-shelf'. Both problems
were solved in the early 1950's with the introduction of high purity
aluminum foil. Oxide film stability was greatly enhanced and today
aluminum electrolytics can be used after storage, and at any percentage
of rated voltage, without loss of capacitor quality. However, electrolyte
loss through the end seal does occur during shelf storage and during
periods of low voltage stress in operation, with predictable effects on
the useful life of aluminum electrolytic capacitors.

Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are intended for use in filter, coupling,
and bypass applications where large capacitance values are required in
small cases and where excesses of capacitance over the nominal value
can be tolerated.
Non-polarized capacitors should be used in applications where reversal

of potential occurs.
Polarized capacitors should be used only in DC circuits with polarity

properly observed. If AC components are present, the sum of the peak
AC plus the applied DC voltage should never exceed the DC rating.
The peak AC value should also be less than the applied DC voltage so
that polarity may be maintained, even on negative peaks, to avoid
overheating and damage. Capacitors which have been subjected to
voltage reversal should be discarded.
It is recommended that capacitors having more than three years storage

be checked at room temperature for leakage current in accordance with
the application requirement before being placed in service.
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are generally used where pulsating,

low frequency, DC signal components are to be filtered out. A typical
application would be in vacuum tube circuit B power supplies, up to
350V or more DC working volts, at such points as plate and screen
connections to B+, and as cathode bypass capacitors in self-biasing
circuits. These capacitors are designed for applications where accuracy
of capacitance is relatively unimportant.
As a rule, for selection of cathode or emitter by-pass capacitors, a ratio

of bias resistance to by-pass reactance of about 10 to 1 is allowed. Ratios
up to 20 to 1 may be used in high fidelity amplifier work or where space
and economical considerations permit.
Electrolytic capacitors provide the equipment designer with unusually

lightweight components of high capacitance in a compact container.

The most common failure mode of aluminum electrolytic capacitor
types is typically a gradual loss of capacity and increased dissipation
factor.
The 4-terminal axial leaded capacitor is designed for high frequency

applications where low equivalent series resistance, inductance, and
impedance are required. The advantage of the 4-terminal construction
over 2-terminal construction is that the impedance decreases above 10
KHz. Unlike 2-terminal capacitors, the DC current flows through the
capacitor and contributes to the operating temperature. The ability of
the external leads to carry the desired current should be taken into
consideration. Lead length and heat sink qualities of the printed circuit
board and capacitor will affect the current capability.
For maximum reliability and long life, the DC working voltage should
not be more than approximately 80 percent of full rating so that surges
can be kept within the full-rated working voltage. The time of surge
voltage application should not be more than 30 seconds every 10
minutes.
Even though these capacitors have vents designed to open at dangerous

pressures, explosions can occur because of gas pressure or a spark
ignition of free oxygen and hydrogen liberated at the electrodes. Safety
provisions should be made to protect surrounding parts.
The surge voltage is the maximum voltage to which the capacitor should
be subjected under any condition. This includes transients and peak
ripple at the highest line voltage.
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors have poor resistance-temperature

characteristics. As the temperature is raised, the breakdown voltage
decreases and the leakage current increases.
In planning the location of the capacitors with respect to other circuit

components, careful consideration should be given to the proximity of
the capacitors to transformers, electron tubes, and high power resistors,
because of the usual temperature rise involved in these components.
Continued operation at temperatures above the normal rating will
cause a permanent decrease in capacitance and an increase in series
resistance.

The performance of capacitors at subzero temperatures is primarily
affected by an increase in series resistance and a capacitance decrease.
These changes do not persist with the return of normal temperature
conditions.
Generally speaking, there are four identifiable levels of reliability,

expressed in terms of required years of operating life:
• Commercial - Consumer/industrial applications with 3-5 years

of life.
• General Purpose - Industrial/data processing applications with
5-10 years of life.
• Long Life - Established-reliability applications requiring 10-20
years of life (-40°C to +85°C).
• High Reliability - Established-reliability applications requiring
10-20 years of life (-55°C to + 125°C).
If the capacitor is used with reverse polarity, the oxide film is forward
biased and offers very little resistance. The resulting high current, if left
unchecked, will cause overheating and self destruction of the capacitor.
Electrolytic capacitors may fail for a number of reasons. One of the main
causes of failure is the eventual drying out of the electrolyte. This results
in a decrease in capacitance, an increase in dissipation factor or, at worst,
an open circuit.
Short circuits in electrolytic capacitors have become uncommon, since

potential shorts are generally weeded out during the manufacturing
process.
Catastrophic failures like open or short circuits generally will render

equipment totally inoperable or ineffective.
The true end of life for an electrolytic capacitor depends on its use. In
one application a change of 10% in capacitance may be unacceptable,
whereas in another circuit even a change of 25% may be tolerated.
Computer-Grade aluminum electrolytic capacitors are designed for

circuits requiring high CV, wide operating temperature range, and low

ESR. Applications include filtering, data-system and industrial controls,
and switch-mode power supplies.
Miniature aluminum electrolytic capacitors are suitable for use in timing

and delay circuits as well as filtering, coupling, and decoupling. Typical
applications include switching power supplies, consumer, industrial,
data processing, and military usages.
Miniature aluminum electrolytic capacitors, with their extremely low

leakage current, make them suitable replacements for many circuit
applications using tantalum capacitors.
AC motor-start capacitors are often non-polar aluminum electrolytic

capacitors designed for intermittent AC duty; more specifically, the
starting of small AC motors. They are not suitable for most DC or
continuous AC applications.
Electrolytic capacitors for DC applications require polarization. When

installed, correct polarity should be confirmed. If used in reversed
polarity, the circuit life may be shortened or the capacitor may be
damaged. For use in circuits whose polarity is occasionally reversed, or
whose polarity is unknown, use bi-polar capacitors.
If a voltage exceeding the capacitor's voltage rating is applied, the

capacitor may be damaged as leakage current increase. When using the
capacitor with AC voltage superimposed on DC voltage, care must be
exercised that the peak value of AC voltage does not exceed the rated
voltage.
Use the electrolytic capacitor at current values within the permissible

ripple range. If the ripple current exceeds the specified value, request
capacitors for high ripple current applications from manufacturer.
Use the electrolytic capacitors according to the specified operating

temperature range. Usage at lower temperature will ensure longer life.
The standard electrolytic capacitor is not suitable for circuits in which

charge and discharge are frequently repeated. This may cause the
capacitance value to drop or damage the capacitor.

If the electrolytic capacitor is allowed to stand for a long time, its
working voltage is liable to drop, resulting in increased leakage current.
If the rated voltage is applied to such a product, a large leakage current
occurs and this generates internal heat, which damages the capacitor. If
the electrolytic capacitor is allowed to stand for more than 2-3 years,
apply a voltage treatment before use. (Note: The voltage treatment is
to gradually increase the applied voltage up to the rated value so that
the current is set to the capacitor's specified leakage current value, and
then keep the applied voltage at the rated value for 30 to 60 minutes).
Some solvents have adverse effects on capacitors. An inquiry to the

manufacturer is recommended to identify suitable cleaning agents.
The electrolytic capacitor is covered with a vinyl sleeve to insulate the

case. If a soldering iron comes in contact with the electrolytic capacitor
body during wiring, damage to the vinyl sleeve and/or case may result in
defective insulation, or improper protection of the capacitor elements.
When soldering a printed circuit board with various components, care

must be taken that the soldering temperature is not too high and that
the dipping time is not too long. Otherwise, there will be adverse effects
on the electrical characteristics and insulation sleeve of electrolytic
capacitors. In the case of small-sized electrolytic capacitors, nothing
abnormal will occur if soldering is performed at less than +260°C for
less than 10 seconds.
If excessive force is applied to the lead wires and terminals, they may be
broken or their connections with the internal elements may be affected.
The life of electrolytic capacitors may be adversely affected if exposed

to high temperatures caused by such things as direct sunlight when in a
storage area. Storage in a high humidity atmosphere may affect the
solderability of lead wire and terminals.
The surge voltage rating is the maximum DC overvoltage to which the

electrolytic capacitor may be subjected for short periods of time. In
typical electrolytic capacitors, the applied voltage may not exceed the
surge rating for for more than 30 seconds and at infrequent intervals of
not more than five minutes.

Chapter 5
Tantalum Capacitors
Tantalum electrolytics have become the preferred type where high

reliability and long service life are paramount considerations.
Tantalum is not found in its pure state. Rather, it is commonly found in

a number of oxide minerals, often in combination with Columbium ore.
This combination is known as "tantalite" when jts contents are more
than one-half tantalum. Africa and Brazil are the largest sources of
tantalum, providing roughly 40% of the world's requirements. Canada,
Australia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Mozambique also produce large
quantities of this extraordinary metal.
After tantalum is mined, it goes through complex extraction processing

which, at elevated temperatures, reduce the oxide to tantalum powder.
Powder metallurgy techniques are used to make plates, sheets, and wire
for the manufacture of chemical processing equipment, aerospace
equipment, nuclear reactor parts, and elements of electron tubes.
Manufacturers use tantalum wire and foil, both of which are made from
the powder, and also use pressed and sintered slugs of the powder itself
as capacitor elements.
Tantalum capacitors contain either liquid or solid electrolytes. The

liquid electrolyte in wet-slug and foil capacitors-generally sulfuric
Tantalum Capacitors 71
acid-forms the cathode (negative) plate. In solid electrolyte capaci-
tors, a dry material, manganese dioxide, forms the cathode plate.
The anode lead wire from the tantalum pellet consists of two pieces. A
tantalum lead embedded in, or welded to, the pellet, which is welded,
in tum, to a nickel lead. In hermetically sealed types, the nickel lead is
terminated to a tubular eyelet. An external lead of nickel or solder-
coated nickel is soldered or welded to the eyelet. In encapsulated or
plastic encased designs, the nickel lead, which is welded to the basic
tantalum lead, extends through the external epoxy resin coating or the
epoxy end fill in the plastic outer shell.
Tantalum Foil Style

Tantalum foil capacitors consist of a tantalum foil, acting as the anode,
which is electromechanically treated to form a layer of tantalum oxide
dielectric. Porous spacer material is used to form a cylindrical capacitor
section with axial tantalum wire on either end. This section is then
impregnated with a suitable electrolyte (usually a weak acid or base)
and then sealed in a suitable container. Solderable leads are welded to
the tantalum leads.
Tantalum foil capacitors are made by rolling two strips of thin foil,
separated by a paper saturated with electrolyte, into a convolute roll.
The tantalum foil which is to be the anode is chemically etched to
increase its effective surface area, providing more capacitance in a given
volume. This is followed by anodization in a chemical solution under
direct voltage. This produces the dielectric tantalum pentoxide film on
the foil surface.
Tantalum foil capacitors can be manufactured in DC working values up

to 300 or more volts. The tantalum foil design has the lowest capacitance
per unit volume of the three types of tantalum electrolytic capacitors.
It is also the least often encountered since it is best suited for the higher
voltages primarily found in older designs of equipment and requires
more manufacturing operations than do the two other types. However,
it is more expensive and is used only where neither a solid electrolyte
nor a wet-slug tantalum capacitor can be employed.
72 Tantalum Capacitors
Tantalum foil capacitors are generally designed for operation over the
temperature range of -55°C to + 125°C and are found primarily in
industrial and military electronics equipment.
Wet Tantalum Style

Wet tantalum capacitors consist of a sintered-slug, acting as the anode,
which is electrochemically treated to form a layer of tantalum oxide
dielectric.
Wet electrolyte, sintered anode tantalum capacitors, often called ''wet-

slug" tantalum capacitors, use a pellet of sintered tantalum powder to
which a lead has been attached. This anode has an enormous surface
area for its size because of the way it is made.
For wet-slug capacitors the tantalum powder of suitable fineness, some-

times mixed with binding agents, is machine pressed into pellets. The
next step is a sintering operation in which binders, impurities, and
contaminants are vaporized and the tantalum particles are sintered
(welded) into a porous mass with a very large internal surface area.
Following the sintering and before formation of the dielectric film on
the pellet, a tantalum lead wire is attached by welding the wire to the
pellet. (In some cases, the lead is embedded during pressing of the pellet
before sintering.)
A film of tantalum pentoxide is electrochemically formed on the surface

areas of the fused tantalum particles. Provided sufficient time and
current is available, the oxide will grow to a thickness determined by the
applied voltage.
The pellet is then inserted into a tantalum or silver can which contains
an electrolyte soluticm. Most liquid electrolytes are gelled to prevent
the free movement of the solution inside the container and to keep the
electrolyte in intimate contact with the capacitor cathode. A suitable
end seal arrangement prevents the loss of the electrolyte.
Wet-slug tantalum capacitors are manufactured in a voltage range up

to 150 Working Volts DC.
Solid Tantalum Style
The solid tantalum capacitor is generally included in the classification
of "electrolytic" capacitors, although it doesn't belong there. A true
electrolytic capacitor is one which uses an electrolyte for at least one of
the electrodes. An electrolyte is generally made from some chemically
ionizable compound dissolved in a liquid. The solid tantalum (also
sometimes called a dry tantalum capacitor) uses manganese dioxide,
rather than a liquid electrolyte as an electrode. Because of similar
characteristics and because of historical development, the manganese
dioxide came to be a solid electrolyte, but it really is not; it falls generally
into the class of semiconducting solids.
The basis of the solid tantalum capacitor is tantalum. Tantalum is one

of the elements, so named originally because it was a tantalizing material
for early chemists to isolate. It has certain properties which produce the
characteristics found so desirable in finished capacitors. Foremost, is
the fact that it is a "valve" metal (aluminum is another) upon which one
may grow very uniform and stable oxides with food dielectric properties.
The dielectric constant of tantalum oxide (K = 26) is relatively high. To
form a high quality oxide film requires very high purity of the metal
substrate. Tantalum melts at + 3000°C and can be worked above
+2000°C in vacuum. Under these conditions, most impurities can be
evaporated and pumped away. Finally, tantalum is relatively easy to
work with mechanically. That is, it can be ground to powder, rolled to
sheet, drawn to wire, bent and forms without great difficulty at room
temperature.
To make capacitors from this material, manufacturers use tantalum

powder and tantalum wire. These two are pressed together, usually with
some form of organic binder which is later removed. The pressed form
is normally cylindrical, although flat prisms appear in some designs.
While it is also possible to press only the powder and weld on the wire
later, the cylindrical wire-and-powder assembly shown in Fig 5.1 is by
far the most popular method. These pellets are sintered in vacuum
furnaces. Sintering is a process of slow fusion between adjacent surfaces,
so that when the pellets emerge from the furnace they are strong
mechanically and have shrunk somewhat from their original size. About
half the volume of the sintered powder remains as void space.
Wire
Fig. 5.1 Pressed and Sintered Tantalum
The pellets are then immersed in an acid bath and connected to the
positive terminal of a DC power supply as shown in Fig. 5.2.
Acid Bath
Tank DC
~. Power
Supply
Fig. 5.2 Tantalum Pellet Immersed in Acid Bath
The flow of current causes a layer of tantalum pentoxide, Ta20s, to grow
on all exposed surfaces of the tantalum. The exposed surface includes
the wire and both external and internal surfaces of the sintered powder.
The internal surface is over 100 times the apparent external area. The
oxide layer later will become the dielectric of the capacitor. One of the
electrodes of the parallel-plate model is the tantalum metal; the second
electrode will be applied in subsequent processing steps. The effective
area of the capacitor is the entire surface of the tantalum pentoxide
dielectric which can be contacted by the second electrode. The distance
between electrodes is the thickness of the oxide layer. This thickness is
controlled by the voltage applied from the power supply. The higher the
voltage, the thicker the oxide layer grows. Greater separation between
electrodes means lower capacitance, but it also means a higher voltage
rating for the finished capacitor.
The second electrode is the semiconducting manganese dioxide, Mn02.

To apply this material, the porous pellet is dipped into a manganous
nitrate solution which wets all surfaces and fills up the pores. When the
pellets are later heated, the water from this solution is evaporated and
then the nitrate decomposes to forms the oxide according to this
chemical equation:
heat
Mn(N03)2 - Mn02 + 2N02 (Gas)
The Mn02layer covers nearly all the internal surfaces and extends part
way up the wire.
Fig. 5.3 illustrates a small portion of the pellet. Shown is the tantalum
substrate, the tantalum pentoxide grown upon the substrate, and the
manganese dioxide deposited upon the tantalum pentoxide. It then
begins to look like a parallel-plate capacitor.
,--_ _ _ _ _ _ _-, .-/ Manganese Dioxide

~ (Mn02)
~~~~~~~~t-_Tantalum Pentoxide
(T820s)
I-- Tantalum
(Ta)
Fig. 5.3 Section of a Tantalum Pellet
The rest of the processing is needed only to gain electronic contact to
the electrodes. It is easy to weld an external lead wire to the stub of the
tantalum wire, but contacting the Mn02 is more difficult. To do this, the
pellets are dipped into water containing a very finely divided carbon
powder. Mter the water is evaporated, a layer of carbon (actually
graphite) is left on all surfaces of the Mn02 . Resistivity of the graphite
is much lower than that of Mn02, and the fine particle size of the
graphite enables this material to touch nearly all the very irregular
Mn02 surface. Applied on top of the graphite is a silver-pigmented
paint. The silver is held by an organic resin and presents a solderable
surface to facilitate attachment of the second lead wire. Putting all the
layers together looks like Fig. 5.4, with the two wires being indicative of
external connection.
Solder
Silver Paint
.IIlIIlIIllIllIlllillllllllllllllIllllillllllllllll.--- Graphite
1----- Mn02
i----Ta
Fig. 5.4 Tantalum Dielectric Layers
Encapsulation of a solid tantalum capacitor can follow several courses.

The original design was solder inside a metal can closed with a glass-to-
metal hermetic seal. The next commercial design used potting with an
epoxy, and then dipping in liquid epoxy resin. This offers excellent
reliability and high stability for consumer and commercial electronic
applications, with the added feature of low cost. The final step in
evolution to this point is the tantalum chip capacitor, which has no
encapsulation but which has several innovations in terminal design to
provide protection against the rigors of directly soldering onto ceramic
substrates.
Tantalum Capacitors n
Manufacturers have done much work into statistical treatment of failure
rates of solid tantalum capacitors because these capacitors possess a
unique "healing" mechanism which results in a failure rate apparently
decreasing forever. The Mn02 provides the healing mechanism. If a
fault, perhaps some impurity produces an imperfection in the dielectric
layer, a heavy current will flow through that minute area when a DC
potential is applied to the capacitor. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.5.
Conductors:
Carbon,
Silver, etc.
Mn02
~~~~~~- T820s
'---+-- Impurity
Ta
Fig. 5.5 Fault in a Tantalum Capacitor
The current also flows through the Mn02 immediately adjacent to the
fault. Resistance of the Mn02 to this current flow causes localized
heating. As the temperature of the Mn02 rises, this material is then
converted to a lower oxide of manganese, perhaps Mn203, with much
higher resistivity. The increase in resistance decreases the current flow.
If this mechanism is successful, the current flow is reduced before
localized heating goes too far and a short circuit is prevented. Without
this mechanism, the solid tantalum capacitor would never have gotten
off the ground commercially.
In choosing between the three basic types of tantalum capacitors, the
circuit designer customarily uses foil tantalum capacitors only where
high voltage constructions are required or where there is substantial
reverse voltage applied to a capacitor during circuit operation.
Wet sintered anode capacitors, or wet-slug tantalum capacitors, as they

are sometimes called, are used where the lowest DC leakage is required.
The conventional silver can design will not tolerate any reverse voltages.
However, in military or aerospace applications, tantalum cases are used
instead of silver cases where utmost reliability is desired. The tantalum
cased wet-slug units will withstand reverse voltages up to 3 Volts, will
operate under higher ripple currents, and can be used at temperatures
up to +392°F (+200°C).
Solid electrolyte designs, which are the least expensive for a given rating,
are used in many applications where their very small size for a given unit
of capacitance is of importance. They will typically withstand up to about
15% of the rated DC working voltage in a reverse direction. Also
important are their good low temperature performance characteristics
and freedom from corrosive electrolytes.
Tantalum capacitors may utilize only 15 percent of the area normally

required by a paper capacitor of the same capacitance value.
The larger the dielectric constant the larger the capacitance which can
be achieved in a given space, thus a size advantage can be realized since
the dielectric constant of tantalum oxide film is approximately 26 as
compared to approximately 8 for aluminum oxide. Because of the
differences in foil and paper thickness requirements, the actual size
ratio will vary with different capacitances and voltage ratings and may
be much more than 2:1 in favor of the tantalum capacitor.
Tantalum Foil Capacitors

The tantalum foil types are the most versatile of all the electrolytic
capacitors. They are available is plain or etched foil and in polarized or
nonpolarized construction, which makes them suitable for many circuit
applications; however, the foil types are limited by their great variation
of characteristics and design tolerances. Because of the very wide
tolerances, they are not suitable for timing or precision circuits.
Etched-foil types, because of the difference in construction, have as

much as 10 times the capacitance per unit area as the plain foil types for
a given size; therefore, the etched foil type is generally the better choice
between the two.
Some etched foil style capacitors may exhibit capacitance change and
dissipation factor changes when exposed to low DC bias levels (0 to 2.2
Volts DC). Care should be exercised when applications require these
low voltage levels.
Plain foil types, in some cases, are a more desirable choice since they
will withstand approximately 30 percent higher ripple current. They
have better capacitance-temperature characteristics, and have a low
power factor.
Tantalum foil capacitors are the only electrolytic capacitors capable of

operating continuously on unbiased AC voltages. Tantalum foil's AC
ripple capabilities are applicable for unbiased AC voltages on non-polar
capacitors, and biased AC ripple voltages on polar capacitors. Peak AC
voltages are permissible provided that the DC voltage rating is not
exceeded. The only limitation is the I2R heating effect. Due to higher
power factor, etched foil capacitors have only half the AC capability of
plain foil capacitors.
Polarized foil types are essentially used where low frequency pulsating
DC components are to be bypassed or filtered out and for other uses in
electronic equipment where large capacitance values are required and
comparatively wide capacitance tolerances can be tolerated.
Polarized foil types used for low frequency coupling in vacuum tube and
transistor circuits, design allowances s)lould be made for the leakage
current. This leakage current could cause improper positive bias to be
applied across the grid circuits or excessive base, emitter, or collector
currents.
Polarized foil capacitors should be used only in DC circuits with polarity

properly observed. If AC components are present, the sum of the peak
AC voltage plus the applied DC voltage must not exceed the DC voltage
rating. The peak AC voltage should also be less than the applied DC
voltage so that polarity may be maintained, even on negative peaks, to
avoid overheating and damage. Even though those units rated at 6 Volts
and above can withstand a maximum of 3 Volts in the reverse direction,
it is recommended that they not be used in circuits where this reversal
is repetitious.
Polarized foil capacitors may be used in (1) power supplies in which up

to 300 Volts DC are applied to the filter input, (2) at plate and screen
circuit decoupling connection points, and (3) for cathode resistor bypass
circuits.
When polarized foil capacitors are used as cathode bypass capacitors, a

ratio of bias resistance to capacitive reactance of 10 to 1 is allowed.
Ratios up to 20 to 1 may be used in high fidelity amplifier design or
where space and economical considerations permit. In circuits where
linear amplification is required, the amount of capacitive reactance
shunting a cathode resistor will depend on the percentage of feedback
desired.
Non-polarized foil capacitors are primarily suitable for AC applications

or where DC voltage reversals occur.
Non-polarized foil capacitors can be used in (1) tuned low frequency

circuits, (2) phasing of low voltage AC motors, (3) computer circuits
where reversal of DC voltage occurs, and (4) servo systems.
Wet-Electrolyte, Sintered Anode Tantalum Capacitors

Wet-slug capacitors are not suitable for applications involving any
voltage reversal. They cannot be operated on unbiased AC voltage or
applied in non-polar applications involving back-to-back connections.
Any AC ripple applied to wet slug capacitors must be superimposed on
sufficient DC bias voltage to prevent voltage reversal. Ripple current is
limited to small values because progressive degradation of the unit will
result if the cathode (silver case) becomes positive during the discharge
cycle.
Some wet-slug capacitors are for DC applications only-no reverse

voltage can be tolerated. (The most common failure mode, electrolyte
leakage due to seal failure, is primarily due to the application of reverse
voltage.) Some styles can withstand a small amount of reverse voltage
without damage, but care should be exercised when applications require
these voltages.
Sintered wet-slug capacitors are limited to low voltage applications.

Their primary use is in low voltage power supply filtering circuits.
Wet-slug capacitors with their low leakage current (lowest of all the
tantalum types) is not appreciable below +85°C. At typical operating
temperatures they are comparable to good quality paper capacitors, yet
are much smaller in size.
Hermetically sealed sintered-anode capacitors primary applications are

in industrial, military and aerospace equipment where reliability and
premium performance with respect to low DC leakage current, high
inrush current capability, and high volumetric efficiency are vital.
Elastomer-sealed tubular wet-slug capacitors fill the basic requirements

for applications where a superior quality, reliable design for industrial,
automotive, and telecommunications applications is desired. These
capacitors features an extremely long shelf life in excess of ten years.
Tantalum case hermetically sealed wet-slug capacitors are ideal for such
functions as filtering, bypassing, coupling and timing for power supplies,
computers, telecommunications, instrumentation and control systems.
Also suited for use in applications where minimum size and weight
conditions must be achieved and reverse voltage or high ripple currents,
are required. Designed specifically for the severe environment of aero-
space applications. To meet aerospace requirements, the capacitors
have a high resistance to damage from shock and vibration.
Tantalum-to-glass hermetically sealed tantalum capacitors construction

assures operational capability in deep oceanographic environments or
space, where dependability is required for tens of thousands of storage
or operating hours.
Wet-slug capacitor assemblies are widely used in filter, coupling, bypass,

and time-delay circuits in computers, missiles, airborne electronic
equipment, radar, and fire control systems.
Foil or sintered slug tantalum capacitors when connected in series for
higher voltage operation, a resistor should be paralleled across each
unit. Unless a shunt resistor is used, the DC rated voltage can easily be
exceeded on the capacitor in the series network with the lowest DC
leakages current. To prevent capacitor destruction, a resistance value
not exceeding a certain maximum should be used; this value will depend
on capacitance, average DC leakage, and capacitor construction.
Foil or sintered slug tantalum capacitors may be connected in parallel

to obtain a higher capacitance than can be obtained from a single
capacitor. However, the sum of the peak ripple and the applied DC
voltage should not exceed the DC rated voltage. The connecting leads
of the parallel network should be large enough to carry the combined
currents without reducing the effective capacitance due to series lead
resistance.
Foil and sintered slug tantalum electrolytic capacitors have excellent life
and shelf life characteristics. Life, at higher temperatures than with
aluminum electrolytics, will show a comparatively lower decrease in
capacitance. With rated voltage applied, more than 10,000 hours of life
can be expected at +85°C. All styles may be expected to operated at
least 2,000 hours at +85°C with less than 10 percent loss of capacitance.
Because the more stable tantalum oxide film is less subject to dissolving
the surrounding electrolyte than the film in an aluminum capacitor, the
shelf life of the tantalum unit is much longer, and less re-forming is
required. After storage for long periods, the re-forming current is low
and the time is comparatively short; it may be expected to take less than
10 minutes. These properties are affected by the storage temperature
to a significant degree, being excellent at temperatures from -55°C to
+25°C; good at +65°C; and relatively poor at +85°C.
The predominant mode of failure of the wet electrolytic tantalum

capacitors will most probably be a "hidden" failure mode of high or
erratic leakage current which could result in a catastrophic short circuit.
This is a result of electrolyte migration past the inner seal and touching
the cathodic case or ground primarily due to the application of reverse
voltage. When complex ripple wave shapes are involved, they should be
measured on an oscilloscope or by some other method which will give
the peak rating. Foil and slug capacitors should be limited to operation
at ripple frequencies between 60 and 10,OOOHz (above 10,OOOHz, the
effective capacitance rapidly drops oft). At frequencies of only a few
hundred KHz, these tantalum units act as practically pure resistance.
Solid Tantalum Capacitors

Solid tantalum capacitors are intended for use in equipment where a
known order of reliability is required. These capacitors are the most
stable and most reliable electrolytic available, having a longer life
characteristic than any of the other electrolytic capacitors. Because of
their passive electrolyte being solid and dry, these capacitors are not
temperature sensitive. They have a lower capacitance-temperature
characteristic than any of the other electrolytic capacitors.
Solid tantalum capacitors limitations are the relatively high leakage

current, limited voltage range available (6 to 100 Volts), and a maximum
allowable reverse voltage of 15 percent of the rated DC voltage at
+25°C to 1 percent at + 125°C.
Solid tantalum capacitors are often used where pulsating low frequency
DC components are to be bypassed or filtered out. Such as output
filtering for switching regulator power supplies. Such uses require low
impedance in series with the capacitors.
Solid tantalum capacitors are used in electronic equipment where large

capacitance values are required, where space is at a premium, and where
there are significant quantities of shock and vibration.
These capacitors are mainly designed for filter, bypass, energy storage,
coupling, blocking, and other low voltage DC applications (such as
transistor circuits in missile, aircraft electronics, and computers) where
stability, size, weight, and shelf life are important factors.
When designing transistor, timing, phase shifting, and vacuum tube grid
circuits, the dissipation factor and power factor should be taken into
consideration.
For bypassing resistors, a ratio of bias resistance to capacitive reactance

of 10 to 1 is usually allow. Ratios up to 20 to 1 may be used in high fidelity
amplifier work or where space and economical consideration permit. In
circuits where linear amplification is required, the amount of capacitive
reactance shunting a cathode resistor will depend on the percentage of
degenerative feedback desired.
Polarized types should have their cases at the same potential as the
negative lead; they should be used only in DC circuits with polarity
observed.
Polarized types are especially adapted for applications in coupling,

filtering, and timing in those computer, industrial, and commercial
circuits requiring capacitors with more capacitance than available in
standard devices.
In high impedance circuits, momentary breakdowns (if present) will

self-heal; however, in low impedance circuits, their self-healing charac-
teristics under momentary breakdown of the dielectric film will be
nonexistent. The large currents in low impedance circuits will cause
permanent damage to the capacitor.
Solid tantalum capacitors may be operated with an impressed ripple

(AC) voltage provided the heat dissipation limits are not exceeded.
Total heat dissipation limits are dependent on the ambient operating
temperature and the operating frequency.
When solid tantalum capacitors are connected in series, the maximum

voltage across the network should not be greater than the lowest voltage
rating of any capacitor in the network. Voltage divider resistors cOuld
be used to prevent over voltage on one or more units of the series
capacitor group.
Solid tantalum capacitors, when connected in parallel, will obtain a

higher capacitance than can be obtained from a single capacitor. The
sum of the peak ripple and the applied DC voltage should not exceed
the DC working voltage of the unit with the lowest voltage rating. The
connecting leads of the parallel network should be large enough to carry
the combined currents without reducing the effective capacitance due
to series lead resistance.
Dielectric absorption may be observed as the re-appearance of the

potential across the capacitor after it has been shorted and the short
removed. This characteristic is important in RC timing circuits, trigger-
ing systems, and phase-shift networks.
Solid tantalum capacitors differ from aluminum electrolytics in several

important aspects; namely, substantially indefinite shelf life, superior
low temperature characteristics, complete freedom from electrolyte
leakage, and higher operating temperatures. Solid tantalum capacitors
generally are more costly than aluminum electrolytic capacitors. Some
consideration should be given to the use of aluminum electrolytic
capacitors if their performance characteristics and physical sizes are
suitable and if the application will permit.
Failure rate is a function of temperature, applied voltage, and circuit

impedance. Increased reliability may be obtained by derating operating
temperature and applied voltage and increasing circuit impedances.
DC leakage current increase when either voltage or temperature is

increased; the rate of increase is greater at the higher values of voltage
and temperature. A point can be reached where the DC leakage current
will avalanche and attain proportions that will permanently damage the
capacitor. Consequently, capacitors should never be operated above
their rated temperature and rated voltage for that temperature.
By increasing the circuit impedance, the leakage current is reduced. In

life testing the solid tantalum capacitor, the capacitance and dissipation
factor are very stable over long periods of time and hence are not a
suitable measure of deterioration. Leakage current variation is a better
indicator of capacitor condition.
Hermetically sealed solid tantalum capacitors in a metal case provide

proven reliability in a wide variety of high-performance military, aero-
space guidance and contro~ industrial, and commercial applications.
Molded case solid tantalum miniature capacitors are designed for use
in high performance automotive, industrial and commercial electronic
equipment.
Triple lead resin-coated solid tantalum capacitors make for simpler

installation,· economy, and high performance. The anode lead is the
center; both outside leads are the cathode leads. This three lead design
makes it impossible to insert the capacitor backwards, eliminating many
of the problems of rework and board damage.
Non-polarized types should be used where reversal of potential occurs.

These are especially suited for applications involving coupling, filtering,
and timing in those computer, industrial, and commercial circuits where
AC signals are prevalent, or where voltage reversals are common.
The non-polarized design consists of two hermetically sealed, metal-

clad polarized sections, their cathodes connected back to back, enclosed
within an outer thin metal tube.
Non-polarized capacitors feature miniature size, excellent electrical

characteristics and outstanding service life.
Non-polarized capacitors are used in many applications. Applications

include:
• Phase splitting capacitors for small, low-voltage motors

• Servo systems
• Low frequency tuned circuits
• Crossover networks
• Bypass applications where high ripple voltages are encountered
• Circuits in which reversals of polarity are greater in magnitude
than those which may be applied to a polarized device.
Tantalum chip capacitors are primarily intended for use in thick and thin
film hybrid circuits for filter, bypass, coupling, and other applications
where the alternating current (AC) component is small compared to
the direct current (DC) rated voltage and where supplemental moisture
protection is available.
Chapter 6
Glass Capacitors
Glass dielectric capacitors offer the end user the highest performance
and reliability features available in the capacitor industry.
The construction of glass capacitors is straightforward. There are only

three elements: glass dielectric and case, aluminum electrodes, and wire
terminals. The capacitors are made in a multilayer fashion with the leads
being welded to the electrodes so there are no pressure connections to
come loose and no solder connections to melt.
The dielectric is formed as a continuous ribbon of glass. Physical and

electrical properties and dimensions are precisely controlled. This
results in every glass capacitor being just like every other, part-to-part,
and lot-to-lot. Couple this predictability with complete performance
specifications and you know what performance to expect before the first
prototype is built.
Glass dielectric capacitors are composed of alternate layers of glass

ribbon and the electrode material. After assembly, the units are sealed
together by high temperature and pressure to form a rugged monolithic
block. Since the terminal leads are fused to the glass case, the seal cannot
be broken without destroying the capacitor. Although these capacitors
are of monolithic structure, they are not necessary hermetically sealed
Glass Capacitors 89
since the coefficient of thermal expansion of the terminals does not
match that of the case.
Glass capacitors may be enclosed in glass or vitreous enamel cases,

suitably protected against environmental conditions.
Glass capacitor construction features provide the following advantages:
• Fixed temperature coefficient.

• High insulation resistance.
• Low dielectric absorption.
• Readily used where miniaturization is demanded.
• Ability to operate in environments involving high humidity and
high temperatures.
• Extended life of 30,000 hours and more.
The reasons for the high reliability of glass capacitors are the simple
construction-few things to go wrong, and glass dielectric-one of the
most stable, inert materials available.
Capacitor stability, or lack of it, is an inherent characteristic of the

dielectric used. Few materials can match glass for stability.
Glass doesn't corrode or degrade in any way. Glass is not subject to

microfractures, delaminations, and other problems associated with
some crystalline materials. In addition, axial glass capacitors are her-
metically encased in glass, with a true glass-to-metal seal at the leads.
This construction is practically immune to severe environmental effects
such as shock, vibration, acceleration, vacuum, radiation hardness,
moisture, salt spray, and solder heat.
Glass capacitors are made of inorganic materials and are highly resistant
to high operating temperatures, voltage breakdown, and nuclear radia-
tion. Glass capacitors will not become a toxic hazard when exposed to
radiation.
When exposed to gamma irradiation, glass capacitors exhibit a very

small transient and permanent capacitance change and a consistently
low dissipation factor with frequency.
90 Glass Capacitors
Glass dielectric capacitors have been tested for Dielectric Absorption
(DA) characteristics and have shown a consistently low Dielectric
Absorption from lot to lot. The DA figures for glass compare favoribly
to polystyrene.
The combination of tight quality control, simplicity of design, and a

superior material system means that glass capacitors are close to being
the "perfect circuit symbol."
Glass Capacitors 91
Glass capacitors have traditionally seen widespread usage in military
applications with a large number of new designs occurring in the aero-
space and high performance commercial sectors. Glass capacitors have
applications across the entire spectrum of electronic circuits and their
past success on a variety of manned and unmanned space missions
contiQues to fuel interest of the defense and aerospace industries.
In most types of electronic equipment, the occasional failure of a

capacitor is tolerable-though it is inconvenient and often costly. For
these applications, an acceptable level of reliability is provided by many
of the excellent types of capacitors available today.
In a few designs, failures are not acceptable, such as satellite systems,

undersea cable repeaters, mountaintop microwave relay stations, to
name just a few. For these designs, glass capacitors may be the optimum
choice.
Where reliability is critical and replacement of a failed part is not

possible or practical, consider glass capacitors.
Where stability is essential, even in severe environments, consider glass

capacitors.
Glass capacitors have been used in virtually all critical military and space
programs. Increasingly, they are also being used in commercial and
industrial applications where failures can't be tolerated and circuit
performance is critical.
Glass capacitors exhibit low loss over a wide operating temperature and
frequency range.
Glass capacitors exhibit zero aging rate, zero piezoelectric noise, and a
± 5 ppm TC retraceability regardless of component age. Furthermore,
glass capacitors exhibit zero voltage coefficient and low thermal and
charge noise figures.
Glass capacitors continue to experience widespread usage in sample and

hold current integrators, and in high gain amplifiers.
92 Glass Capacitors
Glass capacitors can handle large Radio Frequency (RF) currents over
a wide frequency range.
Glass dielectric capacitors have a high Q factor and a low dissipation

factor that changes little with frequency and temperature excursions.
This coupled with a low, retraceable, extended range temperature
coefficient ensures repeatable, reliable performance-regardless of the
capacitor's environment.
Glass capacitors are effective substitutes for mica dielectric capacitors,

if consideration is given to the differences in temperature coefficient
and dielectric loss.
Glass dielectric capacitors exhibit a much higher Q over a wider range

of capacitance than mica dielectric capacitors.
The large RF currents that glass dielectric capacitors can handle make
the ideal for use in modulators, filters, and linear amplifiers.
Glass capacitors with stable performance, coupled with an excellent

frequency response and miniature size, make them a natural choice for
oil well logging and downhole instrumentation systems, jet engine
monitors, semiconductor burn-in ovens, or geophysical pressure probes.
Some applications where glass capacitors have already been proven

include:
• Missile or aerospace applications where engine or environ-

mental heat heeds to be monitored or may cause circuit failure.
• Radar or other microwave application.
• RF output circuitry where conduction or fan cooling cannot be
entirely relied upon to remove all of the heat.
• Space and satellite applications where temperature changes are
extreme and "zero failures" are a must.
• Industrial chemical process instrumentation where heat is a part
of the process.
• Instrumentation· for monitoring at-the-tool performance in
metal cutting machinery.
• Fire-safe alarm or control circuitry.
Glass Capacitors 93
Glass capacitors are resistant to high G loads but they are susceptible
to damage from mild mechanical shocks and therefore should be
mounted accordingly.
In general, glass capacitors are ideally suited for any environment where
high temperature could alter or destroy circuit performance. Glass
capacitors are also useful where cycling to colder temperatures may be
a problem.
94 Glass Capacitors
Chapter 7
Mica Capacitors
Muscovite mica is the most commonly used mica dielectric material. It

has a dielectric constant between 6.5 and 8.5. Muscovite mica can be
split into thin sheets; it is non-porous and does not readily absorb
moisture. Protection from moisture is provided to obtain capacitance
stability and low losses.
The two techniques used to form the capacitors are by stacking the mica
sheets through the silvered-mica process or by the use of tin-lead foil to
separate the mica sheets.
Terminals are attached to the mica stacks by the use of pressure clips
which have been solder coated for maximum mechanical strength.
Button style mica capacitors are composed of a stack of silvered-mica

sheets connected in parallel. This assembly is encased in a metal case
with a high potential terminal connected through the center of the stack.
The other terminal is formed by this metal case connected at all points
around the outer edge of the electrodes.
The button style design permits the current to fan out in a 360° pattern
from the center terminal. This provides the shortest RF current path
between the center terminal and chassis. The internal inductance is thus
kept small. The use of relatively heavy and short terminals results in
minimum external inductance associated permanently with the capaci-
Mica Capacitors 95
tor. The units are then welded and hermetically sealed with either glass
or resin.
96 Mica Capacitors
The characteristics of mica dielectric are high insulation resistance and
high breakdown voltage, low power factor, low inductance, and low
dielectric absorption.
Mica capacitors are designed for circuits requiring precise frequency

filtering, bypassing, and coupling.
Mica capacitors are used where close impedance limits are essential with
respect to temperature, frequency, and aging. Such as in tuned circuits
which control frequency, reactance, or phase.
Mica capacitors are also used as padders in tuned circuits, as secondary

capacitance standards, and as fIXed tuning capacitors at high frequency.
Mica capacitors can also be employed in delay lines and stable low power
networks.
Due to the inherent characteristics of the dielectric, mica capacitors are

inexpensive, small, and readily available and have good stability and high
reliability.
Button style capacitors are intended for use a frequencies up to 500

MegaHertz (MHz). Their principal uses are in tuned circuits, and in
coupling and bypassing applications in VHF and UHF circuits.
Button style capacitors are very stable with time and have high reliability
in circuits where ambient conditions can be closely controlled to reduce
failure from silver ion migration. Due to this silver ion migration,
silvered-mica capacitors should not be used under DC voltage stresses
when combined with exposure to continuous high temperature and
humidity conditions for extended periods.
Silver ion migration can occur in only a few hours when silvered-mica
capacitors are simultaneously exposed to DC voltage stresses, humidity,
and high temperatures.
Mica Capacitors 97
Dipped silvered-mica capacitors are designed to meet the electrical
requirements of the latest electronic equipment where size is critical.
Applications are found in a diversity of high grade ground, airborne, and
space borne devices, such as computers, jet aircraft and missiles.
Relatively low in cost, dipped mica capacitors are ideally suited to a

variety of uses in many types of commercial and industrial apparatus
where high stability characteristics, close capacitance tolerances, and
high Q are prime factors. Such applications are tuned circuits, delay
lines, and filter circuits in conventional or printed wiring assembles.
98 Mica Capacitors
Glossary
AC - Alternating Current
Aging - Capacitor aging is a term to describe the negative, logarithmic

capacitance change that takes place in ceramic capacitors with time. The
more stable dielectrics have the lowest aging rates. Aging is also
operating an aluminum electrolytic capacitor at controlled conditions
of time and temperature to screen out weak or defective devices and at
the same time stabilize the good units.
Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor - A capacitor with two aluminum

electrodes (the anode has the dielectric film) separated by layers of
absorbent paper saturated with the operating electrolyte. The
aluminum-oxide film or dielectric is reparable in the presence of an
operating electrolyte.
Ambient Temperature - The temperature of the air or liquid

surrounding any electrical part or device. Usually refers to the effect of
such temperature in aiding or retarding removal of heat by radiation
and convection from the part or device in question.
Anode - Positive electrode of a capacitor.
Bias Voltage - A voltage, usually DC, used to set the operating point of
a circuit above or below a reference voltage.
Blocking Capacitor - A capacitor which limits the flow of DC or low

frequency AC without materially affecting the flow of high frequency
AC.
Glossary 99
Bypass Capacitor - A capacitor which provides a low impedance path
around a circuit element.
Capacitance - Property of a capacitor which determines its ability to

store electrical energy when a given voltage is applied, measured in
farads, microfarads, or picofarads.
Capacitive Reactance (XC) - Opposition offered to the flow of an

alternating or pulsating current by a capacitor or any unit having
capacitance. Measured in ohms.
Capacitance Tolerance (Accuracy) - This tolerance is stated as the

maximum positive and negative deviations of the capacitance from a
rated nominal value, at a standard test temperature, measured at a
standard frequency, and at a negligibly low test voltage. It is usually
expressed as a percentage of nominal capacitance.
Capacitor - An electrical device capable of storing electrical energy and

releasing it at some predetermined rate at some predetermined time.
The capacitor consists of two conducting surfaces (electrodes)
separated by an insulating (dielectric) material. A capacitor stores
electrical energy, blocks the flow of direct current, and permits the flow
of alternating or pulsating current to a degree dependent on the
capacitance and the frequency. The' amount of energy stored is
expressed as: E = liz CV2
Liquid-filled - A capacitor in which a liquid impregnant occupies

substantially all of the case volume not required by the capacitor
element and its connections. Space may be allowed for the
expansion of the liquid under temperature variations.
Liquid-impregnated - A capacitor in which a liquid impregnant is

dominantly contained within the foil and paper winding, but does
not occupy substantially all of the case volume.
Temperature-compensating - A capacitor whose capacitance

varies with temperature in a known and predictable manner.
Capacitor Bank - A number of capacitors connected together in series,

in parallel or in series-parallel.
100 Glossary
Capacitor-Input Filter - A power supply filter in which a capacitor is
connected directly across, or in parallel with, the rectifier output.
Cathode - Negative electrode of a capacitor.
Charge - The quantity of electrical charge stored in a capacitor.
Coupling Capacitor - A capacitor used to transfer signals of a specified

frequency from one circuit to another circuit.
Curie Point -In ferro electric dielectrics, the temperature(s) at which

the dielectric constant reaches peak values. At the curie point
temperature(s) the crystal form is changing from cubic to tetragonal.
Manufacturers use modifiers in their specific ceramic formulations to
shift curie points such that the rapid change in capacitance value which
normally occurs around the curie point will have no effect on the
specified characteristics of the capacitor over its specified temperature
range.
cv Product - The capacitance of a capacitor multiplied by its rated

voltage. A useful rating to compare capacitor technologies.
Cycle - The change of an alternating wave from zero to a negative peak

to zero to a positive peak and back to zero. The number of cycles per
second (cps or Hertz) is called the frequency.
DC Leakage Current - Stray direct current of relatively small value

which flows through or across the surface of solid or liquid insulation
when a voltage is impressed across the insulation.
Dielectric - The insulating (non-conducting) material (e.g., air, paper,

mica, oil, etc.,) between the two electrodes (plates) of a capacitor.
Dielectric Absorption - Property of an imperfect dielectric whereby all

electric charges within the body of the material caused by an electric
field are not returned to the field. A measure of the reluctance of a
capacitor dielectric to discharge completely. The charge remaining after
a fully charged capacitor is momentarily discharged is expressed as a
percentage of the original charge. Dielectric absorption is affected by
charge/discharge time, voltage, and temperature.
Glossary 101
Dielectric Breakdown Voltage - The voltage between the electrodes
(plates) of a capacitor at which electric breakdown occurs under
prescribed test conditions. Also called breakdown voltage.
Dielectric Constant (K) (Permittivity) - Property of a dielectric

material that determines how much electrostatic energy can be stored
per unit volume when unit voltage is applied. It is the ratio of the
capacitance of a capacitor filled with a given dielectric to that of the
same capacitor having a vacuum dielectric.
Dielectric Strength (Breakdown Voltage) - Maximum voltage that a

dielectric material can withstand without rupturing or a conductive path
is formed through (or around) it. The value obtained for the dielectric
strength will depend on the thickness of the material and on the method
and conditions of test. The dielectric strength is the ratio of the
breakdown voltage to the thickness of the dielectric. In encapsulated
units, it is also influenced by the coating material used. Unencapsulated
units of voltages around lKV DC and higher are generally not
recommended, unless special design criteria is used to prevent arc-over
between the electrodes through the air surrounding the part.
Dissipation Factor (DF, Tangent Delta) - The tangent of the dielectric

loss angle. The ratio of the effective series resistance of a capacitor to
its reactance at a specified frequency. Measured in percent.
Electrolyte - Current-conducting solution (liquid, gel, or solid) between

two electrodes or plates of a capacitor at least one of which is covered
by a dielectric film.
ElectrolytiC Capacitor - A capacitor consisting of two conducting

electrodes whose anode has a metal oxide film on it. The film acts as the
dielectric or insulating medium.
102 Glossary
Electronic Industry Association (EIA) - An industry sponsored body,
comprised of Manufacturers, Users and Equipment Manufacturers,
which sets standards for electronic components and sets standards for
packaging of components, measurement methods of components,
handling methods for components, etc.
Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) - For purposes of calculation, all

internal AC series resistance of a capacitor (i.e., lead resistance,
termination losses or dissipation in the dielectric material) treated as
one single resistor. The square root of the difference between the
impedance squared and the reactance squared.
Etching - An electro-chemical process that increases the surface area

of aluminum foil.
Farad - The basic unit of measure in capacitors. A capacitor charged to

one volt with a charge of one coulomb (one ampere flowing for one
second) has a capacitance of one farad. Capacitors are generally rated
at portions of a Farad (microfarads or picofarads).
1 Farad (F) = 1,000,000 microfarads (uF).
Flashpoint of Impregnant - The temperature to \yhich the impregnant

(liquid or solid) must be heated in order to give off sufficient vapor to
form a flammable mixture.
Impedance (Z) - Total opposition offered to the flow of an alternating

or pulsating current, measured in ohms. Impedance is the vector sum of
the resistance and the capacitive reactance, i.e., the complex ratio of
voltage to current.
Impregnant - A substance, usually liquid, used to saturate paper

dielectric and to replace the air between its fibers. Impregnation
increases the dielectric strength and the dielectric constant of the
assembled capacitor.
Inductive Reactance (XL) - Opposition offered to the flow of

alternating current by coils, leads, solder connections or other inductors.
Glossary 103
Insulating Sleeve - Tube or tape of insulating material placed around
metal-enclosed capacitors to electrically insulate the case from other
components, wiring mounting rings, and the chassis of the equipment.
Insulation Resistance (IR) - Direct current resistance between two

conductors that are separated by an insulating material. The ratio of the
DC voltage applied to the terminals of a capacitor and the resulting
leakage current through the dielectric and over its surface after the
initial charging current has ceased. Specifications usually call for a
certain minimum value (several thousand MegOhms) determined by
the application of a specific voltage. It includes both the volume and
surface resistance. Note: Capacitors are commonly subjected to two
insulation resistance tests. One test determines the insulation resistance
from terminal to terminal while the other test determines the insulation
resistance from one or more terminals to the exterior case or insulating
sleeve. Industry capacitor specifications typically performed after some
two minutes charging time. For many types of capacitors it is expressed
as the product of insulation resistance (IR) and capacitance values
(MegOhms-microfarad).
Joule - A unit of energy or work. One joule is equal to one watt-second.

Energy stored in a capacitor is equal to CV2~ joules or watt-seconds,
where C is capacitance in farads and V is voltage at the terminals in volts.
KiloHertz (KHz) - Unit of frequency, 1,000 cycles per second. "
Leakage Current - Stray direct current of relatively small value which

flows through capacitor when voltage is impressed across it.
Life Test - An accelerated test, designed to measure the ability of a

capacitor to withstand its rated operating conditions for a lengthy, useful
life. The test conditions depend upon the rating of the capacitor.
Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) - MTBF dermes the frequency

of failure occurring in a large number of components in a system or a
group of systems. MTBF cannot be used to predict failure of a single
capacitor. Standard statistical procedures can be used to calculate the
MTBF for systems with components with varying failure rates. The
MTBF becomes an important design tool for determining component
104 Glossary
and systems reliability requirements. A specific MTBF figure can be
calculated form the capacitor failure rate as follows: MTBF = 105/FR,
where FR=failure rate in %/1000 hours, and MTBF = mean time
between failures in unit-hours.
MegaHertz (MHz) - Unit of frequency. 1,000,000 cycles per second.
Multilayer Capacitor - A ceramic capacitor, made up of several

alternately stacked electrodes, separated by ceramic dielectric layer,
fired into a single homogenous package.
Parts Per Million (PPM) - PPM defines error rates for quality data.
This is calculated from electrical performance data including minor or
catastrophic variations. Today, not all suppliers are using a standard
method of PPM calculation. Consequently, when comparing reported
PPM levels, it is essential that the method of calculation be understood.
For example, calculations that include only catastrophic failures may
produce very low reported PPM levels.
Phase - The angular relationship between current and voltage in AC

circuits. The fraction of the period which has elapsed in a periodic
function or wave measured from some fixed origin. If the time for one
period is represented as 360° along a time axis, the phase position is
called the phase angle.
Polarized Capacitor - An electrolytic capacitor in which the dielectric

film is formed on only one metal electrode. The impedance to the flow
of current is then greater in one direction than in the other. Reversed
polarity can damage the part if excessive current flow occurs.
Power Factor (PF) - The ratio of resistance to impedance, measured in

percent.
Quality Factor (Q) - The ratio of capacitive reactance to its equivalent

series resistance i.e., Q = 1/DF or XcIR.
Radio Interference - Undesired conducted or radiated electrical

disturbances, including transients, which may interfere with the opera-
tion of electrical or electronic communications equipment of other
electronic equipment.
Glossary 105
Rated Capacitance - The value which is indicated on the capacitor. The
actual capacitance value may deviate from this value within the
tolerance limits for that capacitor.
Rated Working Voltage - The voltage which is indicated on the capacitor

and which may be applied continuously to the terminals of the capacitor
at temperatures within the applicable temperature category. Operation
below the rated voltage (voltage derating) has a positive effect on the
operational life.
Reactance (X) - Opposition to the flow of alternating current.
Reliability - The probability that a device will perform adequately for

the length of time intended and in the operating environment
encountered.
Resonant Frequency (fo) - The frequency at which the total inductive

and capacitive reactance of a capacitor (or of the components in a
circuit) are equally low. This results in the component's impedance
being equivalent to a pure resistor.
Reverse Leakage Current - A non-destructive current flowing through

a capacitor subjected to a voltage of polarity opposite to that normally
specified.
Ripple Voltage (or Current) - The ac component of a uni-directional

voltage or current. The ac component is small in comparison with the
dc component. The total amount of alternating and direct current that
may be applied to an electrolytic capacitor under stated conditions. In
general, the higher the ripple current, the shorter the operating life of
the capacitor. Application of significantly higher than rated ripple
currents can· shorten capacitor life dramatically and may even cause
catastrophic failure, i.e., venting.
Stability - The ability of a component or device to maintain its initial

operating characteristics after being subjected to changes in
temperature, environment, current, and time. It is usually expressed in
either percent or parts per million for a given period of time.
106 Glossary
Surge Voltage (or Current) - The maximum safe voltage to which a
capacitor should be subjected under any combination of circumstances
for a short period of time. Transient variation in the voltage or current
at a point in the circuit; a voltage or current oflarge magnitude and short
duration caused by a discontinuity in the circuit.
Temperature Coefficient (TC) - Change in capacitance of a capacitor

degree change in temperature. It may be positive, negative, or zero and
is usually expressed in parts per million per degree Celsius (ppmt'C).
Time Constant - In a capacitor-resistor circuit, the number of seconds

required for the capacitor to reach 63.2% of its full charge after a voltage
is applied. The time constant of a capacitor with a capacitance (C) in
Farads in series with a Resistance (R) in ohms is equal to R x C seconds.
Tolerance - The percentage of maximum deviation from the nominal

capacitance value at a standard temperature, voltage, and frequency.
Voltage - Electrical pressure, i.e., the force which causes current to flow
through an electrical conductor. The difference of potential between
any two conductors.
Watt-Second - A unit of measure of electrical energy; the work done by

one watt acting for one second. One watt-second is equal to one joule.
Working Voltage - The maximum voltage to be applied to a capacitor

for continuous duty operation at maximum rated temperature.
Glossary 107
Bibliography
Many thanks to the following who gave permission to use their

information for reference, or for incorporation into this book:
AVX Corporation, Myrtle Beach, SC 29577: Multilayer Ceramic Leaded

Capacitors Data Book (3902.5MCLC-C), Glass Dielectric Capacitors
Data Book (7892.5MGDC-R).
Meedijk, V., "Selecting the Best Resistor/Capacitor." Radio Electronics,

Gernsback Publications, Inc., Farmingdale, NY 11735, March, 1985,
pp. 64-65, 109.
Mepco/Centralab, A North American Phillips Company, Riviera

Beach, FL 33404: 1988-89 Resistor/Capacitor Data Book (Form
87-(02).
Sprague Electric Company, Longwood, FL 32750: 1990 Aluminum

Capacitors Catalog (AL-100), 1989 Tantalum Capacitors Catalog (TA-
1(0).
Union Carbide Corporation, Electronics Division (Kemet), Greenville,

SC 29606: Engineering Bulletin (F-2856B 7/80), What [sA Capacitor?,
General Catalog (F-2644T 6/85).
Additional Reference:
United States Military Standard: MIL-STD-198E NOTICE 2,

Capacitors, Selection and Use oJ, September 16,1988.
Bibliography 109
Appendix A
Capacitor Selection Guidelines·

Ceramic
Values: 1 pF to 2.2 JlF
Tolerance: 10% or 20%
Voltage rating: 3.3 volts to 6 Kilovolts DC
Dissipation factor: to 5%
Temperature coefficient: to 200,000 PPMfC
Tolerance (For NPO's): 0.25% to 10%
Temperature coefficient: 0 ±30 and 0 ±60 PPMfC
Notes: General purpose high insulation-resistance devices used for transient
decoupling of IC's and compensation of reactive changes caused by tempera-
ture variations. Applications include filtering, bypass, and non-critical
coupling in high frequency circuits. Frequency sensitive (capacitance will vary
with frequency) so characteristics should be measured at intended operating
frequency. Should be mounted next to components being compensated, and
shielded from sources of heat. Due to low voltage failure problems, should not
be operated significantly under rated VOltage under humid conditions. In
circuit design, considerations should be given to changes in the dielectric
constant caused be temperature, electric field intensity, and shelf aging.
Ceramic Chips
Values: 10 pF to 0.18 JlF
Tolerance: 5 to 20%
Temperature range: -55 to + 125°C
Insulation resistance: greater than 100,000 Megohms
'" Reprinted with permission from Radio-Electronics Magazine, March 1985 issue.
© Copyright Gemsback Publications, Inc., 1985.
These guidelines are to be used only as a reference for general capacitor characteristics. Refer to
Manufacturer's data books for specific capacitor ratings and specifications.
Appendix A 111
Paper/Plastic Dielectric
Many dielectric and case configurations are available. Each type has its own
characteristics. For example, metallized paper units have low insulation resis-
tance and are prone to dielectric breakdown failures. Plastic types have
superior moisture characteristics than paper units. Polycarbonate and Mylar
types are used in applications that require minimum capacitance change with
temperature, such as tuned or timing circuits.
Metallized polycarbonate and polycarbonate film

Values: up to 50 #F
Voltage rating: to 1000 WVDC
Dissipation factor: 0.5% (at 25°C and 120 Hz.)
Temperature range: -55 to + 125°C
Derating factors: 50% voltage; 80% of rated temperature
Notes: DC blOCking, filter, bypass, coupling, and transient suppression appli-
cations. Close tolerance, high frequency capability (40 - 400KHz) and high
insulation resistance. Not suitable for sample/hold circuits, fast settling am-
plifiers, or filters due to dielectric absorption characteristics. Small size,
medium stability, and long life expectancy under load.
Metallized polyester/polyester foil

Values: .001 to 100 #F
Voltage rating: up to 1500 WVDC
Dissipation factor: 1% (at 25°C and 120 Hz)
Temperature range: -55 to + 125°C (with 50% derating above 85°C)
Notes: See polycarbonate for typical applications. Moisture resistant and high
insulation resistance. Small size, medium stability and very good load life.
Capacitance will however vary widely with temperature. Foil units are gener-
ally lower cost than metallized types. Polyester film is commonly known as
Mylar, which is a DuPont trademark.
Polystyrene foil
Values: to 10 #F
Voltage rating: up to 1000 WVDC
DiSSipation factor: .03% (at 25°C and 120 Hz)
Temperature range: -40 to + 85°C without derating
Notes: Used in timing, integrating, and tuned circuits. High insulation resis-
tance, and small capacitance change with temperature. Has excellent dielectric
absorption characteristics. Large size with excellent stability and very good
load life.
112 Appendix A
Paper/metallized paper/paper foil
Values: to 100 p.F
Temperature range: -30"C to + l00"C (derated by 30% over 75°C)
Temperature coefficient: greater than 4,500 PPMfC
Notes: General purpose. Medium stability and very good load life. Large size;
low cost. Metallized paper has paper coated with thin layer of zinc or alumi-
num and are smaller than metal foil units. They are, however, prone to
dielectric breakdown of insulation resistance and have poor surge handling
capability. Paper foil units used in high voltage/high current applications.
Their dissipation factor varies with temperature. Maximum temperature is
+ 125°C.
Polypropylene foil/metallized polypropylene

Values: to 10 p.F
Voltage rating: to 400 volts DC and 270 volts AC (foil units: 200 to 1600 volts
DC and 300 to 440 volts AC)
Temperature range: -55°C to + 105°C
Notes: Foil units are used in tuned circuits,integrating circuits, timing circuits,
and CRT deflection circuits. Metallized units are used in DC blocking circuits.
Good high frequency capability, high insulation resistance, close tolerance,
high stability, and excellent dielectric absorption characteristics.
Less common types

Polysulfone
Similar to polycarbonate and polypropylene capacitors. Small size, high tem-
perature range (to 150"C), suitable for high-frequency applications, and high
insulation resistance. Excellent in high current and military applications. Not
for sample/hold fast settling amplifiers, or filters due to dielectric absorption
characteristics. Poor history of availability.
Polyvinylidene fluoride
Considered experimental; Has high dielectric constant (about four to twelve
times that of polyester devices), which results in a very small sized capacitor.
Those units suffer from significant capacitance change with temperature,
particularly at low temperatures.
Polyethylene terephthaIote
For applications that require high reliability; high insulation resistance at high
temperatures.
Metallized paper polyester/paper polyester foU
The foil unit has a slightly better dissipation factor than the metallized type.
Operating temperature of -55°C to + 125°C with voltage ratings of 240 to 600
(DC) available.
Appendix A 113
Paper polypropylene
Available in voltage ratings of 400 to 800 volts (AC). Operating temperature
from -4O"C to +SO"C.
TeflonlKopton
Has a temperature range of -55°C to + 25O"C with a temperature coefficient
of .000%fC. Teflon's extremely low dielectric absorption makes it good for
critical sample and hold circuitry. Those capacitors used in specialized appli-
cations such as oil well drilling equipment. Those capacitors are large in size
since the dielectric is not available in thin gauges.
Parylene
Manufactured by Union Carbide, those capacitors are equivalent to polysty-
rene types in performance but are rated to + 125°C, versus +85°C for
polystyrene.
Aluminum Electrolytic
Values: 0.68 to 220,000 pF
Tolerance: -10 to +75%
Voltage rating: up to 350 volts
Temperature range: -55°C to +85°C (if derated, to + 125°C)
Dissipation factor: varies with temperature
Temperature coefficient: varies with temperature
Notes: Used in filter, coupling, and bypass applications where large capaci-
tance values are required and capacitances above nominal can be tolerated.
Sum of the applied AC peak and DC VOltages should never exceed the rated
DC voltage. Aluminum electrolytics are larger than tantalum electrolytics but
less expensive. Loss of capacitance, to as little as 10% of rated value, will occur
as the aluminum oxide electrode electrochemically combines with the electro-
lyte. Oxide film deterioration also requires capacitors to be ''Ie-formed'' after
storage to prevent dielectric failure. That involves application of rated voltage
for a period of 30 minutes, or more, to restore initial leakage current value.
Over time, dissipation factor can rise by as much as 50%. Four terminal devices
are available (two leads for each connection) that offer low ESR and induc-
tance at high frequencies. Those units were designed for use in switching
power supplies.
114 Appendix A
Tantalum Electrolytic
Solid type
Values: .001 to 1000 f.lF
Temperature range: -55°C to +85°C (if derated. to + 125°C)
Voltage rating: 6 to 120 volts DC
Tolerance: 5% to 20%
Leakage current: varies with temperature
Derating factor: 50% VOltage
Notes: Used in low-voltage DC applications such as bypass, coupling, and
blocking. Not for use in RC timing circuits, triggering systems, or phase shift
networks due to dielectric absorption characteristics. Also not recommended
for applications subject to voltage spikes or surges. High capacitance in a small
volume with excellent shelflife. Solid types not temperature sensitive and have
lowest capacitance-temperature characteristic of any electrolytic unit. Dielec-
tric absorption and high leakage currents make them unsuitable for timing
circuits. Except for non-polarized units, these devices should never be exposed
to DC or peak AC VOltages in excess of 2% of their rated DC VOltage. To
prevent failures due to leakage or shorting when series connecting for higher
VOltages, parallel each unit with a shunt resistor.
Chip types
Values: .068 to 100 f.lF
Tolerance: 5% to 20%
Non-solid types
Values: 0.5 to 1200 f.lF
Tolerance: -15 to + 30, and 20%
Temperature range: -55°C to +85°C (if derated, to + 125°C)
Notes: Polarized foil units are used for bypassing or filtering out low-frequency
pulsating DC. Allowance must be made for leakage current. Not suitable for
timing or precision circuits due to wide tolerances. Large values available.
Etched foil has 10 times the capacitance per unit volume as plain foil types.
Peak AC and applied DCvoltages should not exceed rated maximums. Usable
to 200 KHz. Non-polarized foil are used in tuned low- frequency circuits,
phasing low-voltage AC motors, and in servo systems. Sintered slug units are
used in low-voltage power supply filtering and in DC applications. Can not
withstand any reverse voltage. Leakage current lowest of all tantalum types;
no appreciable leakage below 85°C. Usable to frequencies of 1 MHz.
Appendix A 115
Glass
Values: 0.5 to 10,000 pF
Tolerance: to 5%
Temperature coefficient: 0 to 140 PPMfC
Notes: High insulation resistance, low dielectric absorption and fixed tem-
perature coefficient. Has much higher Q than mica devices. Performs very well
at high frequencies up to 500 MHz and can operate in range of 100 KHz to 1
GHz. Capable of withstanding severe environmental conditions but are sus-
ceptible to mild mechanical shocks and should be mounted accordingly.
Mica
Values: 1 pF to 0.1 #F
Voltage ratings: 100 to 2500 volts DC
Temperature range: -55 to + 1500C
Temperature coefficient: -20 to + 100 and 0 to +70 PPMI"C
Derating factor: 60% VOltage (dipped case) and 40% voltage (molded case)
Mica Chips
Values: 1 to 10,000 pF
Voltage rating: to 500 volts
Notes: Used in timings, oscillator, tuned circuits, and where precise high
frequency filtering is required. Capacitance and impedance limits are very
stable and capacitors perform very well at frequencies of 10 KHz to 500 MHz.
Devices using silver in their construction are very susceptible to silver ion
migration resulting in short circuits. Failures can occur in a few hours if
capacitors are exposed to DC VOltage stresses, humidity, and high tempera-
ture.
Trimmer Capacitors
Values: Range from 0.25 to 1 pF and 1 to 120 pF
Glass/Quartz: Low loss, high Q, and high stability for high tuning sensitivity
applications. Frequency range up to 300 MHz.
Sapphire: High level of performance between 1 and 5 GHz.
Plastic: High grade units can be operated up to 2 GHz.
Ceramic: Smallest sized single turn units with maximum capacitance under
100 pF. Capacitance changes with temperature.
Air: High level of performance through UHF band, from 300 MHz to 1 GHz.
Mica: Has wide capacitance range and relatively high current handling capa-
bility.
Vacuum/Gas: Used for high voltage applications. Values from 5 to 3000 pF,
with voltage ratings from 2 to 30 Kilovolts (DC).
116 Appendix A
Appendix 8
Equations and Symbol Definitions

Basic Capacitor Formulas
1. Ohm's Law
E= IR
p= EI
2. Capacitance (farads)
C = (8.85 x 10- 12)K ~
Where: K = Dielectric Constant

A = Area of Dielectric (Square Meters)
D = Distance Between Electrodes (Meters)
3. Energy stored in capacitors (Joules, Watt-seconds)
4. Linear charge of a capacitor (Amperes)
I=C dV
dt
5. Total Impedance of a capacitor (Ohms)
Appendix B 117
6. Capacitive Reactance (Ohms)
xC-_ 1
2nfC
7. Inductive Reactance (Ohms)

XL=2nfL
8. Phase Angles
Ideal Capacitors: Current leads voltage 900
Ideal Inductors: Current lags voltage 900
Ideal Resistors: Current in phase with voltage
9. Dissipation Factor (%)
D.F. = tand (loss angle) = E.S.R. = (2nfC)(E.S.R.)

Xc
10. Power Factor (%)
P.F. = sin d (loss angle) = cos 1> (phase angle)

P.F. = D.F. (when less than 10%)
11. Quality Factor (dimensionless)
a = cotan d (loss angle) = _1_

D.F.
12. Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) (Ohms)
E.S.R. = (D.F.)(Xc)
13. Power Loss (Watts)
Power Loss = (2n f C V2 )(D.F.)
14. KVA (Kilowatts)
118 Appendix B
15. Temperature Characteristic (ppmrC)
T.C. = ·Ct- C25

C25 (Tt - 25)
16. Capacitance Drift (%)
C.D. = C1 - C2 x 100
C1
17. Reliability of Ceramic Capacitors
Historically for ceramic capacitors exponent X has been considered

as 3. The exponent Y for temperature effects typically tends to run
about 8.
18. Capacitors in Series (current the same)

1 1 1
Any Number: -=-+_ ... - 1
CT C1 C2 CN
Two: CT = C1 C2
C1 + C2
19. Capacitors in Parallel (voltage the same)
20. Aging Rate

A.R. = %bC I decade of time
21. Decibels
V1
db = 20109-
V2
Appendix B 119
Metric Prefixes
Pico x 10-12 Tera x 1012
Nano x 10-9 Giga x 109
Micro x 10-6 Mega x 106
Milli X 10-3 Kilo X 103
Deci x 10-1 Deca x 101
Symbols
K = Dielectric Constant A = Area
tD = Dielectric thickness V = Voltage
E = Voltage I = Current
R = Resistance t = time
Rs = Series Resistance f = frequency
L = Inductance 15 = Loss angle
t/> = Phase angle Lo = Operating life
L t = Test life V t = Test voltage
V 0 = Operating voltage T t = Test temperature
To = Operating temperature P = Power
X & Y = exponent effect of voltage and temperature
120 Appendix B
Index
temperature compensation, 24
A tolerance definition, 107
AC units, 5
definition, 99 Capacitance tolerance
AC ripple, 17 definition, 100
Aging Capacitive reactance, 12
definition, 99 definition, 100
Alternating current, 11 effects of frequency, 12
sine wave, 11 equation, 13
Aluminum electroltyic capacitor, 51-70 Capacitor
bathtub curve, 64 acid filled, 26
case to ambient thermal resistance, 62 aging, 34, 37
computer grade, 67 aluminum electrolytic, 51-70
construction, 52 aluminum electrolytic definition, 99
energy storage capabilities, 54 balancing resistors, 25
multi-tabbed construction, 60 blocking definition, 99
non-polar, 59 bypass,21
production technology, 55 bypass definition, 100
reliability, 67 ceramic, 27-40
ripple current capabilities, 61 ceramic chip, 39
thermal efficiency of, 61 ceramic disc, 27, 36
thermal resistance equation, 62 ceramic trimmer, 39
Aluminum foil, 43 Class 1,31
Ambient temperature Class2,31
definition, 99 coupling definition, 101
Anode, 55, 72, 73 DC filter, 8
design criteria, 24, 36
B dipped disc, 28
effects on peak voltage, 24
Barium titanate, 5, 37
electrolytic definition, 102
Bias voltage
energy storage equation, 51
definition, 99
energy storage in, 21, 51
Breakdown voltage
glass, 89-94
definition, 102
improved DC filter, 10
c infant failure, 64
input filter definition, 101
Capacitance insulating sleeve, 69
. definition, 100 internal charge, 3
equation, 4 life, 22
equation for multiple layers, 29 liquid filled, 26
rated definition, 106 liquid filled definition, 100
stray, 24 liquid impregnated definition, 100
mechanical effects, 22, 34
Index 121
Capacitor - (cont.) Dielectric constant, 4
metallized film, 44 definition, 102
mica, 95-98 table, 6
monolithic, 29 Dielectric strength
multilayer definition, 105 definition, 102
oil filled, 26 Dissipation factor, 16
parallel plate, 1,41 definition, 102
piezoelectric effect, 34 equation, 16
plastic film, 41-50
polarized definition, 105 E
power equation, 18 EIA,31
power handling, 16 definition, 103
practical, 15 RS-198 specification, 31
schematic symbol, 1 EIA codes, 32
selection considerations, 21 COG,31
self-healing, 25, 45, 48 chan,33
surface temperature rise, 25 NPO,31
tantalum, 71-80 X7R,31
temperature compensating, 31, 35 ZSU,31
temperature compensating chan, 32 Electrolyte, 57
temperature compensating definition, 100 definition, 102
trimmer, 26 Equivalent series resistance (ESR), 16,57
water flow analogy, 2 ESR
Capacitor bank definition, 103
definition, 100 Etching, 53
Cathode, 59, 72 definition, 103
definition, 101
Ceramic dielectric F
volumetric efficiency of, 30
Farad
Ceramic disc definition, 103
construction of, 28
Faraday, Michael, 5
Charge
Filters
definition, 101
LC filter, 10
Curie point, 34, 37
F1ashpoint of impregnant
definition, 101
definition, 103
CVproduct
Frequency
definition, 101
cycles per second, 12
Cycle
definition, 101
G
o Glass capacitor, 89-94
advantages of, 90
DC leakage current
aging rate, 92
definition, 101
applications, 93
De-aging, 34
construction, 89
Dielectric
dielectric absorbtion in, 91
definition, 101
effects of moisture, 23
effects of pressure, 23
effects on polarized, 22 Impedance, 14
introduction, 1 definition, 103
strength, 22 determining, 14
temperature effects, 21 Impregnant
Dielectric absorption, 85 definition, 103
definition, 101 Inductance
Dielectric breakdown voltage units, 13
definition, 102 Inductive reactance, 13
definition, 103
effects of frequency, 13
122 Index
Infant failure, 64 Power
Insulating sleeve equation, 17
definition, 104 Power factor
Insulation resistance, 21, 36, 47 definition, lOS
definition, 104
Q
J Ouality factor (0)
Joule definition, 105
definition, 104
R
K Radio interference
1(,4 definition, 105
KiloHertz Rated working voltage
RC timing circuit, 6
L example, 7
Leakage current Reactance
Life test Reliability,34
Resonant frequency
M definition, 106
ReverSe leakage current
Manganese dioxide, 74
definition, 106
Mean time between failures (MTBF)
Ripple voltage
definition, 104
definition, 106
MegaHertz
equation, 18
definition, 105
rms voltage, 19
Metallized film, 44
relationship of peak and rms, 19
Mica capacitor, 95-98
button style, 95
characteristics, 97 s
construction, 95 Scintillation, 57
silver ion migration, 97 Self-healing
in plastic film capacitors, 45
o Self-resonant point, 15
Silver ion migration, 37
Ohm's law, 17
Sintering, 75
equation, 17
Spacer,59
for AC circuits, 18
Stability
p definition, 106
Surge voltage, 66
Parts per million (PPM) definition, 107
definition, 105
Passive components, 2
Permittivity, 4
T
Tantalum, 30
of vacuum, 4
Tantalum capacitor, 71-88
Phase
chip, 87
definition, 105
encapsUlation of, 77
Piezoelectric, 34
foil, 71, 72
Plastic film, 41
foil construction, 72
construction, 41
healing, 78
Plastic film capacitor, 41-50
non-polarized applications, 87
Polycarbonate, 43
oxide forming chemical equation 76
Polyester, 47
solid,74 '
Polyethylene terephthalate, 43
solid construction, 74
wet, 73
wet-slug,71
Index 123
Tantalum capacitor (cont.)
wet-slug construction, 73
Tantalum pentoxide, 76
Temperature coefficient (TC)
definition, 107
TIme constant
definition, 107
TItanium dioxide, 38
v
Voltage
average, 19
bias, 19
definition, 107
polarizing, 38
w
Watt-second
definition, 107
Working voltage
definition, 107
124 Index
Notes
Notes 125
126 Notes

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THE

~ VAN NOSTRAND REINHOLD

Van Nostrand Reinhold

Chapman & Hall

Thomas Nelson Australia

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chapter 1 Fundamentals For All Capacitors 1

Chapter 2 Ceramic Capacitors 27

Chapter 3 Plastic Film CapaCitors 41

Chapter 4 Aluminum Electrolytic CapaCitors

Chapter 6 Glass Capacitors 89

Chapter 7 Mica Capacitors 95

Appendix A Capacitor Selection Guidelines 111

Appendix B Equations and Symbol Definitions 117

Through the courtesy of Matthew Pobursky, with his publishing skills,

Appreciation is expressed to the many friends, both in the technical and

A long and varied experience in many areas of electronic circuit design

Fundamentals For All Capacitors

,;~;...--~ Conductor (Electrode)

1..----- Wire to Outside World

Fig. 1.2 Capacitor Symbol

Fundamentals For All Capacitors 1

Fig. 1.3 Passive Series Circuit with Battery

Height Produces Pressure

2 Fundamentals For All Capacitors

Fig. 1.6 illustrates what happens inside a capacitor. When charged by a

Fig. 1.6 Charged Capacitor

Fundamentals For All Capacitors 3

Fig. 1.7 Charges Inside the Capacitor

In a vacuum, K = 1, while K in every material has some value greater

Fig. 1.8 is the expression of capacitance. The constant, 8.85 x 10-12, is

Fig. 1.8 The Capacitance Equation

4 Fundamentals For All Capacitors

A= 1 xO.001 = 113,000,000 sq. meters

Fundamentals For All Capacitors 5

Air or Vacuum 1.0

Fig. 1.9 Table of Dielectric Constants

To understand the behavior of capacitors when connected in a circuit,

6 Fundamentals For All Capacitors

Fig. 1.11 Voltage Across Capacitor in RC Circuit

By adjusting the value of resistance in R and the capacitance in C,

Fig. 1.12 Voltage Across Resistor in RC Circuit

Fundamentals For All Capacitors 7

The timing circuit is a good example of a DC application. Note that the

The storage capability of the capacitor is used to good effect in filters.

Fig. 1.14 Measuring Voltage From A Power Supply

8 Fundamentals For All Capacitors

Fig. 1.15 Fluctuating DC Voltage From A Power Supply

To approach the desired straight line, add a capacitor to the circuit to

Fig. 1.16 Filter Capacitor Added

Fundamentals For All Capacitors 9

Fig. 1.17 Filtered DC

The condition can be improved further by adding a series resistor and

Fig. 1.18 Improved Filtering

An even better result can be obtained if an inductor is used instead of

Fig. 1.19 Even Better Filtering

10 Fundamentals For All Capacitors

Fig. 1.20 Alternating Current - The Sine Wave

When a capacitor is subjected to alternating current, to the capacitor,