CHAPTER-I

INDIA THROUGH THE AGES

' #*
INTRODUCTION:

India occupies an exalted position in Asia since times immemorial

with its antiquity, exotic social, religious practices and varied landscape.
In spite of its baffling vastness and diversity there exists a thread of
oneness. Since an attempt is made in this thesis to assess the image of
India in the novels of Mrs. B.M. Croker it is essential to know the
antiquity, civilization and growth of culture of this country through the
ages.

1.1 PRE-HISTORIC IMAGE OF INDIA

Unbroken is the story of the growth of races their movements, their

social system, their political life, their intellectual tradition the
movements ensued thereof in this sub-continent. The earliest literature
available, being the Vedic literature throws light on the geographical
features of this land. What is now known as India was called Bharata.
“Bharata is a peninsula which is bound by sea on three sides the east, the
south and the west and the snow capped Himalayas on the fourth i.e., the
north. The race of people that inhabits this land is known as Bharati
race”.1 But there are ample evidences shown by the historians that there
was a population or race in India since times immemorial. The story of
man in India, as in other parts of the world starts from ages and ages back.
This is evident from the sources like the physical remains, tools,
monuments, figures carved on the walls of caves etc. Such items go to
show the existence of man in India even before the written sources of
history. This period is known as pre history. Though there is no consensus
among the scholars as to the place where exactly the pre historic man
appeared in India it is accepted by all that “the last stage in the
development of mammal into the man took place in the Sevalik hills...,
Dandakarayna, which is referred to in the Ramayara as the abode of
monkeys, was the area of man’s evolution in India...’ . The implements
that have been found in different parts of India - “a Vindhyan sand stone
in the Narmada Valley and Godavari flake in Hyderabad go to show that
South India was the original place of man” 3. The pre-historic period is

2
divided into various stages by the scholars, the ptominent ones are
considered here.

1] Paleolithic Age (Before 10,000 B.C.): In this singe men made use
of weapons like darts, scrapers and axes as also lances daggers etc. Many
of the Paleolithic remains were found in South Ind.a in the states of
Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh etc. From the presence of ashes
and cinders found in the caves of Kurnool etc., it goes to show that these
people had the knowledge of fire.

2] Mesolithic Age (10,000 B.C. to 5,000 B.C.) This age, having

occurred between Paleolithic age and the Neolithic Age seems to be the
harbinger of many improvements in the life of man. From the relics and
tools found all over India one can surmise that the people of this period
knew the art of pottery. Further more some pointec stones, which are
though small in size, go to prove that the men of this ireriod knew fishing
also.

3] Neolithic Age (Between 6,000 B.C. to 4,000 B.C) As the years

progressed man earned much knowledge of the nature by observation. This
age shows that man reached the stage of civilization Though men fully
depended on stone for fashioning the tools, implements etc., for daily use
and hunting there is enough room to conjecture thjrt progress of man
towards improvement was certain. The implements of this period are
nicely executed, brushed, ground, groomed and polished too. The man of
this period made many incisive weapons, cut the trees and cleared the
forestlands. This paved way for agriculture. He grew horse gram, ragi and
other vegetables. Another patch of land where ragi Is produced, except
Karnataka, is Africa. As an ancillary occupation to agriculture the man of
Neolithic period also seems to have developed animal husbandry, sheep
farming etc. This further necessitated other innumerable things, like pots
and pans, trays and troughs. This led the man of this period to develop
many arts like pottery weaving, twisting of hemp and preparation of ropes
etc. From the pieces of pots of different colours with figures engraved and
impressed upon them with different objects of nature like leaves, creepers,

3
flowers etc., it becomes evident that the man of this period had mastered
the art of pottery and mixing the colours to the clay and burning the pots
in the heat at different degrees. The man of this period also reveals the
rudiments of religion. Thus we witness that the man of this period
worshipped natural objects chiefly stones and also ancestral spirits. The
system of burying the dead probably consisted of putting the corpses into
big pots. Such pots have been found in places like Hallur (Haveri),
Sanganakallu (Bellary) etc.

By the end of Neolithic period man had gained sufficient knowledge

of use of different metals like copper, bronze, iron etc. The use of metals
inaugurated a new era and ushered in many things at individual and
institutional level. Urban life came into being and commerce commenced.
The art of writing, architecture, culture etc., developed considerably in
different parts of the world.

The use of iron marks a new turn in the history of man. Iron being
an easily available metal in almost all parts of the world helped the pre­
historic man to forge and form it into objects after his interest and
purpose. As a result of this, many new weapons like sword, spear, lance
and arrows were invented. A furnace, found in excavartion at Banahalli of
Kolar District, Karnataka (C.300 B.C.) holds testimony to this. This gave
a forceful push to ancient man in the production of food grains and
wealth. Migration became a matter of ordinary affair (hue to the possession
of strong weapons. The interest in the possession of strong weapons
further opened the era of wars and annexations. It was at such a point of
history that man in South India attained a fair degree of civilization. The
evidences of such things are seen in many places of our country. With this
period we come to the closure of the pre-historic period and stand at the
threshold of the Vedic period.

On what part of Indian sub continent population first appeared is yet

to be searched thoroughly. Some scholars opine that the first man
appeared aeons ago in India in the Deccan, which according to the
argument of this set of scholars was linked to Sou.h Africa. This link

4
lasted for many thousands of years. But in due course, due to some natural
calamity, some patches of land got subsided into the bottom of the seas
and the connection was cut off. The band of scholars hold this view on the
basis of the fact that even now the fossils, relics and lemains of bones of
human beings and the plants likened to those of plants found in the
Southern parts of India and the North-Eastern parts of Africa reveal a lot
of semblance. This fact is further confirmed by marine archaeologists,
marine zoologists or botanists who have found such remains and flora
lying buried, in the bottom of Arabian sea and Indian ocean, which
consists of the ridges of mountains akin to those of the South Indian
mountains. From this evidence given by the historians it is generally
believed therefore that South India was the primeval abode Prima Terra of
the first man.

According to researches undertaken, it is proved by the scholars that

the Dravidians were the earliest civilized race of India who founded the
firm pedestal for the tradition and life style of India. It was their thought
process and system which helped later the Aryans :n many ways. The
Dravidians were perfect masters at building the towns, and forts for
protection of these towns. They were well-versed voyagers and knew the
art of building sturdy boats too. They also developed commerce, trade and
travel. This Dravidian,civilization is called the “Sramanic civilization” by
the scholars. “Srama means the right spiritual way, the fruit of Srama is
Karma. Karma is the inherent movemental energy of soul till Final
Attainment. Srama is the outward manifestation of Karma, which leads to
fruit... the fruits of the movement become basis for fuither efforts”4.

Fruit

Karma/srama Karma/srama

(Effort) (Effort)

(Figure mine)

5
 Though originated in the south the people of the Dravidian
civilization seem to have moved towards the north where their civilization
flourished far better than in their place of origin. Thei~ civilization in the
north is designated as the Harappan civilization or Saindhava civilization
as it prospered on the banks of the river Sindhu. Aparr from Harappa and
Mohenjodaro various sites have been identified by the historians in
Gujarat. Their civilization seems to have moved from the south to the
north unlike held to be vis-a-vis.

The Dravidians who developed the civilization c«f the highest order
had also developed a literature of the same order in their language from
which basically five languages descended. The following chart shows the
descendents of the Dravidian language.

Original Dravidian Language

Kannada Tulu Telugu Tamil Malayalam

Later on these languages enjoyed the regal status in South India

under different rulers of different dynasties. The literature produced in
them also became rich, recognized and reputed. Even many words of the
original Dravidian language are also found used in tne Vedic literature.
The Vedic literature, which belongs to the days of the Aryans, makes
repeated references to the words like puras and durgas - the towns and
forts built by the Dasyus or Dasas and the asuras. The Aryans called the
Dravidians by these words.

The society, headed by the king, was vertical just after the king
there were noblemen under whom were merchants wotking class etc. The
Dravidian society was, unlike the Aryan society, matriarchal. Absence of
caste was another important feature of this civilization. The fact that
society was matriarchal is based on the findings that the people of this
civilization worshipped Mother-goddess. The other gpds worshiped were

6
Pashupati, Shasta (a Vedic name), Kuttichattan and other demons and
demigods. A number of semi-nude figures wearing girdles around their
waists are found along with the figures of animals as ahana and trees as
emblems. There is possibility of these vahanas having emerged from the
totems of the earlier period. Even to this day one comes across the people
or tribes or cults worshipping Murugan who was basically a forest-god and
Kannan - a pastoral god. Even the ritualistic Bhoota aradhana of some
people in the South has its roots at this period. Anotl»er interesting thing
to be noted at this point is that the abodes of these gods are sylvan forests
or high hilltops. Also the worship of Shakti as mother goddess is an
irrefutable fact. Later on all these gods were duly accepted and included
in the Aryan pantheon.

Our history is a story of continuous reforms The Aryan rishis

improved this pre-existing order of society, culture, practices, etc., and
inaugurated a new way of life style in all respects. Tiis new way of life
was then called the Aryan way of life. There are ample references to the
possibility of this kind of movement in the Vedic literature.

1.2 THE VEDIC IMAGE OF INDIA

The western scholars spread the view that the Aryans belonged to
some other foreign land but not to India. They were invaders and went on
expanding their territory on the tracts after tracts of this sub- continent.
This view ever since it was incepted has mesmerized the minds of
educated masses so much that many times it is rererated without any
doubt. But from within the literature composed by the Aryans themselves,
we can rake out the fact that the Vedic Aryans were not invaders or
foreigners but on the contrary they were aborigines o:' India. The western
scholars called the Aryans a ‘race’. But the very word ‘Arya’ means ‘a
noble man’, ‘a respectable person’, ‘a gentleman’, and ‘a person who is
cultured and leads a life of higher value and order’. In the Ramayana we
see Seetamata addressing Dasharatha, her father-in-law as ‘Arya’. As has

7
already been said that the Aryan rishis improved the pre-existing order
and initiated or directed the society towards a refined way of life, and this
new way of life was designated as ‘the Aryan cult’ not ‘the Aryan race’.
Yoga, which is a pathway to samadhi, is a unique system of practice
developed by Indians The rishis, in the state of samadhi or super
consciousness of which Sri Aurobindo speaks in detail in his books
repeatedly, saw the mantra. Therefore they were called the
kranthadarshins (seers), through the help of what they saw in that state
they reformed the ideas, forms and rituals. They were the reformers. These
reforms underwent changes, and re-orientation fr:m time to time,
examples from recent history such as Arya Samaj, Brar:ha Samaj etc., may
be cited. Therefore the ‘Aryan cult’ not th = race krunvanto
vishawamaryam 5 (Rigveda g.63.5) was the aim of the Aryan cult. “The
word Aryan was never used for a race till the British occupation of
India...”6

It is an often-ignored fact that the colonization »f the American and

Australian continents by Europeans and its dazzing success played
a vital role in the formation of the theory of Aryan invasion of
India. The speed with which these continents then got transformed
created an epiphenomenal conviction that development was possible
only in American-Australian way of an invasioa by a superior race
with a superior technology, its forced occupation and settlement and
herding of the native survivors into remote enclaves. Hence
according to that view all progress and develcpment in India too
was due to similar invasions by white races... They were invaders.
So they started collecting lists of other invaders to justify their
occupation. 1.

True it is there are references to Aryan fights against the dasas or

dasyus in the literature of Aryans. These fights were more of mental
nature by way of spreading Aryan cult as can be seen with the expansion
of Islam, Christianity etc. The Aryan cult or civilization found the region
between the Saraswati and the Ganga rivers, most suitable to it. This does
not restrict their area only to this particular region. There are references
in the Vedic texts to different places of different regions and the
prominent dynasties, cults etc., such as Andhras, Pulindas and Panchalas
etc.

8
 Family was the basis of political and social organization,
collections of such families were known as Kula and grama. Family was
headed by the father who provided safety and happiness to all dependents.
There are references to various officers like gramini, (village headman),
senani (commander), purohita (priest), suta (record keeper of the king),
Bhagadugha (tax collector) etc., which show the existence of sturdy
administrative machinery. There were also other tw: important bodies
namely sabha and samithi which helped the rulers. Thus one witnesses a
regular and useful administrative system in vogue. The society of this
period was quite a paragon in many respects. The people enjoyed wearing
fine dress and jewels and indulged in many entertaining activities.

The education system was also very good. It was mainly

characteristic of religiosity. Usually father taught the sons. Educational
process was fully oral. First the teacher uttered the text and then the
taught repeated the same. The fact whether writing vas in vogue is yet
enshrouded in mystery.

The Vedic period and the culture were developed ty the Aryans. They
produced a valuable body of literature, which is k'own as the Vedic
literature. Veda is a Sanskrit word which means at general level
knowledge. It is derived from Sanskrit root Vid = know. But it is a very
difficult and challenging task to define exactly what Veda is? Sayana, the
ancient sage and commentator on the Vedas, in his introduction to Rigveda
Bhashya, though in the beginning says there is no particular property of
the veda, (na hi tatra lakshanam pramanam va asti... *asmannasti kinchit
vedasya lakshanam), but ultimately concludes the discussion and
announces that “the collection of the mantras and the brahmanas is the
Veda” 8 (mantra brahmnayorveda namadheya). 9 According to Dayananda
Saraswati, “Veda is that text which offers the light o-f true knowledge to
human beings” (vindanti vicharayanti sarve •nanushyaha sarve
satyavidhya: ... te vedaha:) 10.

Such Vedas, gleaned from the eternity by the seers at the moment when
they were rapt in the samadhi or super consciousness, which were, later,

9
taught to their ardent disciples, were later on known as the shrutis. Shruti
means that which is heard. As there was only oral mode of teaching the
disciples heard every vowel or sound articulated by the venerated guru
with immutable attention and retained them in their nemory. Since such
texts were heard from the mouth of the masters they became known as the
shruti.

According to the Vishnu purana,. “The Vedic literature was one big
whole” 11. In due course the sage Vyasa (the name in itself signifies the
line of division in geometry) grouped the mantras usee by the company of
four priests at a sacrifice. The four priests viz.

1 The one who recites a ruk / mantra is known as Fotru

2 The one who sang the mantra in symphony is knewn as udgatru
3 The one who conducted the sacrifice as per rule is known as
adhvaryu
4 The one who played the role of referee/directot who inspected and
assured that it was carried out in accordance with rule is known as
brahma. 12

Critics are of the opinion that the Rigvedic hymns that were seen by
several sages were applicable to sacrificial purpose as well as other
purposes. Holding the Rigveda as a source or base Vyasa classified and
edited the mantras to be used by Adhvaryu, udgatru and designated the
editions (samhitas) as Yajurveda and Samaveda respectively. Each of
these Vedas was propagated by different schools.

The following chart offers a broad idea of Vedic Samhitas, their

respective brahmanas and Aranyakas and Upanishacas,

VEDA SAMHITA BRAHMANA A RANTAKA UPANISHAD

Rigveda Shakala, Bashkala Aithareya Brahamana Aithareya Aithareya

Schools 10 Mandalas Kousheetaki Brahmana Kousleetaki Kousheetaki
1028 Sooktas and
10552 Mantras.

10
Krishna- Katha, Maitreyaniya, Taithiiriya Taithi.-iya Katha, Sweta-
Yajurveda (4 kandas, 54 Shwatara, Mai-
Prapathakas) trayaneeya,
Taithiriya Mahanaraynee-
(7 Ashtakas, 44 Pra­ ya & Taithireya
pathakas, 651 Anuv-
vakas) 1 10296 words.

Shukla- Vajasaneyi school Shatapatha Brihadaranyka Brihadaranyaka

Yajurveda 40 chapters, Ishavasya
303 Anuvakas
1975 mantras.

Samaveda Pre-Archika Tandya, Talavakar, Chhandogya Chhandogya

585 mantras shadvimsha, and
Post-Archika Chhandogya, Sama- Kena
964 mantras vidhana, Devata-
Total 1549 dhaya, Vamsha, Samh \~
matras topanishad Arsheya,
Mantra.

Atharva- 20 Kandas Gopatha Mundaka

Veda 731 sooktas Prashnu
5038 mantras Mandukya.

Chart: Courtesy Anantharngachar, N. S.

The Brahmanas: Brahmanas form an important part of Vedic

literature. These texts are generally written in prose. They also contain
directions, prescriptions etc., to be followed while conducting the
sacrifice. They explain the yajnas and establish the fact that it is a
cosmic activity. Occasionally they also come out w.th explanations and
comments on a certain point of symbolic interpretation of the mantras
as well as the rituals. Brahmanas also throw light «n the social system
of their time, the people, their way of approach to life, their
aspirations, attitudes and ethics etc.

The Aranyakas: Aranyakas may be interpreted as the epilogues to the

Brahmanas. But the subject matter taken up for discussion in these
texts is unique and different from the Brahmanas. Sayanacharya opines

/* *
«*•

11 .* \
that these were designated as Aranyakas because “they were taught and
studied in the forests” (Aranyas) (aranyadhyanadetat aaranyak
mitiryate).13 But the great grammarian Panini and Vararuchi attach a
different shade of meaning to the word Aranyaka. According to them
Aranyakas deal with the discussion not only of yajna, but also the
philosophic, cosmic and mystic meaning of the practices of rituals and
sacrifices.

Upanishads: The Upanishads are interlaced into the Aranyakas. The

line of demarcation between these two bodies of literatures almost gets
blurred. ‘Upanishad’’ the word literally means sitting near and gaining
the secret knowledge of the universe from the Gurus. They are
supposed to be the Parama rahasyas. The total number of Upanishads
is supposed to be 108. Of these only ten (Dashopanishats) are
considered to be prominent. Which are as fallows: l] Isha, 2] Kena, 3]
Katha, 4] Prashna, 5] Mundaka, 6] Mandookya, 7] Taithiriya, 8]
Aithareya, 9] Chhandogya, 10] Brihadaranyaka. Sometimes some
scholars attach other four namely Kousheetak'. Shwetashwatara,
Maitrayaniya and Narayanopanishat. During the days of Brahmanas
the institution of sacrifices spread thick and the science of rituals
(Karmakanda) got hold of the minds of masses. The sacrifices simply
became ritualistic in due course and they also became devoid of the
inner spirit. This created disgust among the people and they were
looking for something else and began to question or contemplate
whether it was possible for man to head towards realization or
emancipation of man from the bondage of Karma without sacrifice. As
a result of this inquiry Upanishads came into being and emphasized the
way of realization or knowledge (jnanmarga). Tiey also reveal the
journey of philosophical enquiry from polytheism to monotheism. The
ultimate thing in life to be realized is the athmau, the Brahman, the
Truth etc. The philosophy that realization of the Ultimate Truth itself
is a great secret is often held up by the Upanishadic rishis. They
employ ample illustrations and anecdotes to acquaint the listener

12
(shrotar) with the knowledge of the Ultimate Truth es was borne by the
speaker (vaktar)

Ever since the day of their acquaintance with the masses they have
won the hearts of scholars both Oriental and Occidental. A few
opinions are culled at random:

1. “The fruit of human knowledge and wisdom and as containing

almost superhuman conceptions whose originators could hardly
be conceived as mere men.” 14
2. “It is Tadatmya or oneness between Brahman and the world that
is conveyed in all this wealth of symbol and image”-S.
Radhakrishnan.15
3. “The Upanishads gave if not the most scientific yet the most
intimate and immediate light upon the last se;ret of existence” 16

-Deusseni
4. “From every sentence, deep, original and suWime thoughts arise
and the whole is pervaded by a high and holy earnest spirit.
Indian air surrounds us and original thoughts of kindred spirits.
And, oh, how thoroughly is the mind here cashed clean of all
earthly engrafted Jewish superstitions and all philosophy that
cringes before superstitions! In the whole world there is no study
so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has
17
been solace of my life - it will be the solare of my death”
Schopenhauer
5. “These philosophical treatises will always - maintain a place in
the literature of the world, among the most out standing
production of the human mind in any age an4 in any country” -
Max Muller.18

The religion and religious practices of Vedic Irdians were much in

a way continuation of the primitive faith in the forces of nature. The
vedic rishis seem to have divided this universe into three folds or
sheaths (kosh) viz: A] The Earth which is ruled by the gods like Fire
(Agni), Earth (Prithvi), Rivers (Nadi). Soma and Erihaspati etc. These

13
are Terrestrial gods. B] The Air, which is, domina ed by the presence
of a body of certain gods like Air (Vayu). Thunder (Indra), Rain
(Parjanya) Storm God (Marut) and also Storm (Rmdra), water (Apa).
These were ethereal or Aerial gods. C] The Sky or heaven is dominated
and presided over by Gods like Sky or Heaven (Djyus or Dyuh) Sky
God proper (Varuna > Rita, Dawn (Ushas). The Sun and his forms
(Mitra, Savitru, Pooshan, Aditya and also Vishnu), Morning and
Evening stars (Ashwins) Night (Ratri) from the a'^ove observation it
becomes quite clear that there was a practice of worshipping nature
usually anthropomorphized.

Along with different ways of worshipping the aforementioned gods

with ablations and offerings there seems to be the existence of practice
among these people to be present, which was, nagic based. These
people, it seems, believed in acquiring the perfect mastery over the
forces of nature through blood shed, offering of flesh immolation etc.,
the traces of which may be found in the innumerable rituals which
might have paved way to various sacrifices later. The Vedic people
“believed that the creation of the universe and the procreation of the
human race were the result of a primeval sacrifice, :he self-immolation
of a cosmic being. This cosmic being is represented in the Veda as the
male, Purusha”.19

The performance of sacrifice was an important aspect of Aryan

religious life. The Aryans believed Fire as God. They saw in Agni in
three fold forms. They offered their oblations to Gods through Agni for
they felt that Fire was priest of Gods and he was dso God of Priests.
Fire-God conveyed (Agnidootam... - the Agnisookta) the offerings of
human beings from earth to heaven. For he pervaded the Earth,
Atmosphere, and the Sky in the form of fire, lightening and the Sun
respectively. Therefore they believed in the pre-eminence of fire god
and prayed to him in every sacrifice. Drinking the juice of Soma was a
common practice on such occasions.

14
 With the philosophical speculations of the Upsnishadic sages the
belief of people in the sacrifice became loose. The people of this
period attached more importance to realization. They considered
knowledge (Jnana) as an important aspect of life According to the
Upanishadic thinkers, sacrifice became something of a sort of inner
sacrifice performed with the fire of knowledge (Jnanagni) rather than
with the external or outer elements. Their sole concentration was on
Ultimate Reality - (Brahman or Aatman) and liberation of soul from
the cycle of birth and death. “The doctrine of transmigration or
reincarnation was probably unknown to the brahmana ritualists, but in
the Upanishad’s man’s salvation from the cycle of rebirths became a
matter of great concern” 'y ft

The Life of Vedic period may be termed as union of the worldliness

and other-worldliness. They regarded this life as a kind of opportunity
or chance wherein one must always assay to achieve prosperity in all
respects. The sole goal of life must be a struggle for perfection, purity
and prosperity in every walk of life at individual as well as social
level. They always pleaded Gods to make them tread the path of
truthfulness, religion, loyalty etc. All the while their intention was to
keep themselves quarantine from oversleep, laziness, miserliness and
other evil habits. This holds mirror to the kind of moral make up of
these men.

The family was generally headed by the father". Sometimes many

families were looked after by one man. Such cluster of families was
known as Kula. This testifies to the existence of .oint family system.
Woman was to live under the protection of male members of the family
- throughout her life. During the childhood a girl was taught dance,
music, singing etc., to make her a successful womEn and housewife in
the future. Some times they were given higher education. Some women
were so learned that they took share in public debates and discussions
that were organized occasionally. Such women were known as
Brahmavadinis. For instance we may name Ghosha, Apala, Vishwavara

15
etc. The grown up girls enjoyed the right of selecting their husbands.
Swayamvara system seems to be in vogue (swayair samitram vanute).
However the parents presided over the process and solemnized the
marriages. The systems of dowry as well as bride price were in
practice. “Monogamy was adhered to by people generally” (jayev
patya ushati suvasaha -4-3-2). But the kings sometimes married many
wives. Though the Aryans did not allow widow t: marry again they
were not prevented from marrying their husband’s younger brother - if
they were without any child. Likewise divorce was never encouraged in
Aryan society.

Ashrama system was unique and special contribution of

Indian Vedic period. ‘Ashrama', the word literally means ‘a rest
house’. But in the context of Indian social syslem it conveys an
altogether special sense. There are four ashramas. Signifying the four
stages in the life of a human being.

1] Brahmacharya: A period of student life. It started with

Upanayanam and ended with Samavarthana. The boy was expected to
lead the life of control and celibacy concentrating fully on his study
and contemplation of the Brahman.

2] Grihastha: This marked the beginning of married life. According to

Vedic Aryans marriage was obligatory. Possession of son was a
gateway to Heaven. During this period the househo.der was to carry on
the five familial sacrifices (pancha maha yajnas). This Ashrama was
highly respected. “Praised be the married person”, (Dhanyo
grihasthashrami) is an adage. For, house or home was the source of
many religious performances.

3] Vanaprastha: During this third stage the man was to abstain from
all types of pleasures of the world including the luxurious wear. He
was to stay in the forest but was expected to be accessible to the sons
or younger generation to help them with the advice from his experience
and study, which he pursued in the forests. Hiis course of study

16
consisted of the Aranyakas and the Upanishads. He was also expected
to develop a sense of detachment and readiness for ;anyasa.

4] Sanyasa. This was the fourth and final stage in the life of man. In
this stage man was expected to lead the life of total renunciation. There
was also a provision for entry into this ashrama, af er Brahmacharya if
the man desired to forego Grahasthashrama. He was to wear loins
cloths (Koupeena) and live on alms in the forest. He was to lead the
life of total restrain without any care for contact or company. By such
actions as prescribed in the Shastras he would acnieve the liberation
{Moksha), from the cycle of birth and death.

Though we do not come across the existence of caste, we certainly

come across the stratification of Aryan society in to the Varnas,
namely 1] Brahmins 2] Kshatriyas 3] Vaisyas and finally 4] Shoodras
who were in the bottom rung. In Purushasookta we have a reference to
the stratification. The Brahmins originated from the mouth of the
Primordial Purusha, formed the head of the mankind and carried out the
pontifical functions and dissemination of knowlecge. The Kshatriyas
having sprung from the arms of the Purusha formed the protective
section of the society. Like wise the Vaishyas, who, having sprung
from the thighs of the Primordial Purusha were to keep themselves
engaged in tour, travel and trade supplying the society with the
necessities like grocery, animal feed and fodder etc. Lastly the Shoodra
section of society, which had sprung from the feet of the Purusha, were
illiterates and kept themselves engaged in the service of the upper
three sections. This kind of existence was a self-evolved system. In the
progress of human society such a kind of growth is not unnatural. At
the same time the people belonging to one Varnm were never bound
themselves to that particular Varna. They were appropriated into the
higher Varna if they desired so and proved themselves fit in all
respects such as necessary for that stratum.

As the Aryan society was nomadic and agriculture based, the other
professions ancillary or subordinate to it were given due

17
 encouragement. They were well versed in agricultural and bucolic life.
The agriculture was carried out both on dry land and wetlands. They
developed a healthy irrigation system through canals, “which were
sometime natural and sometimes dug with labour, from the rivers and
other plates of water”, this is evident from the ma«tras which follow.

1) Yatha hrudam kulya ivashata (3-4-3)

2) Ya aapo divya utvastravanti
Khanitrima utava ya svayunjah: (7-49-2)

Along with agriculture, other professions like carpentry, blacksmithy,

goldsmithy, tanning the hides, pottery, “preparation of ropes”,
(arajjubhihi sineetha) weaving, dyeing ship building etc. “Amongst the
other professions, the Rigveda makes mention of tie professions like
medicine, dancing, barbers. The physicians were great'y respected in their
skill. They treated the patients with the help of herbs and plants and
practised some sort of surgery also. Often they also practised magic and
spells to drive away the evil spirits”.24 The existence of a variety of
professions during the Vedic period shows that they had developed a
sturdy system of trade. The trade was carried out both at inland and
foreign levels. The reference to the ships and mode of travel like carts,
chariots and horses shows this. Barter system was the basis of exchange.
But we can also surmise that the people of this period were acquainted
with currency too. There is mention of Nishka being otffered to the priests
at the time of sacrifices.

Although political image is dimly reflected we can say with

definiteness that king was the supreme ruler. In the business of
administration he was assisted by a number of officials like Chaplain
(Purohita), Commander in Chief (Senani), Record Keeper (Suta), Chief
Revenue Collector (Bhagadugha) etc. There are evidences of local
administrators and administrative bodies like (Granini, Gramasabha),
Assembly (Samiti), and also Council (Sabha) etc. The legal system of
maintaining law and order was also very much commendable. The
criminals were punished harshly. Ordeal by fire and water were in vogue.

18
 With our acquaintance with the above observations we witness a
panoramic and prosperous view of life of well-built iturdy systems. The
sacrifices referred to in this period (Vajapeya, Soma. Ashwamedha etc.)
call for collective activity and conglomeration of enormous mercenary,
material wealth possible only for monarchs. This age also presents before
us the value system following which a man can attain prosperity, peace
and wealth. The life of people of this period opens before us the Image of
India, which was socially; economically; ethically piilosophically ideal
and imitable to attain the real meaning of life and make the life worth
lived.

1.3 POST-VEDIC IMAGE OF INDIA

The post Vedic Literature gives us the vista of the society of that
period. This post Vedic literature is known and designated as Vedanta or
the Upanishads. Since this literature forms the concluding or the ending
part of the Vedic literature this is properly known as Vedanta. Along with
the Upavedas viz: 1] Ayurveda, (deals with study of medicinal herbs and
their application to different ailments), 2] Dhanurveda, (deals with
archery and is connected with warfare), 3] Gandhcrveda, (Deals with
music and also preparation of musical instruments mace of both string and
leather) and 4] Shilpaveda or Sthapatyaveda (deals with the art of carving
the statues, architecture etc.), there existed another rich body of literature.
It was known as Vedangas. Vedangas literally mean to be formative parts
of the Vedas. They sanction the information about Vedic studies, Vedic
rituals and act as interpretative guides to the Vedas. They are deep and
detailed in nature in their treatment of subject matter.

Vedas and their Upavedas

it I i 1
Rigveda hjurveda Samaveda Atharaxeda

Ayurveda
ill
Dhanurveda Gandharvaveda Shilpcveda
1
----------------------- »-------------------------- »---------------------------- Samhitas --------------------#■--------------------------*-----------------------------------------

----------------------- »-------------------------- »---------------------------- Brahmanas ------------------- * -----------------------------*-----------------------------------------

 Vedangas
(Shastras)

■+ Shiksha Science of pronunciation

Chhanda Deals with study of Metre

fyakarana Deals with Grammar and mays of usmg words.

"* Nirukta Study / Science, etymology

"* Jyotishya Deals with study of stars _ad time of rituals.

Mpasutras Deal with study of rituals and their meeting

Shrouta Sutras Grahya Sutras Dharrn Shastras ShulbaSutms

The language employed by the Vedas is rather mystic, occult and

symbolic. In the later period in order to practise the rituals propounded by
the Vedas flawlessly certain body of literature to guide and remember
everything exactly was the felt need of the time. Consequently Vedangas
emerged. These were also known as unswervable tenets (Shastras). The
Six Vedangas are as mentioned hereunder.

a] Shiksha: Intends to teach the art of articulation.

b] Chanda: Teaches scansion and prosody.

c] Vyakarna: Studies the arrangement and function of words.

d] Nirukta: Studies etymology and morphology af words.

e] Jyotishya: Deals with the study of stars and planetary movements.

f] Kalpa: Studies the methodology of rituals.

a] Shiksha: Shiksha is held very important among tke Six Vedangas. It

was held compulsory for those who wished to master Ihe Vedic literature.
Since Vedic literature was passed from mouth to mowth, articulation was
an important aspect. The prime aim of Shiksha was “tc teach right method
of articulation” (“swara varnadhyuchhar prakaro yatra shikshyate

20
upadishyate sa shiksha”-Sayana).25 The disciples were expected to listen
to the articulation of the Guru and then reproduce the sound flawlessly.
Any difference in articulation, stress, or stress shift would change the
meaning of the mantra. Therefore the teachers attached so much
importance to Shiksha.

1] Since different Vedas and their schools (shakhasj followed different

methods of articulation there are different books on Sh'ksha.

b] Chhanda (Metre): As one of the Vedangas, Chhznda studies the art

of versification. The Vedic sages, being the master versifiers composed
their hymns in various metres. For proper understanding of the sooktas
and the mantras and the meaning hidden therein, knowledge of the metre
was considered inevitable in the past.

C] Vyakarna (Grammar): Literally the word Vyakarana means

Grammar. Grammar is regarded as the face of the Vedic Literature. It
helps the student of the Vedic text to know the fcrm of nouns, their
declensions, verbs and their forms in different tenses along with word
order.

d] Nirukta (Etymology): In order to glean the fullest result of the

performance of sacrifices, rituals and other religious actions directed in
the Vedas understanding the underlying meaning of the actions and
articulation of the mantras was an inevitable part. Therefore the study of
Nirukta, which offered the glossary and explained everything lucidly, was
held compulsory. It also supplied ample information about the words,
concepts their derivatives etc., Yaska, is supposed to be the greatest
Nirukta writer.

e] Jyotishya (Astronomy): Astrolatry of our ancestors made them to

study stars, their movements, appearance and disappearance in the vault of
heaven very diligently. The Brahmanas of each Vedas laid down fixed
periods of observances of sacrifices and ceremonies for different Varnas.
They give directions regarding the particular season, (Rutu), month

21
(Masa), fortnight (Paksha), Date (Tithi) etc., at which a particular people
or person belonging to a particular Varna must perform the ritual. In this
way the branch of knowledge called Astronomy came into being and was
regarded as the eyes of the Vedic literature.

f] Kalpa (Ritual): This branch explains systematically the actions

prescribed in the Vedas regarding the sacrifices and ceremonies. Since the
Brahmanas and Samhitas presented the detailed and complex descriptions
of various methods and stages to be followed in the observance of such
ceremonies there arose a necessity to frame them into formulae. This led
to the avatar of Kalpas, They are classified into four d.visions.

The four Kalpasutras are as follows.

1] Shrouta Sutras

2] Grihya Sutras

3] Dharma Sutras

4] Shulba Sutras

Since these sutras were ancillary to each school (Shakha) of each Veda as
the number of schools increased so increased these in their numbers.

1) Shrouta Sutras: Shrouta sutras explain the methods and the rules to be
observed at the time of the ceremonies and sacrifices observed or
performed as are prescribed in the texts of the Brahmanas.

2) Grihya Sutras: The word Grihya itself restricts :ts meaning. Grihya
means pertaining to family life and activities. Grihya Sutras thus mention
the manner in which the familial activities, the performance of ceremonies
and sacrifices must be carried out. They describe "he Samskaras like,
Garbhadana, Annaprashana, Chooda Karma, Upanayana etc., and their
importance in the life of human beings. They emphasize the fact that the
Agni invited at such ceremonies must be Grihyagni.

22
3) Dharma Sutras: Dharma Sutras form altogether a. different body of
literature. Though they cropped up as a body of Vedangas their content is
not like other Kalpa Sutras. They reveal a secular treatment of the subject.
Though they inculcate religious activities and their methodical
observation etc., they are public oriented and duty oriented. They expound
the duties and responsibilities of Kings, politics and Ae relation between
subjects and Kings, their ways of dealings the duties and responsibilities
of people of several ashramas and Varnas. Many of the Dharma Sutras are
not available. Among the available ones Bodhayzna Dharmasutras,
Apasthambha Dharmasutras, Goutama Dharmasu.^as, Hiranyakeshi
Dharmasutras etc., are prominent ones. The main concern of Dharma
Sutras was to direct society on the path of religion.

4) Shulba Sutras: These are connected with the technical aspects of

preparation of holy sacrificial altar (yajnavedi) its length, breadth, depth
and concepts of each and every yajna. Kathyayana Shulba Sutra is an
important and much referred one. The study of these Vedangas is quite
rewarding in many ways. While providing an over view of Indian life, it
provides useful insights in arriving at the conclusive roints and objective
observations about the evolution of Indian Social System, which is
characterized by Varna, system, which resulted in the caste system finally.
It also provides us with solid information about the etknological evolution
while making reference to familial, priestly and pcntifical life of the
Vedic Aryans. While making inveterate observation cn politico-religious
ceremonies and sacrifices such as Vajapeya and Rajasuya etc., it throws
light on the political system of the days - kings, their adherence to
dharma and also their interest in making the population they governed
happy. Regarding the status of women also ample ^formation may be
gleaned. Woman was given higher education and attained respect and
recognition in society. She enjoyed equal status with nan. The instance of
prominent feminine figures like Gargi and Maitreyi etc., may be cited.

23
1.4 THE EPIC IMAGE OF INDIA

Epic is often explained as a long narrative poem that deals with racial
interest or national interest. As a narrative form of iterature it became
very near to the folk. The genesis of epic is in the consciousness of
common people. In ancient India epics seem to have incarnated, at the
dusk of the age of Dharma Sutras, Probably they might have been there
among the masses in the form of songs. In spite of the slender element of
history in them there is enough room to surmise that they are born of
history and supposed to contain history within them.

The historians have tried to read in these texts die conflicts or wars
of past. “The theme of the Ramayana is the conflict between... the Aryan
and non-Aryan Civilizations”, and like wise “:he Mahabharata...
describes a conflict among the Aryans themselves. The Mahabharata war
at Kurukshetra affected all the Aryan Kings of India who were ranged
either on one side or the other. The Pandavas had the:r allies from Kashi,
Kosala, ... The allies of the Kurus were the Yavaaas, the Sakas...the
Andhras...”.27

These two great epics have two major motifs cf their time namely
politics and culture. These motifs lay hidden in their womb. Both the texts
record the conditions of society that were in vogue then. They show that
the various systems like polygamy, polyandry and mcnogamy matriarchy,
patriarchy etc., were in practice. Never have Indians questioned the
practices and life style of their ancients however odd and obscene in some
cases they appear today. They have viewed life merely as a leela of God.

So also the motif of politics - the Mahabharata seems to hold

mirror to the problem or complication that appeared within the political
system. In that it displays the difficulty of going hand in hand of
Feudalism and Monarchy which fact is represented by Yudhisthira and
Duryodhana respectively. Yudhisthira’s asking for the feudatoryship of at
least five villages, and Duryodhana’s refusal of the proposal, is clearly

24
stated and is emphasized as an issue, which finally results in the great
battle of the allies for eighteen days.

Likewise the familial issue of a royal family assumes the empirical

status and becomes instrumental in causing havoc in the political and
cultural life of the empire of Ayodhya in the Ramayena like in ‘As You
Like It’ by W. Shakespeare there is a movement fro and to forest. The
cultures, urban of Rama, sylvan of Vanaras and purely insular of Ravana
and Vibheeshana evolved from various sources at cifferent patches of
lands are out landish and islandish to each other became face to face. Thus
there is cultural encounter and an evolution and establishment of
relatively synchronized new order. As to the political motif in the
Ramayana invariably almost every happening revolves around the throne,
crown and scepter. Rama’s movement to forest, Vali’s fight with
Sugreeva, Vibheeshana’s taking sides with Rama and also Rama’s
supporting Sugreeva against Vali are all centered around power and power
politics in one or the other form.

These epics, throw ample light on the society of the post Vedic
period and show the gradual stratification of Indian society and
confirmation of the Varna system culminating into cast system and
occasionally giving way to intermingling of castes (varna sankara) and
germination of hybrid castes like Shabaras. If the Ramayana celebrates
monogamy, which was in vogue at that time, the Mai abharata celebrates
polyandry. As far as freedom of woman is concerned she was given
freedom to education and to choose her husband (swcyamvara) according
to her taste.

The political system of this period was much more advanced and
organized. The rulers were known as rajahs or rajans. Sometimes there
was also a federation of rulers, who were independent in all respects but
the members of federal union were generally expected to be loyal to the
leader who was known as Samrat and assist him in annexations. The
domain of such a Samrat was continuously getting extended due to the
unity. The king or ruler who governed the kingdom was governed or

25
checked at times of need by Dharma and Samitis. Hs was helped in the
administration by Mantriparishad and Sabha the constellation or council
of ministers who were trained masters of different arts. There are
innumerable references as to the officials like Mantri, Purohita,
Chamupathi, Nagaradhyaksha, Sabhadhyaksha, Dharmadhyaksha,
Durgapala etc. and their qualifications to be taken into consideration
while recruiting them for services.

The education of a pupil usually started with the Upanayanam.

There are references to the kind of education that was practised. The
education was vocational and directly connected with practical aspects of
everyday life. The student was sent to the seat of leaning, the hermitages
(Kulas). The famous hermitages referred to by the epics are Vishwamitra’s
Kula. Vashishtha’s Kula, Drona’s Kula, Yajnavalkya’s Kula etc.
Education was imparted through Sanskrit medium. Curricula consisted of
many aspects of the Vedas and the Vedangas. The Ksaatriyas were taught
the art of horse riding, swimming, fencing, wrestling etc. Music and dance
consisted of the course of study of a girl’s education. Science and
mathematics and human physiology were also taught in these gurukulas.
Such knowledge was known as secular knowledge (Apara Vidya). After
completion of the prescribed course of study the teacher would conduct
the Samavarthana as a mark of completion of the student life.

By the description of various jewels, agates an! pearls worn by the

characters mentioned in the epics we can surmise that the life of people
was prosperous and the people were the lovers of art and beauty. This
automatically goes to speak of the richness and resourcefulness in other
aspects of life. Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. They
also had evolved a sturdy system of irrigation. Animal husbandry was, as
usually, an ancillary occupation. Trade and commence both inland and
foreign were fully developed. Transport was carried out by carts, horses
and elephants. There are references to the trainers of these animals. There
were many associations of merchants, which were usually governed and
headed by the officers known as the Mahajanas. The handicrafts like

26
weaving, dyeing, hemming and embroidery were kncwn and developed.
The people of this age were well versed in the use of mineral products and
metals. There are also ample references to the apparels and dress materials
made of wool, silk (Kshouma), cotton etc.

The religion and religious icons also under went many changes. The
Vedic Gods like Indra, Agni, Varuna, Vayu etc., were pushed to the
background and their place was occupied by Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, and
Surya etc. The belief in and worship of these Gods seems to have
increased. In both the masterpieces the heroes engage in the worship of
these Gods. Rama, Arjuna, Kunti are said to be worshipping these Gods on
various occasions. Examples of Pashupatastrapradana, Gajagourivrita may
be cited.

Along with these male gods, goddesses like Durga Nikumbhila

(Yuddhakanda of the Ramayana) were also begun to be worshipped.
Another important religious change that took place and became
foregrounded among the masses was the concept of Avtar. Rama and
Krishna were regarded as avatars of Vishnu and Laksimana and Balarama
(brother of Krishna) were regarded as avatar of Adishesha the cosmic
serpent on whom Lord Narayana sleeps. Therefore they are always
referred to be in brace and thereby a sort of continuizy and inter relation
between the two epics was established.

Thus the two epics, constituting the Image of Ptost Vedic India in a
considerable way, became sources of inspiration to innumerable poets and
their texts in Sanskrit as well as regional literatures.

1.5 DHARMASHASTRA IMAGE OF INDIA

The rich literature known as Dharmashastras or Smrithis, was

composed by the venerated munis and sages who were also great social
thinkers. The study of these Dharmashastras is very helpful in
understanding the ancient social, economic, political and also religious
conditions, and the kind of life that the ancient population of this

27
subcontinent had embraced and practised. Although primarily they aimed
at teaching the traditional practice of Dharma as was laid down by
Sootrakaras occasionally they refer to regulations ard civil code to be
followed by the citizens, for peaceful and prosperous life. In fact these
Dharmashastras became the foundation stones for the writers of laws
later. Although there are many Dharmashastras composed by different
scholars at different time the prominent ones may be cited here.

1] Manu Dharmashastra

2] Yajnavalkya Dharmashastra

3] Naradeeya Dharma Shastra

4] Vishnu Dharma Shastra

5] Parashara Dharmashastra etc.

The first three are in the form of verse Sootras. Manu Smriti or
Manu Dharma Dharmashastra, is supposed to be the work of Krishna
Yajurvedic School. This became a source of the Hindu Law. Manu is
considered as the first lawgiver of the Hindus.

The States were known as Rashtra the ruler of such Rashtra was
known as Raja and his subjects were known as P. aja. The king was
assisted by Sahayas and a Parishad, which was headed by Mukhya amatya.
There seems to be decentralized system of administration in vogue. The
Rashtra was divided into Desha, Janapada, Vishaya etc., these were
headed and ruled by Deshis (ruler of ten villages), Vishis (ruler twenty
villages), Shatesha (head of hundred villages), S&hasresha (ruler of
thousand villages). All these administrative officials were paid according
to their status.

The society as depicted by Manu, was broadly divided into two

sections namely Aryans and non-Aryans. Manu looks down upon the
members of non-Aryan society calling them Dasyus, Mlechchas,

28
Chandalas or Shwapachas. These were made to stay out side the Aryan
Community. Chandalas and Shwapachas must reside outside the village
border and they must eat their food in the broken plates. (Chandalaha
shwapachananiu bahigrame... bhinnabhandeshu bhojanam). Further
Aryan Section of Society, according to Manu, wa- divided into two
sections namely 1] Twice born (Dwijati) consisting of the Brahmins, the
Kshatriyas and the Vaishyas among whom the sacrament of Upanayanam
and strict adherence to Ashramadharma was compulsory, and 2] Once born
(Ekajati) consisting of the Shoodras who were expected to carry out the
menial services of the dwijatis. In addition to the Shoodras the
Manusmriti also makes reference to the slaves of different kinds, who
were never allowed ownership of any property.

Adherence to Ashramadharma was to be followed strictly according

to Manu. Woman was not allowed to study the F*das and utter the
mantras. However she was expected to utter some lines at the time of
marriage. She was not given freedom and right to property. But she was
allowed to own Stridhana.

Agriculture was the main occupation and automatically flourished.

The trade was solely under control of the administrative wing of
government; the prices also were decided and fixed by the officers.

Yajnavalkyasmriti is more systematic and epitomized in its form. It

is imbued with information about medical science a*d anatomy. It also
refers to many more ordeals. Unlike Manusmriti it disapproves the
marriage of a Brahmin with a Shoodra woman (viioma vivah) but he
approves Niyoga system.

Thus a review of Dharmashastra literature opens before us a vista of

the period and shows that the Society was strictly dominated by Varna and
Ashramadharma. It reveals to us the status of woman. The status of
widows, who were deprived of the enjoyment of tie pleasures of life
including the participation in rituals and religious ceremonies, also
becomes clear from their study.

29
1.6 JAINA AND BUDDHIST IMAGE OF INDIA

The Sixth Century B.C. seems to be an age of uirest in spiritual and

intellectual spheres of the world history. Throughout ne world the minds
of masses were perturbed by the problem of religion and salvation. The
inflexibility of Casteism and Varnashramadharma, superficiality and mere
ritualism of Vedic practices, animal sacrifices and incomprehensibility of
the Vedic mantras put in Sanskrit, a language that was not spoken by a
man in the street, the supercilious exploitation of :he society by the
priestly class made the life of people a stagnant and saenchy pond. It was
at such circumstance, when people were hankering for some new and
easier way of life and religious practices that Budiha and Mahaveera
appeared on the scene. The new ideology given by then to the masses was
like a current of fresh air that acted as an elix r. It changed the
perspective of people. Practices and faiths new wae ushered in, into
Indian social and religious life.

Vardhamana Mahaveera (599-527 B.C.) born at Vaishali in a royal

family succeeded the twenty-third Teerthankara Parslrwanath who was in
the line beginning with Adinath Vrishabhadeva and became twenty-fourth
and the last in the line of the Teerthankaras. Before h:m Parshwanath had
taught four important tenets namely 1] not to injure (s-himsa) any creature
2] Not to steal (Astheya) 3] Not to posses anything (Amarigriha) 4] Not to
lie (Satya). Vardhamana Mahaveera added the fifth tenet namely Chastity
(Brahmacharya) in all walks and aspects. It was probably at this period
that Jainism assumed two forms namely the white clad (Swetambara)
followers of Parshwanath and the space clad (Digaibara) followers of
Vardhmana Mahaveera. The person who came und=r the influence of
Mahaveera and became his disciple for the first time was a Brahmin called
Indrabhuti who later became his first propagandist (ganadhara)
Mahaveera had 11 of such ganadharas to propagate his philosophy. He
also accommodated women in the fold of propagators who were known as
Sramini and Sravika. The Basic Sacred Literature of Jainism consists of
fourteen Puranas, which were written, in Prakrit language. Disbelieving in

30
the Vedas, Vedangas and Vedic practices he refuted :he idea of God and
this world as His creation and, being as such is contro led by Him. He said
world never comes to an end. No matter ends, but ir simply remains in
the form of Transformation. This doctrine seems to be borrowed from
Sankhya School of Philosophy. Mahaveera emphasized goodness in life
which can achieved by the practice of celibacy, tolerance of all sorts of
pain inflicted on body - like starvation, pain, injury, humiliation all
culminating in death or suicide (nijapara shasana phir anushasari). This
becomes possible only when one surrenders himself totally to the
renunciation of love of one’s own body including the dress. According to
him the highest goal of human life must be to achieve Omniscience
(Kevaljnana) or to become Kevalin. This can be completed by
concentrating on the three jewels (Rathnatraya) namely 1] Right faith
(Samyakdarshan) 2] Right action (Samyak charitrya) 3] Right knowledge
{Samyak jnana).

Not to injure is the best practice (ahimsa paramo dharmaha) was

the axiom of Mahaveera. For he believed that the ambience is charged
with life (jeeva) and gifted with consciousness (prajna). As such it
receives pain and pleasure. Therefore no injury must ce directed upon the
things of universe especially the living creatures.

Mahaveera said that element in the universe is result of the union of

spiritual and material factors. Material factors are destructible and
spiritual factors being indestructible undergo changes. (rupantar) The
changes that may be for better or worse is decided by the action {Karma).
The Karmas are chords of bondage. Therefore to shun Karma and cut the
chords to prevent the soul, from getting tangled and tugged into the circle
of birth and death, and make the soul dazzle in its full effulgence, and
enable it to attain the state of pure soul, {parama aatma) with ineffable
and infinite bliss, must be sole aim of man. This is possible by leading the
life of Five Fine Characters, (Panchasheela) which were held in high
regard by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, and concentrating on the three jewels
indicated by Mahaveera.

31
 The other path of heterodoxy was trodden by Buddha, who was
known as the light of Asia. His former name was Siddhartha. Siddhartha
was son of Shuddhodana, a ruler of Shakya republic (Janapada).

The teachings of Buddhism are in Pali language and known as

TRIPITAKAS consisting of 1] Dhamma Pitaka 2] Vinaya Pitaka and 3]
Abhidamma Pitaka. Like Mahaveera Buddha also stressed the moral purity
and the principle of non-violence. However his emphasis on non-violence
is not carried as far as the Jains did. He simply hield it as a part of
morality. Again like Mahaveera Buddha also did not attach importance to
the Vedic and Upananishadic speculations such as God, His abode, His
business of creation of this universe its operation etc. According to
Buddha, “Life is change, a neutral stream of becoming an extinction,
the soul is a myth. The mind is ghost. All that exists is the sensations
and perceptions themselves following automatically into memories and
ideas”. 29 He taught the world that it is full of miseries and pain and
further, the painful condition of life can be removed only with the removal
of all desires. He uttered four golden truths in this regard.

1. Existence of sorrow: All that exists in this world is short lived

temporary and sorrowful.
2. Cause of sorrow: Desire is the cause of sorrow and therefore it
must be removed.
3. Elimination of sorrow: Elimination of desire is the only way of
stopping the sorrow. With the termination of desires Karma
comes to close and ultimately with the end of life and death bliss
i ft

descends as “the dewdrop slips into the shining sea”.

4. The fine path to cut off the chain of desires and attain the bliss
is eight fold (Sadashtanga marga) - golden path - which is as
fallows: 1] Right views. 2] Right aspirations 3] Right speech 4]
Right action 5] Right living 6] Right efforts 7] Right
mindfulness 8] Right contemplation.

A careful review of these eight fold steps reveals the fact that
Buddha carefully avoided the pleasure-seeking, pleasure loving,
Brahminical concepts and also the concept of self-mortification and
declamation propounded by the Jain theory of life. Thus stressing the
point of morality Buddha said by indulging in good action (satkarma) sins
of previous Karma can be dwindled and Nirvana is achieved easily.

Both the religions contributed vitally in bringir^ about the changes

in different aspects of Indian Life. Both of them s:ressed Ahimsa and
morality in and purity of character. They also emphasized the theory of
Karma and rebirth, while showing an open disregard for casteism and the
Vedic practices. They became instrumental in opening an era of equality.
They also dwindled the spirit of fight among the rulers. The Sramanas and
Sravikas became responsible in widening and secularizing the sphere of
education. Buddhist Sanghas and Viharas were the great centers of
learning where even the students from foreign joined and gained
knowledge which helped in spreading the Indian culture far and wide even
outside India. As a result the ancient universities like Nalanda,
Takshashila and Vikramashila were greatly patronized by the rulers who
embraced these simple religions. Even the field of art and architecture
also received due influence and encouragement and developed
considerably. New style in sculpture known as Gandhara style is
contribution of the two religions as is the popularity of vegetarianism.

1.7 IMAGE OF INDIA UNDER VARIOUS EMPIRES

1) The Maurya Empire (322 B.C. to 185 B.C.)

Due to the insufficiency of internal unity among the Indian rulers

foreign invasions of Darius and Alexander shook the life of people of
India for some centuries then slowly the republic of Magadha rose as a
powerful kingdom. Magadha was ruled by various dynasties like, the
Haryankas and then the Nandas who were succeeded by the Mauryas. The
Mauryas built a strong Empire in India. Dr. V. A. Smith says, “The advent
of the Mauryan dynasty marks the passage from darkness to light...
chronology suddenly becomes definite, almost precise; a huge empire
springs into existence, unifying the innumerable fragments of distracted

33
India” 31 Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of this dynasty. Ashoka
his grandson succeeded Bindusara. He was one of the greatest kings not
only in Indian history but also in the history of the woild. His grand father
Chandragupta Maurya possessed a strong army and extended the empire in
all directions. He was guided by the great scholar Chanakya, who wrote,
the Arthashastra, a guide and handbook for the administrators and
contributed India with a strong track of administration. He divided his
empire into various provinces and employed viceroys to supervise them.
Pushyagupta, one of such viceroys constructed a great reservoir named
“Sudarshana” in Sourashtra. This holds testimony to the fact that he
strengthened irrigation system very much. He embraced Jainism and spent
the last part his life in Karnataka (Sravanabelugola).

Like his grandfather Ashoka was an ambitious ruler. He annexed on

Kalinga and conquered it. Rock Edict XIII depicts ths war and gives the
statistics, of casualty and captives of 1,00,000 and 1,50,000 respectively,
which staggers the imagination of the reader. This war affected the king
so much so that he abandoned the sword forever thenceforward.

Koutilya’s Arthashastra consists of fifteen sections (Adhikaranas)

and one hundred and eighty sub-sections (Prakaranasj. Like Machiavell’s
famous book the Prince it discusses mainly the political philosophy and
fundamental principles of art of Administration. It speaks of the important
elements of ruling. Koutilya refers to eighteen of the important
departments to be controlled by the government ard inspected by the
superintendents regularly. He also lays stress on the department of
Intelligence. He stresses the point that the king must not take anybody
into confidence and employ several persons on espionage. According to
Koutilya king is the supreme authority in the administrative system. King
himself is the government (raja rajyamiti). He also speaks of the subjects
like ownership of the land, legal procedures and social organization etc.
He expounds in detail the mode of selection of Amatyas. His ideal concept
of good government is seen in his advice to the king, [“the happiness of
the subjects is the happiness of the king, their well being his well being.

34
The king’s welfare lies not in his own pleasures hut in that of the
subjects.”]

(prajasukhe sukham rajnaha prajanam cha hitehitam

•3

natma priyam hitam rajnoh prajanam tu priyam hitam)

Thus the general spirit of the Arthashatra is enlightened and humane. The
society depicted by Koutilya shows clearly that the piactices like widow-
re-marriages, late marriages and divorces, wherever differences in
conjugal life arose, were in vogue and accepted by the people of that time.

Greatly affected by Kalinga war, the bloodshed and slaughter of

men that took place there, Ashoka became remorsefml beyond words. It
opened an era of peace in his life. He was greatly influenced by the
teachings of the Buddha, main theme of which was non-violence. He
embraced the religion and sought shelter under the ambrosial umbrage of
its serene tenets. He made special arrangement for the spreading and
propagation of the Buddist principle of peace, non-violence and tolerance.
At the same time he honored the people of other -eligious faiths and
practices. There are references to creeds and cults indulging in the
worship of the Nagas and the Yakshas and the Lokayaias etc., of his time.
He called himself Beloved of the gods and of amiable appearance
(Devanampiya Priyadarshi)

After embracing Buddhism he made every possible attempt for the

spread of Buddhism. He sent many messengers, including his own son
Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra to different parts of country and
abroad. He himself abandoned tours of pleasures (Vihar Yatra) and
undertook many religious tours (Dharma Yatra* Along with the
missionaries employed, he taught the world the principles like charity
(Dana), purity (Shoucha), gratitude (Kritajnata), kindness (Daya),
reverence (Apichiti), and purity of thought (Bhevasuddhi) etc. He
immortalized these teachings by inscribing them on pillars installed on
platforms and rocks of hills and caves.

35
 The reign of the Mauryan rulers ushered in an all-round
development in the field of administration, religion, art and architecture.
Various Stupas, Chaityas, pillars etc speak vociferously about the
prosperity and perfection attained by them in the field of art and
architecture. Megasthanes appreciates the decentralized system of
administration, which was spreading its controlling rentacles in various
aspects of administration like from finance to force, trade to tour,
registration of birth and death to regulation of prostitution, maintenance
of public health centers to law and order, sanity to slavery, irrigation to
industry and finally inspection. Such benevolent ruling dynasty, especially
Ashoka, always believed in the principle of Tolerance as guiding light and
built an impregnable empire with unprecedented imegrity, to bear the
weight of which the shoulders of the ordinary ru.ers displayed their
inability after them, therefore there emerged many smaller and
independent states in the south as well as north among whom the Kushanas
deserve attention. They caused prosperity of India in the realms of art,
literature, economy and foreign trade.

2) The Gupta Empire (320A.D. to 750A.D.)

India that was divided into many smaller states was united once
again during the age of the Guptas. Especially Chandragupta-I and his son
Samudra Gupta of the dynasty expanded the territory considerably even to
the far south.

The Gupta rulers were able administers. The wiole empire, as they
too, like the Mauryas, believed in decentralized system of administration,
was divided into various provinces, Vishayas (districts) looked after by
Vishayapati and ultimately there were gramas headed by Gramika.

The rulers of this dynasty honored the religiows tolerance policy.

They were the great patrons of learning and art. During their time they
made generous donations of land to the Brahmins who engaged in self

36
study (Swadhyaya) and Lecturing (Pravachana). As a result there emerged
many such families that were recognized by the kings and received free
grant in the form of grains and pieces of land and sometimes entire
villages. Such families clustered in one place led to the origin of a new
system called Agraharas. The kings also patronized the great seats of
learning of their period such as Nalanda and Vallabii where revival of
teaching and learning of Sanskrit language and literature gained
momentum. This gave a big push to popularity of the language and
literature. During the earlier period due to Buddhism and Jainism Vedic
life and study of Sanskrit were backgrounded. But duiing the reign of the
Guptas once again Vedic life was revived and love of people towards
Sanskrit language and literature increased so much so that even the
Buddhist Mahayana cult began use Sanskrit language for its religious
literature. Though the Gupta rulers gave equal amount of encouragement
to all the religions the strong hold of Buddhism over the masses became
sordid. The followers of Buddhist Mahayana cult began to worship various
forms of Buddha known as Bodhisattvas in the form of idols. Buddha was
regarded as an avtar of Vishnu and was duly appropriated into Vedic
pantheon of Gods and ultimately was reduced into a cuilt of Hinduism.

As a result of incessant support lent by the rulers of the Gupta

dynasty the literature of this period usually written in Sanskrit as it was
the language of learning, library, religion, ritual and which being as such
was used commonly all over the country, grew ir all respects quite
robustly. We witness a host of writers like Kalidasa, Shoodraka,
Vishakhadatta, and Vishnusharma who wrote the Panchatantra and also
Amarasimha of the Amarakosha etc.

Apart from these writers of literary masterpieces there was also a

galaxy of writers like Vagbhata, Kapila, Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and
Varahamiheera who enriched the branches of knowledge of medical
science, physics or atomic science, mathematics, astronomy, astrology
etc., respectively by their monumental works which have continued to
exercise their influence as sources even to this day. The contribution of

37
the decimal system (use of zero after the numbersi of ancient Indian
mathematicians to the world is really a laudable achievement of this
period.

The Varna-ashramadharma assumed the important social feature

during the days of the Guptas. Joint family system was in vogue. The
marriages were endogamous and were arranged by the elders of both the
sides of bride and bridegroom. The status of the woman was higher and
reputed. She was given good but necessary education such as dancing,
music, embroidery etc. The girls were married at different ages. The
practice of widow remarriage was socially approved one. Chadragupta
himself married the widow (Dhruvadevi) of his elder brother Rama Gupta.
The divorces too were allowed, under special contexts such as stupidity,
barrenness of either of the couple. Though women in general enjoyed
freedom of movement the women of aristocratic families wore pardah or
veil over the faces and went out only under the protection of men.

The people once again engaged much in the practices of Vedic

religion. Many rulers performed horse sacrifices (Ashwamedhas). The
system of monasteries built during the period of the Buddhist and Jain
religious campaigns might have paved way to the idea of temples among
the Hindus. Such temples became the centers of various rituals such as
recital of the Puranas and worship etc. There were also minstrels who
travelled all over the empire and popularized Hinduism through their
narratives. Along with other Gods Kartikeya, Mother goddesses, the Sun
God and even the rivers in the form of goddesses were worshipped during
this period. This kind of variety of practices of the Hindu religious sects
or cults contributed integrally for the revival of Hinduism.

38
 II

The influence of the Sanskrit litterateurs over the writers of the

south is considerable in more than one way. The Dravidian languages and
the writers, especially in Tamila Nadu received a galvanizing impetus
from these writers when they were tingling with the mfluential sensation
of the Bhakti cult that had been revived during the Si*ith and the Seventh
Centuries. The splendid compositions of the Shaivite =nd the Vaishnavite
ideologies were of greater influence on the society. The Alvars, Andal,
Karikkal Ammiar, Aiyadigal Kadavarkon etc., breathe the air of bhakti
buoyantly. It was during this period that Shankaraeharya (788-820 A.D.)
appeared on the scene and attempted to unite the people with his teachings
of Monism or Absolute Monism (Advaita). He taught tke love of truth and
reason. Being a social realist and idealist he endorsed the idolatry and
other types of worship that was much in vogue in tho~e days and advised
the people to evolve them into the steps of spiritualism. Praising him S.
Radhakrishnan writes, “By the inculcation of his Advaitic doctrine he
helped man to interpret God in terms of spiritual value... broadened and
spiritualized Hinduism... He put into general circulation... ideas...
contained in the Upanishads” 33 In this way Shankaraeharya caused the re­
orientation of the Upanishadic axioms and rebuilt the ancient ambience for
the population by establishing the four Mutts related with the four Vedas
at the four cardinal points of our country.

Another personality who deserves mention during this period is

Ramanujacharya (1027-1137 A.D.) He taught the philosophy of unique
monism (Vishistadvaita). He said that purity of character is important. He
taught the people the devotional way (Bhaktimarga) to salvation, which is
easier. He asked the people to surrender totally tz God the supreme
Reality (Purushottama). Thus he emotionalized Hinduism.
Shankaraeharya’s approach was Upanishadic or intellectual whereas
Ramanujacharya’s was devotional or emotional. Emphasing this emotional
element he showed the way to salvation to many outcastes. He believed in
the emotional purity rather than anything else.

39
 These two religious teachers traveled relentlessly to different parts
of our country and became responsible in rousing consciousness among
the people. The intellectual campaign inaugurated by Shankaracharya was
further continued intensified by Ramanujacharya with a new devotional
dimension. The monasteries and mutts and the temples became the centers
wherefrom new concepts yielding to new social set up got disseminated
into the soil of society. New winds began to blow in the socio-religio-
cultural fields. The people belonging to lower strata cf society who were,
pressed into the various services of temples including dancing and playing
of various musical instruments like drum, bands aid shahanais, were
given donations of lands and as a result their social position was raised. In
a way they became responsible for the spread of art-culture. This led to
the evolution in social, spiritual, religious and cultural spheres of Indian
life during this period.

3) The Mughal Empire

Islam sprouted in the deserts of Arabia and then slowly spread to

different part of Persia, Turkey and other parts of the world. As far as its
occupation in India is concerned the beginnings may be traced in the
repeated attacks of Mahammad Ghajani and then the slave dynasties. As
an empire it gained firm footing during the reign of Mughuls. Babur laid
the foundations of Mughal Empire in India that dominated the political
sphere for many years and became responsible far many noteworthy
changes in India. The history of existence and occupation of Islam in
India is an interesting story of chronic conflicts, conquests and
conciliations between the two diametrically heterogeneous cultural and
religious entities.

The Muslim rulers had to face continuously the antagonism of the

Hindu rulers namely the Rajaputs in the north and the Vijaynagar Empire
in the south in the earlier period, and later the Marathas. Despite this
predicament for some period we witness gradual growth and glory and
ultimately discord, decay and down fall. In spite of the innumerable and
incessant attempts of the emperors that appeared in different dynasties,

40
Mohammadans, far from being soaked into an ever appreciated elastic
Hindu fold, remained merely at the periphery of Hinduism concentrating
all the while on Mecca and Mohhammad. Many Mohammadan rulers were
compelled to seek the support of the Hindus in order to evolve an
unimpeded administrative system, as they did not bring with them the men
that could form a machinery of Government. There was a section of Hindu
society, which was craving for social upliftment and recognition. This
section proved a fertile field for proselytisation to the Mohammadans. In
spite of conversion this section retained its own traditional Hindu customs
and lifestyle and thus it became instrumental in diffusing many Hindu
elements into the Muslim society.

The Muslim rulers adopted the policy of religious tolerance. As a

primary gesture of this, some rulers like Akbar, married Hindu princesses.
These Hindu queens added to the growth of mutual understanding and
assimilation of certain good values of both the totally opposite cultures.
Added to this was the contribution of the Sufi saints, which broadened the
ways of understanding interaction and assimilation of the good values
from Hindu culture into Islamic culture and vis-a-vis.

Thus Indo-Islamic culture became firm footed on the sand of time

with all the externally altered unitary appearance and internally
distinction centered experience. Their penetration became simply
peripheral Islamic culture broke a new terrain in the fields of literature,
art, architecture, painting, music etc.

Of the rulers of this period, the reign of Shershah Suri and Akbar
the great deserve mention. Shershah Suri ruled only for a period of five
years. As an able ruler he occupies an important place among the emperors
of the period. Many historians have applauded him as “a precursor of
Akbar”. 34 His administrative strategy later became a guiding lamp too to
Akbar. Dividing his vast empire into provinces (Sarkars) and clusters of
villages (Paraganas). He strengthened the decentralized system of
administration. The officers like Shekdar and ameer were looking after
the administration. He introduced the system of transfer of his officials.

41
Under the supervision of a special officer for Land Reforms he got the
agrarian lands measured, divided into three groups on the basis of
production or fertility. Viz: good, middle and bad and issued the title
deeds (pattas) specifying the amount of revenue which the agriculturists
had to sign (quabuliats), and pay the revenue as per prescription. The
enforcement of law and justice was very severe. Tr.e tax evaders and
culprits were very much afraid of the smartness of tr.e punishment. The
historians have praised the time of Shershah with high regard. It is said
that during the time an old woman might place a basket full of ornaments
on her head and go on journey without fear of robbers. Keeping in view
the development of trade and commerce he strengthened the measures for
the safe and quick transport. He improved the existing roads and
constructed new high ways, which connected all the major cities and
trading centers, and along these high ways he also constructed many rest
houses (Sarais), which consisted of separate rooms fo~ the Hindus and the
Muslims. Such Sarais were sanctioned with land for their maintenance and
an official to supervise the facilities and prevent corruptive use of them.
Thus in all respects his administration became a silvery line to be
followed by the later Mughal rulers.

If Shershah ruled simply for five years Akbar ruled for nearly forty-
five years. Throughout his administrative career he held the ideal of the
welfare of his subjects very high. He led many military campaigns and
extended the empire. His achievement as a great organizer and
administrator, par excellence claimed for him the title of National King
and ‘the great’ “A ruler can claim to be national ruler only when he does
not discriminate among his subjects in any field on anf ground, whether it
may be family, religion, caste or anything.” Though Akbar had an
unshakable faith in Islam he was not a fanatic. He adopted religious
tolerance policy like many other rulers. Spending most of his time in the
company of scholars Akbar imbibed enough knowledge of philosophy and
religions and literatures.

42
 Akbar’s contribution to the realm of literature, art, and architecture
is quite a memorable one. He opened the departmem of translation and
many translators under the department translated maay famous works of
Indian as well as other literatures into Persian language. He gave
patronage to poets and performing artists. He also attempted to abolish
many social evils such as slavery, child marriages, Sati and infanticides.
He was also an exponent of the religion of layman (Dm-Ilahi). He himself
participated into many Hindu festivals like Deepavali, Vasant Panchami
etc. After Akbar, during the regime of Shah Jahan, the art and architecture
of India reached its zenith with proper amalgamation, of Indian and
Islamic styles. However due to lack of military effic ency the Provincial
rulers in the south declared their independence and the Marathas rose to
power and posed an impediment. All these entailed in the crumple of the
Mughal rule and crumble of the empire.

4) The British Empire

Lured by the fabulous profits that could be earned from trade in the
spices of the East, the English East India Company entered India in the
17 century. Then India was groaning under the internecine struggles of
the Mughals, the Afghans and the Marathas in the north and the
Mysoreans, the Marathas and the Nizams in the South. But, the English
Trading Company’s course to profit, as it had dreamed before unfurling its
sails on the British Coast, was not so easy. It was to contend with the
Other European Traders here, namely the Dutch and the French. Thus in
the South, these “six powers entered into intrigues and conspiracies,
organized plots and counterplots and formed combinations and alliances
which baffle all political analysts”.36 Being unable to continue the
contention the Dutch disappeared and finally the British emerged
successful in the three successive Carnatic wars (l746-48-I, 1749-5411,
1758-63-III) respectively. Afterwards they dominated the native
contenders and gained firm footing. Even as early as 1651 the first
English factory was established in Bengal with the permission of Sultan
Shuja the second son of Shah Jahan) who was the then Provincial

43
administrator there. Though with the diplomatic drivs of Clive, victory
tilted towards the British, in the battle (if at all it can be called so) of
Plassey on 23rd June, 1957 though the foundation of tlae edifice of British
empire was laid, the mansion of administrative machinery with brick and
mortar of duly vested sovereign political power wus erected with the
firman issued on 12th August, 1765, by Shah Alamgir-O.

The company Sirkar took the power of administration into its

hands. As a result, under different governor-generals, various laws were
issued and reforms in diverse field were introduced.

Due to political upheavals the conditions in the country were hardly

conducive to academic pursuits and educational excellence. The native
schools like mutts and madarasas suffered the l:*ss of government
endowments. As early as 1784 British administrators 1 ke Warren Hastings
took interest in reconstructing the crumbling educaticnal institutions and
system. However the government came forward after tie repeated requests
of some educated Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy. the Department of
Public Instruction was opened and education on the British School model
was agreed to be imparted to Indians. As a result of the Western
education, in due course, new winds, the winds of new ideas began to lash
the Indian land and caused the Renaissance in India. With the introduction
of English education there was revival of Hinduism. The provincial
languages also were greatly influenced and the literature produced in them
assumed innumerable new things. The sense of history, which was
supposed to be absent among the Indians, was created. The Christian
missionaries, which established school and colleges, iefluenced the minds
of innumerable young men and taught the principles off Christianity which
became responsible for the dawn of skepticism as they always raised a
critical finger at the Hindu social and religious institutions. The
skepticism motivated some educated middle class Indians like the Dutts to
lean towards Christianity. There, was also cons ierable growth of
scientific temper and critical out look and an ardent desire for research of
our past and its re-orientation.

44
 All this, however looked from the postcolonial point of view, was
colonial strategy, a step ahead towards defending the continuity of the
British rule in India. Gouri Vishwanathan calls it an attempt of confirming
the hegemony and Eurocentricism. In this regard she says, “The English
literary text, functioning as a surrogate Englishman in his highest and
most perfect state, becomes a mask for economic
exploitation...Successfully camouflaging the material activities of the
colonizer”.37

The colonial encounter in India with the British though an accident

in the first stage slowly turned into a planned process and brought many
things in its train. It introduced many improvements in diverse fields of
Indian life. Various reforms in social field like prevention of child
marriage and Sati, abolition of casteism etc were ushered in. It introduced
many new things in economy and industry and thus as its residue it left
many material developments in the field of transport and communication,
railways, roadways, waterways, airways, radio, wireless, telegraph, postal
system, electricity etc. As a drastic step to eradicate poverty that
enshrouded Indian farmers’ life an attempt also was made during the days
of Lord Curzon, who, by setting up the department of Agriculture, tried to
construct dams, tanks and reservoirs and tried to encourage and strengthen
Indian Agrarian system that was an age old occupation of gambling with
the rains which usually failed at high times.

1.8 IMAGE OF INDIA IN ANGLO-INDIAN LITERATURE

Although traces of encountering the alien elements, as far as India

is concerned, can be traced in as antiquarian times as even before the
Christian era. The barbarous tribal community of the Mashakas, ruled by a
King of Ashwaka region, and finally the mother of the king are said to
have faced and fought with Alexander and forced him to retreat. But the
Britons’ encounter with Indians assumes altogether a a important phase in
the History of India. Regarding this phenomenon A1 en. J. Green Berger
writes, “The British connection with India is one of the most fascinating
occurrences of history.” This ‘occurrence’, which, as has already been

45
discussed in the preceding section started as a trading tournament with
scales in the hands of the entrants, and eventually entailed in their
occupation of administration and Governance of this country. To establish
victory over a territory is one thing and ruling it as successful masters in
another. The ruler must devise a wise strategy, espec ally when the ruled
are an alien race, with stranger practices and faiths, unknown language,
religion and culture. Given the predicament as such the ruler needs
acquire their knowledge with diligence. Edward Said cpines “...knowledge
of subject races or Orientals is what makes their management easy and
profitable; knowledge gives power, more power requiies more knowledge,
so on and on in an increasingly profitable dialect of information and
control”. The ruling Britons’ attempt to understand India encouraged
many officials working in the government to write about India Indians
etc., with an intention of helping their fellow countrymen. The literature
produced by the ruling class spread many ideas about this subcontinent
among the subjects of England in general and policy makers in particular.
The flow of information and ideas was given an impetus by the British
education system introduced. This led to the genesis of the body of
Writing/Literature, which came to be designated, as Anglo Indian
Literature.

Though the urchin of Anglo-Indian Literature, especially Anglo-

Indian fiction, was led into the sunshine of India by male hands it found a
cozy place, careful attention and affectionate attachment with women
writers, who patted, fed and caused its robust growth- As it is now about
bicentury old, it presents the readers with myriad images embedded in it.
The critics have concentrated upon broadly the two images viz 1) Image of
India as held by the British authors which they gleaned usually during
their stay here as part of the British Raj and 2) British self Image which
they projected in order to be the successful rulers in this subcontinent.

Prof. Bhupal Sing, in his monumental work 4 Survey of Anglo-

Indian Fiction, divides the corpus of fiction up to his time into three
broad periods viz: 1] ‘Period of Governor - Generalship of Warren

46
Hastings and up to the Indian Mutiny’: The works published during this
period were mostly dealing with ‘romances of Indian history’ and
‘Sketches of English Society in India’. It may be called the period of
SKETCHES. 2] Period between Indian Mutiny and :he death of Queen
Victoria: The works produced during this period mainly consist of the
‘portraits of the official life of Anglo-India, mainly satirical’. It may be
called the period of SATIRES Or SATIRICAL PORTRAITS. 3] Period,
which begins with the partition of Bengal and continues till contemporary
times. The works of this period embrace many subjects “and are a true
reflex of the varied life and problems of India in transition”: Period of
REFLECTIONS. 40

The Disinterested Nabob (1785) by an unknown author is the first

specimen of Anglo-Indian fiction. Soon it was followed by Miss Sidney
Owenson’s (Lady Morgan) The Missionary (1811) per perhaps the earliest
book that deals with the missionaries’ life in India anc The English Homes
in India (1828) that pictures the life of English commmnity in Indian clime
of her time. William Brown Hockley wrote three novels 1] ‘Panduranga
HarV (1826); 2] Tales of the Zenana (1827) and 3] The English in India
(1828), which deal with the Hindu life. As he woiked in Bombay his
contact with the Hindus and his knowledge of Hindu life provided him
with much material and prompted him to write on the theme. He modeled
his works on the Arabian Nights and tried to picture the details as
faithfully as possible. His works can be said to be of greater influence on
the writers to follow. But “Hockley has received less attention than he
deserves. His Tales of Zenana was undoubtedly the greatest achievement
in the sphere of fiction...”41Though Sir Walter Scott and Charles Dickens
had never been to India they make ample allusions to her in their works
more than once. Speaking of the phenomenon Prof. Bhupal Singh says,
“India had became so important in the nineteenth cen'ury that it could not
be altogether ignored” 42 William Macpiece Thakeiay, an offspring of
Anglo-Indian parents, was born in India (Calcutta) and as it greatly
influenced by Indian soil, Sun and social life especially Indian

47
Brahmanical life. These childhood influences or rather impressions are
studded into his works unconsciously.

Meadows Taylor came to India as a young boy of fifteen, the most

formative period in the life an individual. As a boy with teeming spirit he
joined the army of the Nizam of Hyderabad and gleaned much of lore and
languages, of the South. He could speak Marathi, Hindustani and Persian
fluently. He wrote all in all seven works, which deal with Indian ethos and
itihas (history). His works namely 1] Confessions of a Thug (1839), 2]
Tippoo Sultan (1840), 3] Tara-A Marhatta Tale (1863), 4] Ralph Darnell
(1865), 5] Seeta (1872), 6] A Fatal Armlet (1872), 7] A Noble Queen
(1878) all breathe Indianness buoyantly. “77?e Confess ons of a Thug is the
finest realistic romance of Indian ever penned”. 43 His power of recreating
the historical personalities and their period faultlessly and the halo of
credible candour he casts around the characters and incidents have
immortalized his place in the world of Anglo Indian fiction as the
veritable ‘Scott of India’. While Meadows Taylor is interested in
capturing the history and the Hindu life his contemporaries like W.
Delafield Arnold in his singular work Oakfield, or Fellowship in the East
(1853) and John Lang, in his five novels 1] Too Cleve- by Half, (1853), 2]
The Whetherbys (1853) and other three novels express their righteous
anger towards the apathetic attitude and callousness of the British rulers
towards the natives and attack them with acrimonious words and bitter
satire.

The First War of Indian Independence, which the white men called
‘the great Indian Mutiny’, left an unforgettable traumatic impression on
the mind of the British. “Although the Great Mutiny cf 1857 had provided
the staple diet, for much Anglo-Indian historical fiction”.44 In the
twentieth century the publication of The Wife and tae Ward or A Life’s
Error (1859) by Edward Money immediately after twc years of occurrence
of Mutiny became a milestone for the tribe of writers with the theme.

In the evening of the 19th century the stories with true Indian
atmosphere wherein a white man walks with adventure, success and

48
victory in Indian territory appeared with the publication of G.A. Henty’s
works like 1] In the Time of Peril (1881), and With Clive in India (1883)
etc. These stories endeared themselves with the readers to a greater
extent. With his thorough familiarity of Indian ambience and ambivalence
as is revealed in his Short Stories, 1] Plain Tales from the Hills (1888), 2]
Soldiers Three (1888), 3] Wee Willie Winkie (1888), 4] Life’s Handicap
(1891) and finally in his novels Naulakha (1892) and Kim (1901), Rudyard
Kipling gives “stay-at-home Englishmen a clearer insight in to the main
features of Anglo-Indian and native life than any of their numerous and
ponderous predecessors in the task”.45 Laved in the effulgent influence of
Kipling there appeared a bevy of novelists, as if a school it were, of
women novelists. His influence on women novelists is especially
noteworthy. Following is the line of important women novelists of
outstanding merit and achievement who wrote during the 19th century,
literally some of these wait still to be studied and assessed critically.

1] Mrs. B. M. Croker (nee’ Sheppard): Proper Pride (1882) etc., has 46

works to her credit.

2] Mrs. Flora Annie Steel: From the Five Rivers (1893) etc., has published
around 20 works.

3] Mrs. Everard Cotes (Sara Jennete nee’ Duncan): The Adventures of

Memsahib (1893) etc., she has written 6 works.

4] Mrs. Alice Perrin: Into Temptation (1894) etc., has published 21 works.

5] Miss. Sidney Carlyon’ Grier (Hilda Gregg): In the Farthest Ind (1894)
etc., has written 14 works.

6] Mrs. F.E.Penny: The Romance of Nautch girl (1898) etc., has been a
fabulous writer with 33 works.

7] Mrs. Maud Diver: Captain Desmond, V.C. (1907) etc., she has a dozen
and a quarter of works to her credit.

49
8] Mrs. E.W. Savi: The Reproof of Chance (1910) etc., The corpus of her
works number of which amounts to 51.

9] Mrs. John Travers (Mrs. G. H. Bell): Sahib-Log (1910) etc., she has
publish a dozen works minus one.

10] Mrs. Lily Adam Beck: The Way of the Stars (1926) etc., she has
written half a dozen works.

Quite apart from these there are many women novelists who have a
couple of novels at least to their credit.

The appearance of E.M.Forster and Edward Thompson on the

literary scenario of Anglo-Indian Fiction is an important phase. For these
two writers widened the horizon of the Anglo-Indian fiction with their
novel treatment of themes and response to their times. E.M. Forster in his
A Passage to India (1924) discusses the connection and clash of races
casting the characters and situations in the light of reality with a sense of
detachment. His recording of the reactions of Indians towards the British
and vis-a-vis is carried out sincerely and artistically in the book under
reference. Likewise Edward Thompson in his book A1 Indian Day (1927)
efforts to understand the political predicament of his contemporary India
with believable fairness and humane sympathy, while picturing the life of
Indian natives and Anglo-Indians in the back drop of colonial encounter.

During the period between 1920-47, which consists of the part of

‘the era of doubt’ and ‘the era of Melancholy’ as identified by Allen. J.
Greenberger, there was unprecedented increase in the interest among the
reading public in England as well as among the practitioners of the genre,
towards literature written on India, especially fiction when the famous
writers like Denis Kincaid, Darbar (1933), Runer Godden: Black
Narcissuss (1939), Hilda Seligman: When Peacocks Called (1940)
Somerset Maugham: (who was greatly influenced oy H.H.Sri Ramana
Maharshi) The Razor’s Edge (1944) and Philip Woodruff (Mason Philip)

50
Call the Next Witness (1945) and innumerable ethers enriched the
literature and entertained the readers.

The interest of readers in Anglo-Indian Literaiure, in spite of the

withdrawal of the British from India leading to the independence of the
latter, remained indomitable. Quite surprising and rich is the harvest of
literature of this period, which continues till the day. The prominent of
the writers of this time may be listed as under.

1] John Masters: The Night Runners of Bengal (1951) etc.

2] M. M. Kaye: The Shadow of the Moon (1956) etc.

3] Paul Scott: Alien Sky (1953) and The Raj Quartet (1965-75)

4] J. G. Farrel: The Siege of Krishnapur (1971)

5] Valerie Fitzgerald: Zamindar (1981)

These writers along with many others present the myriad pictures of
various aspects of Indian life. Sometimes they also present the reader with
nostalgia of raj and memories here, providing »ast scope for the
interpretation of the impact of Indo-British encounter in the post colonial
context.

1.9 THE ENGLISHMAN’S IMAGE OF INDIA

Recordation of experiences is the immediate bmsiness of literature.

Experience being an inevitable part of existence always desires to attain
immortality. To achieve the state of immortality it assumes various attires
of art of which language is one. Therefore language is an instrument that
bestows immortality to experience as well as the author. It manifests itself
into several forms such as poetry, drama, epic, fiction etc. Ever since its
appearance on the firmament of literature, fiction earned ineffable
popularity among the reading public. Artist or practitioner of fiction,
living in the society keeps himself open to the impressions and

51
experiences of life and happenings around him. Being a sensitive soul he
responds to the v&garies and vicissitudes of life and happenings in the
society of which he is a part. When he responds to the impressions,
happenings and experiences a sort of tension grips him so much so that it
leads to many conflicting emotions within him. “The intensity of tension
and conflict that bother and become cumbersome on the part of the artist
or author are brought to equanimity and balance anc lead to a sense of
relief only when expressed. During the moments of documentation of
impressions, responses and experience the medium of author’s expression
assumes images”.46 Images are avatars of experiences. Therefore intensive
study of Images created by a body of writers at a particular period of
history becomes much profitable to the society.

As has already been discussed the British entry into India entailed
as a motto of establishing an eternal empire here in India. “The relation
between two far distant areas took place not only in tho spheres of law and
administration, but also in the realm of ideals. A more complete
understanding of British policy towards India can be gained through a
recognition of the ideas which the British rulers held about Indian
subjects and Indian possession”47 The literature majoi portion of which is
fiction produced by the authors who “were only vocal members of the
public rather than full-fledged intellectuals they give a broad picture... the
images created by these authors were bound to have their effect not only
in England but also in India itself’.48 Speaking of the various images
created by English authors as regards India Prof. M. K. Naik says:

India has indeed been, over the centuries, a and of all kinds to
different kinds of Englishmen. It has been variously a Man-making
land and a Man-marring land; a land of gold and glory and a land of
disease and death; a land of the transcendental and a land of
temptation; a land of thinkers and thugs, mystics and mosquitoes,
princes and pampers, Satis and sirens, Sadhus and sybarites,
diamonds and dysentery, cholera and chimeras, temples and
tempers, tigers and tiffins and gilt and guilt.49

Since times immemorial, the wealth and gold of India, which was
repeatedly, referred to by chroniclers like Herodotus and Strabo, attracted

52
innumerable foreigners to India. From Chaucer tc» the poets of the
twentieth century almost every writer in English Liteiature has invariably
referred to the apparent as well as hidden wealth, gold and jewellery of
India. It’s not only the material wealth they refer to bat also the wealth of
knowledge, spiritualism truth, virtue and various doctrines propounded by
the sages and seers of this land. “The influence of Buddhist ideas on
Christian doctrine may be traced in the Gnostic forms of Christianity, if
not elsewhere. The notions of Indian philosophy and religion which
filtered into the Roman Empire flowed through channels opened by
Alexander”.50

India, during the early days of the British conquest, was supposed to
be a land of limitless opportunities, especially an area of opportunity to
display the dexterity in administration and exercise of law.

Administration and exercise of law, for the civil administrators like

Clive, Curzon, Meadows Taylor, Dalhousie and many others, was not
simply a duty but a chance or opportunity to exhibit their ability and
valour. Sometimes the administrators like Meadows Taylor who won the
love and affections of the Indian people of the provinces they ruled so
much that their achievements were fabled and sometimes even sung in the
form of ballads.

From William Hockley to Paul Scott, Anglo-Indian Writers, forming

a special class of writers in English Literature have offered several
images. Some of these writers who were gripped witk race consciousness
could write about India with deep understanding of the people and
practices. They simply touch upon the peripheral subjects and therefore
the images contributed by these writers constitute only a fractional and
refractional ones of Indian life and lore. But there were also writers who
wrote on wider range of thought, theme and treatment of Indian influence
upon them. Such authors present authentic images, as their knowledge
with regard to this land and language, people practices was deep and laved
in catholic vision. The writers like Hockley, W.D.Arnold, Thackeray and
Scott etc., belong to the first set of writers while Meadows Taylor,

53
Kipling, Edward Thompson and E.M. Forster etc., constitute the second
set.

Rudyard Kipling is a unique personality in the realm of Anglo-

Indian fiction. It was he, who laid track for many writers, by writing
works, which are imbued with veritable Indian atmosphere. They reveal
his experience of Indian life, keen observation of situation coupled with
sympathy. He deals with various themes like East-West encounter, Indian
customs and life, mystery of India, Indian natural picturesqueness and
peculiarity of practices, English life in India which presents the people
who come here usually display a sort of disgust f»r natives and earn
money and give themselves to enjoyment and entertainment, while hurling
abuses at Indian life. These themes were also further bequeathed to his
followers.

The earliest writer that was influenced considerably by Kipling was

Mrs. F.A. Steel. Though she displays much understanding about the Hindu
and Mohammedan life, she presents very slender picture of Anglo-Indian
life. The vibrant note of her novels is pathos and the traumatic memory of
the Mutiny. Her important works are: 1] Miss Stuart s Legacy (1893), 2]
The Potter’s Thumb (1894), 3] On the Face of the Waters (1896), 4]
Voices in the Night (1900) etc.

The other important and impressive image of India is that India is a

land of opulent spiritual knowledge. From the ancient literature and lore
of India an Englishman can glean a rich harvest and improve his
perspective. This idea is handled masterfully by F.W. Bain who was laved
well in Indian antique literature, culture and ethos. He also believed in the
idea of immortality of soul. The doctrines of Maya and Karma also had
special influence on him. In his works like 1 ] A Digit of the Moon (1899),
2] In the Great God’s Hair (1904), 3] An Incarnation of the Snow (1908),
4] The Ashes of God (1911), 5] The Substance of a D^eam (1919) etc., he
deals with the theme. He makes the white man understand the superiority
of Indian philosophic and religious principles and the Vedantic
contemplation of the Supreme.

54
 When the Anglo-Indian writers, in spite of their spending
considerably a longer time in Indian clime, in spit? of their fervently
struggling to capture the real image of India, were scarcely successful in
their effort, there appeared A Passage to India (1914) by E.M. Forster
who had spent merely a short period here while compered with host of his
counterparts. A Passage to India is praised as “an oasis in the desert of
Anglo Indian fiction. It is a clever picture of Englishmen in India... of the
Indians... of the problems arising out of the contact of India with the
West”.51 His major themes are East-West encounter, capturing of Indian
ethos and also human relations. Without enlisting to ihe propagandists he
presents the Indians, the Moslems and the British n the floodlight of
candour. Thus he shows his knowledge of Indian life in his book, which
sucked almost every potentiality from his personall y and achieved the
status of a masterpiece. Pary Benita has rightly assessed the influence of
India on Forster’s Creativity and Craftsmanship Sie says, “India for
Fortser opened out his growing vision of man’s experiential range.
Through speculating on the historical and cultural beimg... in A Passage to
India there are intimations of what the British might have learned from
C fy

their long association with India”.

A contemporary of Forster, Edward Thompso* tries to arrest the

contemporary political conditions in India. His main themes are clash of
races and people, depiction of Indian and Anglo-Indian life, contemporary
politics, comparison of Hinduism and Christianity etc. He takes a
sympathetic stance towards intellectual Indians. His marvel towards
Indian women’s devotion is commendable. In his work A Farewell to India
(1930) he displays the story of the disillusionment thet dawns on the mind
of a missionary at the out set but in it lays embedded his sympathy for
Indians and veneration for Gandhi, wherein the protagonist’s observation,
“in Gandhi centuries of poverty, and exploitation had found a voice- a
human reed through whom suffering was speaking- not its own - but a
nation’s...” response remains resounding in the ear of the reader,
especially the Indian reader even after long period after finishing with the
reading of the book. “The spirit of God... with him I can see a score of

55
places where he has been wrong and often woefully wrong. But I wish my
people could have been his friends.54 In the same way in another novel An
End of the Hours (1938) though he indulges in the comparative comments
on Hinduism and Christianity at the outset, novel recDrds the feelings of
the author that there was a sense of guilt and shame among the Anglo-
Indians as regards their occupation and administration of India and their
unquestioned dominance over the natives. However Thompson also makes
his character (Alden) pronounce that Christianity was devoid of ahimsa
and further asks, “why did not Christ did not say something... about man’s
duty to other beings”55 In Night Falls on Siva’s Hill (1929) Thompson
shows how understanding dawned on the white men and turned them into
the lovers of this land who ultimately settle here.

Thus he takes a sympathetic stance for Indians, Indians’

nationalism, spiritualism, religion, etc., and projects an image of India
that in many ways there were many things which the British or White man
must learn from Indians.

When the Anglo-Indian fictionists tried to write historical novels,

with a view to capture historical image of India they often fell a prey
either too much to history or too much to imagination distorting and
ignoring the historical facts. Always “in a great historical novel,
imagination not only re-creates the past, but makes the dry facts of history
glow with life”56 Some of the writers’ intervention into Indian history was
propelled with an intention of providing a proper perspective to their
contemporary problems. For instance L.H. Myers seems especially
interested in Indian history of the Mughal period. H:s works like 1] The
Near and the Far (1929), 2] The Prince Jali [a sequel to the first one], 3]
The Root and the Flower (1947) show his acquaintance with the history of
the Mughal period. In all these books he depicts picturesquely the
attitudes and aspirations, dress and deportment, delights and dislikes of
the people at that time, while underscoring their applicability in
contemporary times. Akbar’s attempt “to reconcile ttue conflict of creeds

56
by founding a universal church”57 of Din-e-Ilahi etc., are captured in the
true colour of the period.

The other novelist who harped upon the historical themes is George
Alfred Henty in his novels In Time of Peril. (1881) etc.

Indian War of Independence, which was called zhe great mutiny by

Britishers, was also a recurrent subject of histor> for the historical
novelists. Although The Wife and the Word or A Life’s Error by Edward
Money, as early as 1859, mentions Mutiny, it is far to be called a full-
fledged Mutiny novel. The first full-fledged mutiny ncvel The Dilemma: A
Tale of the Mutiny (1876) was written by Sir George Tomkyns Chesney. It
gives a first hand experience, as he himself was a victim. The other
mutiny novelists are Mr. D.H. Thomas, The Touchstore of Peril (1886), A
Tale of the Indian Mutiny (1886), and Robert. A. Slsrndale The Afghan
Knife (1879), Col. A.F.P. Harcourt The Peril of the Sword (1903), Patricia
Wentworth The Devil’s Wind (1912), Louis Tracy Red Year (1908) etc. All
these mutiny novels, while giving a virile sketch of White man and his
peril in India throw light on the Indian rulers and fneir reaction to the
alien oppressive rule.

Maggie, sister of Jim Corbett writes, “It was hard for us to imagine
ourselves living anywhere but in India, our home and home of our
ancestors...with its simple, kindly people... mountains, lakes... a part of
our very selves”.58 As Corbett’s father served at different places, he had
an appreciable knowledge of real rural India, and the life of laymen
laborers and also flora and fauna, which gets mirrored clearly in his
works. His works also show his love of geographical beauty of India.

If we see fixity and firmness in Jim Corbett’s love and attachment

with India we witness fluctuations or conflict as regards to his emotional
attachment with India in John Masters. In spite of his ancestors’
continuous stay and service to this land his fluctuations are quite
conspicuous in his works. He was of the fifth generation to have served in
India. Although he displays love for India it wavers al times. In his works

57
that follow he offers various images of India of whicn India, as home for
white man is recurrent. However he shows ancestral attachment as a
dominant element in his novels. Works that abound with the love of India
may be listed as under.

1] The Deceivers (1952), 2] The Night Runners of Bengal (1951), 3]

The Lotus and the Wind (1953), 4] Bhovani Junction 11954), 5] The Coral
strand (1963) 6] The Ravi Lancers (1972) 7] By the Green of the spring
(1981) etc.

Actually after England’s retreat from Indian political scenario the

harvest of Anglo-Indian fiction is conspicuously rich. During this period
the predominant novelist is Paul Scott. His works li<e 1] The Alien Sky
(1953), 2] The Birds of Paradise (1962), 3] The Jewel in the Crown
(1966), 4] The Day of the Scorpion (1968), 5] Staying On (1977) etc.,
wherein he projects various images of India like India is a cage or prison
for a British man though a ruler, the troubles that upshot while exercising
the power here. Apart from this he also projects the image of India as a
land of settlement or home. He also shows that India needs a person to
civilize and improve. While presenting these images repeatedly in his
works such as in Raj Quartet his representative and impressive novel as in
other works he eviscerates “mercilessly the British colonial conscience
and the hypocrisies, prevarications and delusions in which it tries to take
refuge”.59

Almost all of the above mentioned and many other novelists have
dealt deeply with religious subjects, especially various aspects, beliefs
and practices of the Hindus, Mohamadans, other sub castes and cults.

A considerable contribution made by women novelists to Anglo-

Indian fiction, while enriching it in a dazzling way, has created a diverse
universe itself. Some of the so many Anglo-Indian women novelists, of
whom mention may be made are: 1] Mrs. B. M. Croker, 2] Mrs. Maud
Diver, 3] Mrs. Hilda C. Gregg, 4] Mrs. G. H. Bell, 5] Mrs. Rumer
Goodden, 6] Mrs. Alice Perrin, 7] Mrs. E. W. Savi, 8] Mrs. F. E. Penny, 9]

58
Mrs. Lily Adam Beck, 10] Mrs. Everard Cotes anc many others have
contributed considerably, though slender in cases of seme novelists of one
or two novels to their credit reveal the circumstances of surmounting joy
or jaded sense, bewilderment and bifurcation, reformation and
readjustment, sympathy and psycho kinetics wherein :heir characters find
themselves in this land.

CONCLUSION:

From the discussion it is evident that the pra:titioners of Anglo-

Indian fiction constantly engaged their minds and manoeuvres to penetrate
into the many layers of obscurity and mystery that environ India. Though
they have produced a big body of literature, which is quite rich in
craftsmanship, thought, content and creativity, though they all wove
innumerable images of India through their perception and parlance. “The
emphasis is always on England rather than on India. It is events in
England..., which determine the image held of Ind a at any particular
time. From this it follows that the images were not changed by the Indian
reality. It is far more like that the images have influenced the way in
which the reality was seen. The changing images appear to have had little
to do with developments in India”.60 In spite of such invention of images
and relentless attempts of the novelists India remained far from being
understood and still waits for “an English novelist, great enough, ... to
meet the Sphinxian challenges...successfully, one who could pluck the
heart out of the Indian mystery and extract the essemce of this awesome
land”.61 Mrs. B.M. Croker belongs to this galaxy of Anglo-Indian writers
who have tried to understand Indian in their own way in spite of the
conspicuous cultural divide between them and India.

59
 REFERENCES

1. Quoted in The Cultural Heritage of India, Vol-I S. Radhakrishnan

et. al. (eds) (Calcutta: Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture;
1958) Second Edn., p.4.
2. Raychoudhary S.C., Social Cultural and Econorric History of India;
(Delhi: Surjeet; 1989) p.13.
3. Ibid.
4. Jain, Rama Chandra, Introduction; The Most Ancient Aryan Society;
(Sri Ganganagar: Institute of Bharatalogical Research; 1964) p.V.
5. Quoted by Renu, L. N., Indian Ancestors of Ved.c Aryans; (Bombay:
Bharatiya Vidyabhavan; 1996) p.10.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid. , p.35.
8. Quoted by Anatarangachar, N.S., Vaidika Sahityn Charitre;
(Mysore: Prasaranga, University of Mysore; 1975) p.28.
9. Ibid.
10.Ibid. , p.29.
11 .Ibid. , p.30.
12.Rice, Lewis, (ed), Amarakosha; (New Delhi & Madras: Asian
Educational Service; 1988) p.103.
13.Ibid. , p.416.
14.Ibid. , p.425.
15.Ibid. , p.467.
16.Ibid. , p.425
17. Quoted by Mahajan, V.D., Ancient India', (New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.; 1995) pp. 107-8.
18. Quoted by Raychoudhari, S.C., Op. Cit., p.59.
19. Embree, Ainslie, T., (ed), Sources of Indian Tradition (Columbia
University Press; 1988) p.8.
20.Ibid. , Notes appended to the Chapter-II, p.38.
21.Quoted by Anantarangachar, N.S., Op. Cit., p.274.
22.Ibid. , p.276.
23.Ibid. , p.275.

60
24. Raychoudhari, S.C., Op., Cit., p.41.
25. Quoted by Anantarangachar, N.S., Op. Cit., p.4&2.
26. Mahajan, V.D., Op. Cit., p. 151.
21.Ibid. , p.152.
28. Quoted by Mahajan, V.D., Op. Cit., p.158.
29. Mahajan, V.D., Op. Cit., p.185.
30.Ibid., p.183.
31. Mahajan, V.D., Op. Cit., p.270.
32. Quoted by Mahajan, V.D., Op. Cit., p. 279.
33. Quoted by Raychoudhari, S.C., Op. Cit., p. 192.
34.Sharma, L.P., History of Medieval India: 1000-1740 A.D. (Rev.ed.)
(Delhi: Konark; 1994) p.307.
35.Ibid. , pp. 345-6.
36. Grover, B.L. and Grover, S., A New Look at Modern Indian History,
(New Delhi: S. Chand & Co.; 1998) p.XIX.
37. Quoted by Gandhi, Leela., Post-Colonial Theory: A Critical
Introduction; (New Delhi: Oxford University Press; 1988) p. 145.
38. Greenberger, Allen. J., The British Image of Ind'a: A Study in the
Literature of Imperialism 1880-1960; (London: Oxford University
Press; 1969) p.2.
39.Said, Edward., Orientalism; (London: Routledge; 1978) p.36.
40.Singh, Bhupal., Survey of Anglo-Indian Fiction; (London: Curzon;
1974) p.l.
41.Oaten, E.F., A Sketch of Anglo-Indian Literature; (London: K. Paul,
Trench and Trubner; 1908) p. 145.
42.Singh, Bhupal., Op. Cit., p. 37.
43. Quoted by Gupta, Jayanta Kumar Das., “The East in English
Literature”, The Calcutta Review; (Calcutta: Jain, 1929) p. 64.
44. Naik, M.K, The Englishman and India: Two Lec ures on Anglo-
Indian Fiction; (Dharwad: Prasaranga; K.U. Press; 1995) p. 48.
45.Oaten, E.F., Op. Cit., p. 159.
46. Bhairappa, S.L., “Afterword” Jalapata; (Bangalore: Sahitya
Bhandar; 1967) p.
47. Greenberger, Allen.J., Op. Cit., p.l.

61
48.Ibid., p.2.
49. Naik, M.K., Mirror on the Wall: Images of India and English man in
Anglo-Indian Fiction; (New Delhi: Sterling; 1991) p.8.
50. Quoted by Das, Jayanta Kumar., Op. Cit., pp. 45-46.
51.Singh, Bhupal., Op. Cit., p. 221.
52. Benita, Parry, Delusions and Discoveries: Studies on India in the
British Imagination 1880-1930; (London: Allan Lane; 1972) p.8.
53. Quoted by Singh Bhupal., Op. Cit., pp. 239-40.
54. Quoted by Naik, M.K., Two Lectures... Op. Cit..p.54.
55. Quoted by Naik, M.K., Mirror on the... Op. Cit..p. 105.
56.Singh, Bhupal., Op. Cit., p. 262.
51.Ibid., p.244.
58. Naik, M.K., Two Lectures... Op. Cit., p.2.
59. Naik., M.K., Mirror on the... p.173.
60. Greenberger, Allen, J. Op. Cit., pp.6-7.
61. Bhullar, Avatar Singh, India: Myth and Reality: Images of India in
the Fiction by English Writers; (Delhi: Ajanta; 1985) pp. 6-7.

* * *

62