An Introduction to

Environmental Science

Environmental Science draws from many disciplines of science.

You have likely heard of Biology, Chemistry, and Physics before, but Environmental
Science is a combination of these three disciplines of science while also including
issues from health, politics, economics, and ethics.

Environmental Science is the study of all of these things, including how humans
impact the organisms and surroundings.

This course will help you to understand how we, as humans,

can impact the organisms and environment in which we live.

This course will not only introduce you to the origins and development of
Environmental Science, as a discipline, but will also help you to understand how we,
as humans, can impact the organisms and environment in which we live.

2.1
Understanding Our Environment
Most people do not think of the term 'environment' as something that includes their
neighborhoods and backyards. It is a term that is more likely to evoke images of a
flowing stream through the countryside or a rainforest canopy spotted with exotic
flowers. In general, a person's environment consists of everything that is around us,
including the natural world and man-made things. The term also refers to things that
can't be seen, which are part of a complex web of relationships that guide our
existence in this world.

What Is Environmental Science?

Environmental science is the study of how humans impact the environment.

The Goals of Environmental Science

A key objective of environmental science is to understand and solve environmental
issues. This objective is addressed by studying the two major interactions between
humans and the environment. The first is how we use natural resources around us,
such as plants and water, and the other interaction that is studied is how humans alter
the environment through their actions. To understand these interactions,
environmental scientists collect extensive data and analyze information from various
related disciplines.

Many different fields of study fall under the category of Environmental Science.

Many Fields of Study

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary science that consists of numerous fields
of study of which ecology is an important component. Ecology is the study of the
interaction among living things and with their non-living environment. One example
is when an ecologist studies the relationship between bees and the plants they
pollinate. For an environmental scientist, his or her key interest would be how various
human activities impact bees' nesting behavior. Biology, the study of living
organisms, and zoology, the study of animals, are other fields of study related to
environmental science.

Others related fields of science include geology, which enhances our understanding on
how pollutants travel underground as well as chemistry, and paleontology. Thanks to
chemistry, environmental scientists are better able to understand the nature of various
pollutants around us whereas paleontology enables us to predict future climatic
changes based on an understanding of past climatic events. Environmental science
further focuses on earth science, the study of non-living systems and the planet, and
climatology. which looks at earth's atmosphere and climate. Other key areas of study
that are important to environmental science include the following:

A climate monitoring control room.

 Engineering - The study of how energy and matter are transformed into useful purposes for

humans in products, structures, and machines.

 Physics - The study of energy and matter

 Botany - The study of plants

 Geology - The study of the earth's interior processes, history, and surface

 Hydrology - The study of the earth's water resources

 Biochemistry - Looks at the chemistry of living things

 Anthropology - The study of how the biological, historical, geographical, and cultural aspects of

human beings interact with each other

 Geography - The study of the relationship between earth's features and the human populations

 Geochemistry - A branch of geology concerned with the chemistry of materials, including

water, soil, and rocks

Considering that environmental science focuses on the interactions between humans
and the environment, environmental scientists also borrow heavily from social
sciences, such as law, economics, geography, and politics. Social science can provide
answers to pertinent questions, such as the impact of cultural attitudes on
environmental use; and impact of rural-urban migration on the local environment.

Scientists as Citizens, Citizens as Scientists

Although environmental scientists are knowledgeable and skilled in understanding the
interactions between human beings and the environment, most of the environmental
problems are often identified by non-scientists, including those in government and
students. A case in point is that of the students at a high school in Ohio, who have
been instrumental in efforts to protect box turtles from extinction. Each year, these
students often furnish city planners with the findings of their research on the risks
facing the habitats of box turtles, which might threaten their existence. This research
is often conducted through a study of these habitats during which the students took
soil samples, measured atmospheric conditions, and tracked the turtles' movement.
Thus, they were able to better understand the conditions and factors hindering the box
turtles' nesting and hibernation.

Our Environment Through Time

New York City is a testament to the fact that human activities often alter the
environment in which they live. The 'Big City' was once an area in which Native
Americans hunted wild animals and gathered food.

Hunter-Gatherers
Hunting and gathering has been a predominant activity in many human societies for
most of our history. Various societies would pick wild fruits and hunt wild animals as
their food. There are still several hunter-gatherer societies that inhabit the rainforests
of the Amazon River, as well as in New Guinea. These societies altered their
environments by sometimes cutting down trees or burning them to easily hunt their
prey.

The bow and arrow was the primary weapon

of hunter-gatherers for centuries.

The Native American tribes are an example of a society that burned down their forests
in order to hunt bison. In various other parts, the actions of hunter-gatherer societies
caused the extinction of various animals, such as giant bison, cave bears, giant sloths,
and saber-toothed cats.

The Agricultural Revolution

The agricultural revolution refers to the change that occurred in human societies as a
result of their adoption of agriculture, the practice of breeding, growing, and caring
for animals and plants for food, clothing, shelter, transportation, and other uses. The
phenomenon, which began 10,000 years ago, caused an increase in human population
but also placed immense pressure on the environment. As human beings sought more
space to farm, they depleted the natural resources through slash-and-burn, which was
the most prominent technique for creating more land. The repercussions of these
actions included floods, water shortages, and soil loss. The collapse of the Tigris-
Euphrates River Basin, one of the earliest civilizations in the Agricultural revolution,
proves that human actions can impact the environment to the extent of rendering the
soil infertile due to soil contamination.

The Industrial Revolution

The agricultural revolution ushered in the Industrial Revolution in the mid-1700s.
This was a period during which energy sources for human activities shifted from
running water and animal power, to fossil fuels, such as oil and coal. The hallmarks of
the industrial revolution helped reduce the pressure on the environment as fewer
people farmed and more worked in factories in the urban areas.

The industrial revolution vastly improved the quality of life for most of the world,
but it also affected the environment in many negative ways.

Fossil fuels, coupled with the invention of motorized vehicles, enhanced the process
of transporting agricultural products from the rural to urban areas.

Improving Quality of Life

Despite the many positive changes that came with the Industrial Revolution, various
environmental problems soon emerged. By the 1900s, human beings were using
artificial substances instead of plant products and raw animal products. Substances,
such as a plastic, have posed some major environmental problems, in the form of
pollution. As such, the core focus of environmental science is the environmental
problems emerging from the Industrial Revolution.

Spaceship Earth
The earth is a closed system that is similar to a spaceship that cannot dispose of waste
or admit any more supplies. Within this closed system, there is the risk that human
beings produce waste at a more rapid rate than they can be disposed of, in addition to
the risk of depleting the natural resources. Environmental problems can be local,
regional, or global, meaning that they can be restricted to a small area or can be a
global issue.

Population Growth: A Local Pressure

Increasing population growth is the main reason for the environmental pressure
currently witnessed globally. The number of people worldwide quadrupled in the 20th
century due to the advances of the agricultural revolution and the industrial
revolution. However, this population increase has caused a huge headache in the form
of food supply and security.

A crowded street market.

Efforts to feed the ever-expanding human population has precipitated environmental

problems resulting from habitat destruction and use of pesticides that eventually
impact the environment. With the global population projected to increase in the 21st
century, we can expect that environmental pressure will increase as societies endeavor
to create enough food to feed themselves.

What Are Our Main Environmental Problems?

Environmental problems can be categorized as pollution, loss of biodiversity, or
resource depletion.

Resource Depletion
A natural resource can be grouped as either a non-renewable or renewable. Renewable
natural resources, such as air, fresh water, crops, trees, solar energy, and soil, can be
replaced at a relatively faster rate in comparison to its consumption. Non-renewable
natural resources, such as minerals and fossil fuels, take longer to replace, sometimes
up to a million years. Resource depletion occurs when a large fraction of a natural
resource has been consumed. It is possible, however, for certain renewable resources
to become depleted. For example, the cutting down of trees can lead to deforestation
of an environment, where the trees do not grow faster than they are being cut down.

Pollution
The Industrial Revolution was characterized by excessive waste production that was
not accompanied by appropriate waste disposal. Pollution refers to undesired changes
in soil, water, or air, which seriously impacts the activities, health, and survival of
living things, including human beings.

Mankind's challenge is to deal with the ever-increasing problem of accumulating wastes.

Humans are the main contributors of pollution through their activities. A case in point
is Mexico City, which is notorious for air pollution, attributed largely to industrial
pollutants and car exhaust. Pollutants can either be biodegradable or non-degradable.
Biodegradable pollutants, such as human sewage and waste, are pollutants that can be
broken down through natural processes, non-degradable pollutants cannot be broken
down through natural processes. Examples of non-degradable pollutants include lead,
mercury, and other types of plastics, which can cause serious environmental damage
when they accumulate at high levels.

Loss of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety and number of species that inhabit a particular area. One of
the major environmental disasters or problems that have afflicted earth is the loss of
biodiversity, which has been characterized by large-scale extinctions of various
animal species. For instance, 95 percent of all species were rendered extinct 250
million years ago by the end of Permian period. Similarly, extinction continues today
as certain animals, such as rhinos and elephants face extinction due to poaching and
human encroachment on wildlife settlements. There needs to be continued efforts
made against extinction because all species have ecological, economic, aesthetic, and
recreational importance to humans.

2.2
The Environment and Society
Solving environmental problems requires environmental scientists to study and
understand the actions of human beings as well as the reasons behind the actions. One
important focus of these actions is how societies share common resources. Thanks to
"The Tragedy of Commons", an essay published by Garrett Hardin in 1968, we are
able to understand how people share common resources, such as an Open Ocean or a
neighborhood park.

"The Tragedy of the Commons"

Hardin pinpoints conflict of interest as a key reason why certain societies may grapple
with environmental problems. This conflict of interest involves the short-term interest
of an individual and the long-term welfare of his or her community. Using the
example of commons, areas of land in which all villagers could graze their livestock,
Hardin argued that an individual or society must assume responsibility for
maintaining a natural resource, failure may lead to resources becoming depleted or
overused. Within these commons, an individual would be tempted to graze as much
livestock as possible without regard for the fact that the commons would eventually
become depleted and deny future generations the opportunity to use them. The
tendency to overuse the commons would eventually inspire the shift to closed fields,
which had individual owners who were more cautious not to graze a lot of livestock
on the fields for fear of depleting them.

What Hardin failed to realize, is that humans are social animals who live collectively
and depend on one another. It is through communities that people can come together
and solve environmental issues through planning, organizing, research, and making
recommendations.

Wise land use is a key to the long-term health of the environment.

Economics and the Environment
Apart from social pressures, humans are also influenced by economic factors when
using natural resources in their environments.

Supply and Demand

Many environmental issues influenced by the law of supply and demand states that a
product becomes more valuable if it has a great demand but is in short supply. An
example is oil, whose prices often skyrocket during periods of shortages. From an
environmental scientist point-of-view, such a situation leaves them with three choices:
adopt alternative sources of energy, pay the higher price, or consume less oil.

Costs and Benefits

Environmental solutions sometimes come with increased expenses when a cost-
benefit analysis is conducted. This analysis allows stakeholders to compare the cost of
the environmental solutions and the resulting benefits. In most cases, especially for
large-scale industries, the cost of enforcing environmental regulations often outweighs
the benefits, which often compels them to pass on these additional costs to consumers.
For the consumer, the other option would be to purchase a cheaper product without
these environmental safeguards.

Risk Assessment
A cost-benefit analysis also involves risk assessment, which involves identifying and
assessing possible risks associated with an environmental solution. It entails exploring
cost-effective means of pursuing an environmental solution, which requires that the
concerned experts should assess the risks accurately.

Nuclear power is a clean and efficient, yet risky technology.

Developed and Developing Countries
According to the United Nations (UN), countries around the world can be categorized
as either developed or developing. This categorization is the result of an unequal
distribution of resources and wealth around the world, which consequently
precipitates the environmental problems afflicting various parts of the world.
Developed countries, like the United States, Japan, Canada, and some Western
European countries, have slow population growth, higher average incomes, stronger
social support systems, and diverse industrial economies. Conversely, developing
countries experience rapid population growth, agriculture-based economies, and lower
average incomes. People in developed countries also consume far more resources than
those in developing countries, which subsequently influences their environments in
different ways.

Population growth has become a real concern in parts of the world.

Population and Consumption

The increasing human population and poor use of natural resources are mainly
responsible for the majority of the environmental problems worldwide. In certain
areas, the human population simply overburdens the available natural resources.

Local Population Pressures

In the aftermath of rapid population growth and depletion of natural resources, it is
common to see humans turn to other natural resources, such as forests, to create more
land for settlement. Other effects of these population pressures include exhaustion of
topsoil and extinction of animals. Furthermore, such populations often find
themselves afflicted by diseases, malnutrition, and starvation. Such is the case with
developing countries where less than half of the 5.2 billion inhabitants cannot access
enough food, proper sanitation, and safe drinking water. This is because the food
production, job creation, and education in these areas have not kept pace with the
rapid population growth.

Consumption Trends
Developed countries have been guilty of creating more pollution and waste per person
compared to developing countries. Although they constitute 20 percent of the world's
population, developed countries consume 75 percent of the world's resources.

Ecological Footprints
An ecological footprint indicates the productive area required to support one
individual in a specific country, by estimating the land area used for agriculture and
housing, the ocean area used for fishing, and the forest area required for absorbing air
pollution caused by fossil fuels. An ecological footprint also provides better
explanation on the consumption differences among various countries.

Environmental Science in Context

The scope of environmental science has expanded to include issues on the relationship
between human rights and the environment. Key questions that have lingered in this
regard include how to balance individual rights with that of the society and how to
reduce the environmental devastation precipitated by economic or political refugees.

Critical Thinking and the Environment

Due to the controversial viewpoints that usually characterize many debates on
environmental issues, it is important to possess critical thinking skills that will enable
you to analyze these viewpoints before making an informed decision. Before reacting
to the information you encounter in the media, you should understand the reasons
behind these viewpoints and be wary of any bias.

You should also be conscious of your own biases and understand how they affect your
response to an environmental issue.
 Solar panels are an example of sustainable energy.

A Sustainable World
What most stakeholders in environmental science seek is sustainability. Sustainability
is a main goal of environmental science and envisions a situation in which human
needs are satisfied in a manner that guarantees the survival of future
generations. Sustainability is a joint effort that requires the participation of all in the
society, including individual citizens, corporations and government agencies.

Scientific Methods
Taken from the Latin verb scire, we can deduce that science means "to know". There
are various scientific methods through which we can learn about the natural world
around us.

The Experimental Method

This method is widely used by scientists in which they follow the steps below to
identify and answer pertinent questions related to certain environmental issues.

The experimental method is universally used in scientific research.

Observing
The act of gathering data through our senses, such as smell, sight, touch, and hearing
is an observation. These senses can be complemented by other tools, including
microscopes, rulers, and satellites. An observation can be carried out through
photographs, descriptions, measurements, and drawings.
Hypothesizing and Predicting
A hypothesis refers to a testable explanation or idea that provides the foundation for
the subsequent scientific investigation. It is often formed based on the knowledge
already gathered about a certain issue. The hypothesis is tested by making
a prediction, a logical statement, about what might happen if the hypothesis is
correct. Disproval of a hypothesis minimizes the explanations for a certain
observation before eventually zeroing in on the correct explanation.

Experimenting
To answer the questions that arise from observations, environmental scientists
conduct an experiment to test the hypothesis under controlled conditions. Often
aimed at explaining cause-and-effect relationships, experiments usually involve the
testing of a single variable, or factor of interest, using a control group. A control
group is a study sample that does not receive experimental treatment, as opposed to
the experimental group which does receive the treatment. The aim is to study the
two groups concurrently, during which the difference between them is recorded.

Organizing and Analyzing Data

Experimental results must be based on accurate observations and complete records
and data. These data, information collected from an experiment often in numeric
form, are organized into tables or graphic illustrations to enable readers better
understand the relationships between variables and trends in the data. The bar graph is
one of the common illustrations used by researchers to present their findings.

Scientific research is done in all environments.

Drawing Conclusions
Scientists draw conclusions about their experiments by comparing the outcome of
their data analysis with the hypothesis. Cases where the conclusion may not be
obvious may require researchers to utilize mathematical tools to determine whether
the differences noticed are meaningful, or not.

Repeating Experiments
When the results of a study are replicated in different situations and by other
researchers, scientists can be sure about the reliability of these findings. This prompts
an acceptance of the stated hypothesis.

Communicating Results
After finishing their research, scientists publish the findings of these studies to share
with the public or fellow scientists. When sharing these findings with their
counterparts, scientists may choose to do so in a peer-reviewed article in which they
explain the research question, rationale for the study, the methodology applied, data
collection process, and interpretation of the data.

The Correlation Method

To better understand cause-and-effect relationships, researchers sometimes
investigate correlations, or the relationships between two or more phenomena. This is
usually applicable in cases where it is difficult to study an issue experimentally. An
example of the correlation method is the observation and analysis of tree rings whose
length often indicates the amount of rainfall received within a year. Narrow tree rings
indicate insufficient rainfall and wide rings indicate an abundant supply of rainfall.
This method helped scientists predict the possible reason why inhabitants of Roanoke
Island in Virginia, also known as the Lost Colony, and those of Jamestown, Virginia
disappeared or died. It is noteworthy, however, that the correlation method may not be
100 percent suitable for explaining all cause-and-effect relationships between two
variables.
Scientific Habits of Mind
Apart from their expert knowledge, good scientists also possess natural characteristics
that help them in their line of duties.

Jane Goodall's research of chimpanzees was unique.

Curiosity
An example of an ever-curious scientist was Jane Goodall whose persistent studies on
an African chimpanzee troop provided useful knowledge on that species. She was
curious to the extent that she eventually could understand the personality and behavior
of all the troop members.

The Habit of Skepticism

Good scientists take everything with a grain of salt, where they trust and believe in
facts and evidence, rather than speculation or hearsay. For example, most doctors
were previously led to believe that men and women breathe differently until a female
doctor discovered that there were no differences.

Openness to New Ideas

A good scientist must be open-minded and ready to explore and accept new ideas.

Intellectual Honesty
A good scientist must be intellectually honest to themselves as well as others. This is
especially necessary when a repeat experiment reveals that an initial hypothesis may
be wrong.

John Snow memorial and pub, Broadwick Street, London.

Photographer: Justin Cormack (CC BY-SA 2.0)
Imagination and Creativity
Scientists must also be imaginative and creative by identifying patterns in certain
phenomena that occur in the environment. John Snow's creativity and imagination in
1954, for instance, was helpful in curtailing the ravages of a cholera epidemic in
London.

A London-based physician, Snow was able to realize that most of the cholera victims
had used the same public water pump on Broad Street. By shutting off this polluted
water source, authorities were successful in preventing further deaths thanks to the
creativity and imagination of Snow.

Statistics and Models

The process of collecting and classifying data into numbers is referred to as statistics.
Statistics are common in most sectors of the society, such as in sports, where they are
used to understand and analyze players' performances.

Statistics are used extensively in the sport of Baseball.

How Scientists Use Statistics

Within science, statistics is a branch of mathematics that guides scientists in
summarizing, analyzing and comparing data for the purpose of understanding it.

Statistics Works with Populations

Statistics are helpful for describing populations, which are groups of similar people or
things that are the subject of a study.

What Is the Average?

Also known as the mean, it provides a single measure for a certain population. It is
obtained by dividing the sum of data for a given characteristic by the number of
individuals. Calculation of mean enables the comparison of different populations by
comparing their averages.

The Distribution
The way members of a statistical population are relatively arranged is known
as distribution. An example is that of bar graphs, which often form a hump shape in
the middle of the graph. The lines that connect the bar shape at the top then form a
bell-shape that often indicates a normal distribution. Normal distribution is often
characterized by symmetrical arrangement of data around the mean.

Risk and probability are major components of gambling.

What Is the Probability?

Probability refers to the likelihood of an event occurring. A case in point is that of a
coin toss, which often has a probability of 0.5 that the tossed penny will come up
heads or tail.

Often expressed as number ranging from 0-1, the accuracy of a probability is

dependent on the sample, which is a group of events or individuals that represent the
population that is the focus of the study. Thus, emphasis has been on the use of a large
sample size to gain an accurate estimate.

Statistics in Everyday Life

Many people subconsciously apply statistics in their everyday activities. The use of
these statistics may appear as wild guesses or gut instinct.

Understanding the News

The media are also a source of statistics on various issues affecting the public. A case
in point is a newscast that highlights the increase in air pollution due to forest fires. As
a consumer of information, you should first inquire about the rate of pollution in the
previous year. An in-depth analysis of these data can subsequently enable you to
graph them for easier understanding.

Thinking About Risk

Scientifically, risk refers to the likelihood of an unwanted outcome. Today, it is
common for people to overestimate the risk of sensational environmental issues while
underestimating the ordinary ones.

This physical model represents a DNA molecule.

Models
Models, representations of systems or objects, do not only include things that can be
felt and touched, but also abstract ideas that can help us understand our environment
better.

Physical Models
These are three-dimensional models that can be touched and closely resemble the
systems or objects that they represent. The discovery of the structure of DNA is an
example of how physical models can enhance our understanding of the environment.
By creating models representing the different sub-units of DNA and the bonds
between them, scientists were able to predict the possible structure of DNA. This
knowledge was also helpful in improving knowledge on DNA replication in a living
cell.

Graphical Models
Within science, graphical models, such as charts and maps, have helped scientists
explain various natural phenomena, such as position of the stars or forest cover in a
particular area.
Conceptual Models
A verbal or graphical representation of a system or phenomena is known as
a conceptual model. For example, a scientist may use a flow-chart to explain how
mercury reaches people in the environment after being released by burning coal. The
flowchart is a diagram that graphically explains how this process occurs, its
components, and how these components are arranged.

Mathematical Models
A mathematical model refers to one or more equations used to represent many
common situations especially those that have many variables, such as in the case of
the weather.

Mathematical models can be used to enhance satellite images.

However, it is worth remembering that mathematical models are only accurate

depending on the accuracy of the data from which the models are constructed.

Making Informed Decisions

The key to solving environmental problems does not only lie in scientific research but
also by examining underlying values. These values, our important standards or
principles, guide the decisions on environmental issues.

Information can be gathered from a wide variety of sources.

An Environmental Decision-Making Model

With the help of a decision-making model, environmentalists can systematically
analyze the concerned environmental issues to reach a suitable solution. This is a
conceptual model that guides systematic decision making. Here are the steps of the
decision-making model that can help environmental scientists when evaluating issues:

Gather Information
Media, such as newspapers, newscasts, and the Internet are reliable sources of
information on various environmental issues.

Consider Values
Important values to consider when exploring plausible solutions include recreational,
environmental, and economic impacts.

People need to consider many factors before coming to a decision.

Explore Consequences
Equally important for consideration are the positive and negative consequences of the
environmental solution, both in the short and long-term.

Make A Decision
When exploring a solution to an environmental issue, you should be aware of the
diversity of opinions regarding the issue. The final decision should be an educated
one, in which you weigh the pros and cons of the decision and consider your personal
values.

The Geosphere
Certain occurrences, such as hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes are not
caused by man-made activities, rather, they are as a consequence of the dynamic state
of planet Earth.
The Earth as a System
Earth is a system that consists of geosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere.
Within this system are rocks, water, air, and living things, which interact with one
another. The geosphere, located in Earth's interior, consists of loose rocks and soil,
and the hydrosphere, which contains all the water on or near Earth's surface.

Earth viewed from space.

The atmosphere contains various gases that constitute the air that living things
breathe, the biosphere is the section in which life exists.

Discovering Earth's Interior

By studying seismic waves in Earth's interior, scientists have been successful in
understanding how Earth is composed of various layers, as well as the substances
contained in these layers. Seismic waves are produced by earthquakes during which
seismologists evaluate the changes in direction and speed of seismic waves.

The Composition of the Earth

Earth is composed of three layers namely the crust, mantle, and core. Measuring 5-8
km beneath the oceans, the crust is the outer layer of Earth and is made entirely of
light elements. It constitutes less than 1 percent of Earth's mass. Below the crust lies
the mantle, which makes up 64 percent of Earth. Measuring 2,900 km, the mantle is
comprised of rocks of medium density compared to the core, which is the innermost
part of Earth. Measuring a radius of 3,400 km, the core contains some of the densest
elements on Earth.

The structure of the Earth's Geosphere. Graphic: Kelvinsong (CC BY-SA 3.0)
The Structure of the Earth
When categorized on the basis of physical properties, Earth can be subdivided into
five layers. The lithosphere is the outermost layer and comprises the crust and upper
part of the mantle. Lithosphere is split into tectonic plates. Beneath the lithosphere lies
the asthenosphere, which is composed of a solid layer of rock-made mantle that
flows gradually to enable the tectonic plates move above it. Next is the mesosphere,
which is the lowest part of the mantle. In contrast to its outer core, Earth's inner core
is dense and solid consisting of many metals, such as nickel and iron. It has a high
temperature of 4000°C-5000°C, but still remains solid because of constant pressure.
Together, Earth's outer and inner cores constitute one-third of its mass.

Plate Tectonics
Tectonic plates arise out of a subdivision of the lithosphere, which glide across the
underlying asthenosphere. Our current continents are situated on tectonic plates with
which they move around. North American, Eurasian, African, Pacific, Antarctic, and
South American plates are the major tectonic plates.

Plate Boundaries
Most of the geologic activities on Earth's surface occur at plate boundaries during
which different tectonic plates glides past one another, collide or move away from one
another. These activities generate enormous forces that can lead to the formation of
mountains, volcanic eruptions, and earthquakes.

Earthquakes
Earthquakes occur when a series of ground vibrations occur due to slippages along a
fault-line. A fault refers to a break in Earth's crust through which blocks of the crust
slide past each other, or into each other. Using a Richter Scale, it is possible to
measure the magnitude of an earthquake, which refers to the amount of energy in the
earthquake.
 An earthquake's magnitude can determine it's damage potential.

The most devastating earthquakes are those with a magnitude of 7.0 and above,
although it is still possible to feel tremors from an earthquake with a magnitude of 2.0.
An increase in magnitude, from a 3.0 to a 4.0, for example, indicates that the
earthquake is expending 31.7 times more energy than its previous magnitude.

Where Do Earthquakes Occur?

Most earthquakes occur at or near tectonic plate boundaries as is the case with the San
Andreas Fault in California. For close to 15-20 million years, it has been the site of
most earthquakes because it is where the Pacific and North American plates meet and
often slide past each other.

Earthquake Study
Although the exact timing of earthquakes remains unpredictable, information on
highly-susceptible areas can help the affected residents better prepare themselves
beforehand. By analyzing information on past and present seismic activity in an area,
earthquake specialists are able to determine the earthquake-hazard level. The 1886
earthquake in Charleston, South Carolina, however, proved that earthquakes do not
only affect high-risk areas but also medium-risk areas as was the case with
Charleston. A long-term solution would be to build earthquake-resistant buildings that
are flexible to sway with the motions of earthquake's seismic waves.

Volcanoes
A volcano occurs when magma-melted rock erupts from Earth's interior to its surface
to form a mountain. It usually occurs near tectonic plate boundaries in which the
plates are moving away from each other or are colliding with each other. They may
occur on land or in the seas and oceans, where they can create islands. Active
volcanoes on land are more common along tectonic plate boundaries surrounding the
Pacific Ocean.

Local Effects of Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanic eruptions expose affected communities to a variety of health complications
and property damage. The eruptions often consist of dust, hot ash, and gases, which
flow at high speeds of 200 km/h destroying everything in its path, including crops,
motor vehicles, and buildings. The gases can also cause breathing problems, and the
ash and dust can poison local bodies of water by forming a mudflow.

Global Effects of Volcanic Eruptions

Extreme volcanic eruptions, such as that of Mt. Helens, can reduce the amount of
sunlight that reaches Earth. These eruptions are often characterized by wholesale
emission of hot ash, gases, and dust into the upper atmosphere, consequently reducing
the average global surface temperature. This was also the case when Mt. Pinatubo in
the Philippines erupted in 1991 and resulted in a 2-4 percent drop in sunlight.
Afterwards, the average global temperature declined by several tenths of a degree
Celsius.

Erosion
Erosion refers to the eradication and transport of Earth surface material. The process
begins with tectonic plates where the forces at the plate boundaries push rocks to
Earth's surface from where these rocks are altered by other forces, such as water and
wind. With time, erosion makes the rocks smoother by wearing them down. This
knowledge was essential in concluding that the Appalachian Mountain in the eastern
U.S. is actually older than the Rocky Mountains in the Western U.S.

The Rocky Mountains' jagged peaks indicate a younger geological age than the
Appalachian Mountains.
Water Erosion
Water erosion by rivers and oceans has always transformed Earth's surface
dramatically as evidenced by the erosion of coastlines by ocean waves and the carving
of deep gorges by rivers.

Wind Erosion
Areas where few plants grow, such as deserts and beaches, are more prone to wind
erosion compared to areas where there is dense plant cover. Also, hard rocks like
granite are less prone to wind erosion than softer rocks, such as sandstone.
Sometimes, the result of wind erosion is a breathtaking rock formation.

The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases of Earth, including nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and other
gases. Composition of the atmosphere regularly changes as certain gases are added or removed
from the environment. For instance, plants take in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen
whereas the opposite is true for human beings and animals. Other phenomena that contribute to
the ever-changing composition of the atmosphere include volcanic eruptions and motor vehicle
emissions. A key function of the atmosphere is to insulate Earth's surface by slowing the rate at
which it loses heat. This ensures that all living things can survive at the proper temperatures.

The interaction of life on Earth, adding and removing gases, is what creates and sustains our

atmosphere.

Composition of the Atmosphere

The majority of the atmosphere is composed of Nitrogen (78 percent) followed by
Oxygen (20 percent) and other gases, such as methane, carbon dioxide, argon, and
water vapor. Nitrogen is released into the atmosphere through volcanic eruptions and
decaying plants and animals. Oxygen, the second most abundant gas in the
atmosphere, is released mainly by plants. In addition to these gases, the atmosphere
consists of atmospheric dusts, which are tiny solid particles, such as soil, salt, ash,
skin, bits of clothing, hair, bacteria, viruses, aerosols, and pollen.

Air Pressure
Virtually all of the atmospheric gases are located within 30 km of Earth's surface
where they are pulled by gravity. Thus, the atmosphere is often dense near Earth's
surface compared to higher levels of above 30 km at which point breathing becomes
difficult.

Layers of the Atmosphere

There are four layers or categories of the atmosphere based on the differences in
temperature within each layer.

Troposphere
Nearest to Earth's surface is the troposphere, which is located 18 km above Earth's
surface. It is also the site of most weather changes that occur in Earth and is the
densest atmospheric layer. An increase in altitude results in a decrease in temperature.

The Stratosphere
Extending 18-50 km above Earth's surface, the stratosphere is characterized by an
increase in temperature as the altitude increases. This is due to the absorption of
ultraviolet rays (UV) by the ozone, which subsequently keeps the air warm. Ozone
consists of three oxygen atoms and reduces the amount of UV radiation that reaches
Earth's surface.

The upper layers of the atmosphere are host to the widest ranges of temperatures and
radiation.
The Mesosphere
The mesosphere, located above the stratosphere, extends to an 80 km altitude and is
the coldest layer within the atmosphere. It records temperatures as low as -93°C.

The Thermosphere
Farthest from Earth's surface is the thermosphere, which records high temperatures of
up to 2000°C due to the absorption of solar radiation by oxygen and nitrogen.
However, because of the thin air in the thermosphere, the high temperatures would
never be too hot for humans. The thin air prevents the transfer of heat between air
particles, which occurs when air particles collide. The lower region of the
thermosphere is known as the ionosphere in which absorption of harmful solar
radiation, such as gamma rays and X rays, by nitrogen and oxygen, leads to the
formation of ions. These are electrically-charged atoms that radiate energy as light
and often glows spectacularly in the night skies near Earth's south and north poles.

Energy in the Atmosphere

Energy from the sun reaches the atmosphere through convection, conduction, and
radiation. Radiation occurs when the energy transfer occurs across space and
mechanisms such as when one stands in front of a fireplace. Conduction occurs when
heat flows from a warmer object to a cold object when the objects are placed in direct
physical contact with each other. Heat transfer through currents is known
as convection, an example is the heat emitted by an iron box.

Heating of the Atmosphere

Solar energy is transferred to Earth via electromagnetic radiation in various forms,
such as light, ultraviolet rays, and infrared radiation. However, thankfully, much of
this energy does not reach Earth's surface which would make it excessively hot for
living things to survive. Besides the two-billionths of radiation that reaches Earth's
surface, the rest is absorbed by the gases, dust, and clouds in the atmosphere.
 The variety of land features on the Earth
absorb and radiate solar energy at different rates.

The bodies of water on Earth, such as oceans and lakes also absorb some of the excess
energy and radiate it back to the atmosphere. Dark-colored objects absorb more
radiation than light-colored objects which is why they are usually hotter to the touch.

The Movement of Energy in the Atmosphere

Constant movement of the air in the troposphere, upwards, downwards, and sideways,
is responsible for the weather changes on Earth's surface. The circular process, known
as convection current, begins when currents of less dense air rise up into the
atmosphere and currents of denser cold air sink to the Earth's surface. Once at the
surface, the air is heated by Earth and rises, continuing the process.

Surface warming of the Earth causes air to rise and sink.

The Greenhouse Effect

Through the greenhouse effect, Earth maintains an appropriate temperature that is not
too cold for living things to survive. It occurs when greenhouses gases, such as carbon
dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane trap some of the heat released by the
sun to Earth's surface.

By trapping this heat, the greenhouse gases ensure that Earth's temperature remains
warm enough for living species to survive.

The Hydrosphere and Biosphere

The biosphere is the only layer of Earth that makes it possible for living organisms,
including human beings, to survive.
The Hydrosphere and Water Cycle
The hydrosphere contains the bodies of water on Earth's surface, including polar ice
caps, wetlands, oceans, soil, rock layers beneath Earth's surface, rivers, and lakes.
These water bodies are an important part of the water cycle in which water
continuously moves in a circular motion from water bodies onto land. Evaporation is
a major part of the water cycle, which involves the heating of liquid by the sun after
which it enters the atmosphere as water vapor. Water bodies often experience
evaporation after which condensation occurs when the water vapor cools to form
water droplets that combine to form clouds. These clouds later fall back to Earth's
surface as rain in a process known as precipitation. Apart from rain, precipitation
may occur in the form of sleet, hail, or snow.

Hail is one of the several forms of precipitation.

Earth's Oceans
The Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and the Arctic oceans are an interconnected water body
known as the world ocean, which constitutes approximately 70 percent of Earth's
surface. The Pacific Ocean, covering a surface area of 165,640,000 km2 and an
average depth of 4,280 m, is the largest of these oceans and is divided into North and
South Pacific Ocean based on the direction of the surface current flow in each half.

This is the same case for the Atlantic Ocean, which is the second largest ocean with a
surface area of 81,630,000 km2. It is followed by the Indian Ocean that has a surface
area of 73,420,000 km2 and an average depth of 11,033 m whereas the Arctic Ocean
ranks fourth with a surface area of 14,350,000 km2. Unlike the other oceans, the
Arctic Ocean is covered by floating ice, also known as pack ice, formed as a result of
frozen water.
Ocean Water
Ocean water is more salty than fresh water because of dissolved rocks that release
salts into the oceans as well as constant volcanic eruptions. Salinity is a term used to
describe the extent of the concentration of dissolved salts in the ocean. 3.5 percent per
weight is the average salinity of oceans although this can vary based on whether an
ocean area receives more rainfall or not. Rainfall causes the inflow of freshwater into
these ocean areas, which reduces the salinity.

Variations in temperature are a main driver

in the creation of waves and currents.

Temperature Zones
The temperature zones in the oceans are separated by a thermocline, a boundary
beneath the surface zone of the ocean. It is a layer measuring approximately 300-700
m in depth after which the temperature of the ocean falls drastically to almost the
freezing point. This is because sunlight is unable to reach these depths, unlike the
surface zones that are warmed by the sun.

A Global Temperature Regulator

The key function of oceans is to regulate the temperature of Earth's surface by
absorbing and storing sunlight from the sun. Unlike land, these water bodies release
heat slowly, which ensures that weather changes do not occur at such a rapid rate that
living organisms would be unable to survive.

Ocean Currents
Surface currents are stream-like movements of water that are wind-driven and occur at
or near the ocean's surface. Due to global wind patterns, surface currents may be cold-
water currents or warm-water currents, which do not mix easily. These currents
usually influence the climatic patterns of the areas in which they pass as is the case
with the Gulf Stream, a surface current that moderates the climate of the British Isles.
Warm-water currents occur on the surface of the ocean while the deep-water currents
involve movement of cold, dense water towards the equator. The coast of Antarctica
has the coldest and densest ocean water that leads to the formation of a deep-water
current known as the Antarctic Bottom Water. In a trip spanning hundreds of years,
the deep-water current moves for thousands of kilometers along the ocean floor before
reaching the northernmost point of 40°N.

Glaciers and icecaps contain the majority of the Earth's fresh water.

Fresh Water
Compared to salty water bodies, fresh water constitutes merely 3 percent of all water
on Earth. The majority of the fresh water is available in glaciers and ice caps some of
which, such as the ice sheet covering Antarctica, are as large as the United States.
Other sources of fresh water include wetlands, rock layers beneath Earth's surface,
rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere.

River Systems
A network of streams that overtake an area of land is known as a river system. This
system includes tributaries, smaller rivers or streams that drain into larger ones. The
Mississippi River, covering approximately 40 percent of the U.S., is one of the world's
largest river systems and was caused by the development of the Appalachian
Mountains in the east and the Rocky Mountains in the west. The precipitation from
these rivers combine to flow into the Mississippi River.

Groundwater
Groundwater refers to the water that sinks into the ground from melting snow or rain.
Although it accounts for less than 1 percent of all water on Earth's surface, it is an
important source of drinking and irrigation water for human beings. Groundwater is
stored in an aquifer, which is a rock layer that also regulates the flow of groundwater
by allowing its entry and outlet via a recharge zone.

Aquifers
A rock layer that stores and allows the flow of groundwater is called an aquifer. The
surface of the land where water enters an aquifer is called a recharge zone.

The Biosphere
It might be just a narrow layer on Earth's surface, but the biosphere is the only layer
that supports survival of living organisms. The biosphere contains the right conditions
for the survival of living things, including moderate temperatures, source of energy,
gravity, and liquid water. It comprises the uppermost region of the geosphere, lower
region of the atmosphere, and the majority of the hydrosphere. The suitability of the
biosphere for survival is also due to its closeness to Earth's surface from where it can
access enough sunlight. This sunlight allows plants to produce food and feed other
organisms including algae that float on the ocean's surface. Deep down in the ocean,
organisms that live here depend on dead plants and animals for food.

Oceanic algae is one of the planet's most plentiful sources of food .

Energy Flow in the Biosphere

Energy flow in the biosphere can either occur in a closed or open system. Within a
closed system, energy enters and leaves, but matter does not. An open system, on the
other hand, involves the exchange of energy and matter. Both systems are circulatory,
for example, plants convert sunlight into food, which is later converted into energy by
animals who consume these plants.
Ecosystems: Everything Is
Connected
A 1993 experiment by scientists on gypsy moths proved that the environment consists
of an interconnected web of organisms whose actions affect each other. The
experiment discovered that the removal of mice from an oak forest increased the
number of gypsy moths, which were their main prey. However, the addition of acorns
soon led to a decrease in the number of gypsy moths since both are eaten by mice,
which had come back to the forest. The acorns also attracted deer, which are
commonly infested with ticks that cause Lyme disease in human beings.

Wild mice are notorious for carrying several diseases harmful to humans.

Defining an Ecosystem
An ecosystem consists of all organisms that inhabit an area as well as their subsequent
physical environments. Examples of ecosystems can include the oak forest example
above, a coral reef, or even a vacant parking lot.

Ecosystems Are Connected

Most people think that various ecosystems are separated from one another. Instead,
boundaries between various ecosystems are blurred as seen in the migration of birds
from Michigan to Mexico, or the transfer of pollen from a forest into a field.

Ecosystems exist everywhere in nature.

The Components of an Ecosystem
Besides plants and soil; minerals, nutrients, water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, living
organisms, and energy are basic components of an ecosystem that are essential for its
survival. Each part of the ecosystem is important for its survival because they depend
on each other, without which the entire ecosystem would collapse.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors

An ecosystem can be separated into the living and nonliving components, or the biotic
and abiotic factors, respectively. Biotic factors are the living and once living parts of
an ecosystem, including all plants and animals, and also dead organisms and their
waste products. Abiotic factors are the nonliving parts of an ecosystem, such as
rocks, air, water, sand, temperature, and light.

Bison usually mate within their same herd.

Organisms
An organism is an individual living thing belonging to a species, a group which they
can reproduce among themselves to produce fertile offspring. Human beings, for
example, belong to the species Homo sapiens whereas black widow spiders belong to
the species Latrodectus mactans.

Populations
A population refers to a group of organisms from the same species that live together
and reproduce. Members of one population do not tend to mate or interact with
members of other population, such as the case of bison, which only mate with other
members of the same herd.
Communities
A community is a group of different species or populations that inhabit the same
place. The difference between community and ecosystem is that an ecosystem refers
to biotic factors alone. So, a pond community would refer to living things within the
pond, such as frogs, insects, fish, and plants. Within land communities, the dominant
plants influence the type of other organisms that inhabit these places. For instance,
there are many squirrels in Colorado forests due to the presence of ponderosa pine
trees, which are a favorite for these animals.

Unique communities of species inhabit different ecosystems, such as the ones in the
Ponderosa Pine forests.

Habitat
A habitat is a place where an organism resides based on the suitability of the place to
its survival. For example, fish live in coral reefs from where it can get dead plants and
other organisms for food. Also, the salamander loves to live in damp forest floors that
contain all the necessary biotic and abiotic factors necessary for its survival. An
alteration in their habitat might make it hard for these organisms to survive.

Evolution
Evolution by Natural Selection
Charles Darwin's observation in 1859 brought to the forefront the role of natural
selection in ensuring the survival and reproduction of organisms possessing specific
traits. This was based on his observations that organisms in certain habitats differ in
the form of function and behavior. According to Darwin, the environment tends to
favor organisms with certain characteristics, such as sharper claws in lions and light
feathers in eagles. Overtime, organisms with these traits are able to survive and
reproduce unlike their counterparts who lack these traits. This reproduction will
eventually cause the future generations of lions and eagles to have the same traits in a
change known as evolution. Closely related, is adaptation, which is an inherited trait
that improves the chances of survival and reproduction for a living thing.

Positive traits in species which allow them to better survive and

reproduce, are the ones that get passed down to later generations.

Nature Selects
As mentioned in the example of the eagle and the lion, Darwin's views on natural
selection were based on four premises:

 Individuals in a population have varying traits

 Some of these variations are inherited or genetic
 More individuals produced do not live to grow and reproduce
 Those with favorable traits or genes are more likely to survive than those with
unfavorable genes.

Coevolution
Coevolution is the evolution of two living organisms or species to enhance their long-
term interactions. The relationship between the honeycreeper and a flower provides
the best example of this relationship. The bird has a curved beak that allows it to reach
deep into the flower for nectar.

The Honeycreeper's adaptation for obtaining

more nectar is a long, curved beak.
The flower uses nectar to attract the bird, as well as its structure to rub sticky pollen
onto the honeycreeper. This aids in reproduction when the bird moves on to other
plants.

Evolution by Artificial Selection

Artificial selection is an evolutionary process that occurs when human beings breed
certain organisms for particular characteristics. For example, the ability of humans to
breed the ancestors of wolves into various dog breeds.

Modern corn is very different from

the wild plant that was its ancestor.

Humans have also been successful in breeding certain fruits, for example, for specific
traits, such as size and sweetness. Most of the crops planted today are drastically
different from their ancestors, an example being corn that was previously harvested
from a grass-like plant.

Evolution of Resistance
Resistance occurs when an organism can tolerate specific chemicals meant to
exterminate it by simply breaking it down into harmless parts. Examples include the
resistance of bacteria to antibiotics and resistance of pests to pesticides.

Notably, the use of chemicals only serves to increase the resistance of the organisms
they are meant to eliminate.

Pesticide Resistance
Application of pesticides may spark off a wave of pesticide resistance in which future
pests have a gene that can protect them from the harmful effects of the pesticides.
Some grasshoppers can survive pesticides, which can then pass that resistance on to later
generations.

This often happens when some of the surviving pests, in the aftermath of a pesticide
spray, reproduce and transfer these resistance genes to their offspring.

The Diversity of Living Things

Depending on their varying characteristics, organisms can be classified into six
kingdoms. Organisms in these kingdoms have differing types of cells. The nucleus is
a membrane that surrounds the cells in plants, protists, fungi, and animals whereas in
the cells of plants, bacteria as well as fungi are surrounded by cell walls.

Archaebacteria are often found in extreme places, such as hot springs.

Archaebacteria and Eubacteria

These are single-celled, microscopic organisms that reproduce by dividing in half.
They lack nuclei and usually reside in hot springs as is the case
for archaebacteria. Eubacteria reside commonly in animals and soil.

Bacteria and the Environment

Bacteria are responsible for many environmental functions, including recycling of
nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, and the breakdown of waste and remains
from other organisms. Bacteria are also integral to the conversion of nitrogen into a
suitable form from which plants can harness genetic and protein material. Within
humans and other organisms, bacteria, such as E. coli, help in digestion of food and
release of vitamins. There is however another variety of E. coli that can cause adverse
food poisoning.
 The reproductive structure of a fungus is the mushroom.

Fungi
Fungus (plural, fungi) has a cell wall and nuclei and consists of an underground
network of fibers that absorb nutrients from decaying organisms in dead wood, soil,
and other organisms. The absorption occurs through the secretion of chemicals that
break down organic matter. Fungi can be useful, such as in blue cheese or yeast, or
dangerous, such as when it causes athlete's foot.

Protists
Protists make up a large group of single-celled and multi-celled organisms. Amoeba
is an example of a one-celled protist that is animal-like, as is plasmodium, which
causes malaria. Algae, such as seaweed or green pond scum, are a plantlike protist
that plays an integral role in the environment by producing food using sunlight. Algae
varies in size from the single-celled phytoplankton, which is a major source of food
for living organisms in the ocean and freshwater ecosystems, to giant kelp, which can
be over 100 feet long.

Plants
Plants are multi-celled organisms that have cell walls. They manufacture their own
food by collecting sunlight using their leaves and absorbing vitamins and minerals in
the soil using their roots. The vascular tissue connects the roots and the leaves using a
system of tubes that transport water and food. Vascular tissues have thick cell walls.

Lower Plants
In the beginning, most plants did not have a vascular tissue but a swimming sperm.
These plants, which characteristically grew in damp places, did not grow very large in
size. Moss is an example of a present day descendant of land plants. Other examples
of land plants include ferns of which some still exist in New Zealand tropics.
 Gymnosperms such as pine trees are also called conifers.

Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms are woody plants that are alternatively known as conifers because
they have needle-like leaves and seeds that are not enclosed in fruits. Additionally,
their seeds are located within cones. Gymnosperm plants boast a variety of adaptive
features that allow them to survive in harsh environmental conditions, unlike lower
plants. They produce pollen, which helps in the protection and transportation of sperm
between plants, as well as seed production to ensure the survival of a plant species.

Angiosperms
Today, most land plants are angiosperms, which refer to plants that have reproductive
systems in the form of a flower. These plants reproduce through insect or wind
pollination. For example, in the case of grasses, wind pollination occurs through the
transportation of pollen and sperm between different flowers by wind. Insect or
animal pollination is more commonplace among large plants in which the animals
transport pollen or sperm through eating nectar or eating the plants themselves.

Animals
Animal cells are unlike those of plants because they do not have cell walls, which
effectively render their bodies soft and flexible. Some of them have developed hard
skeletons that enable their muscles to propel their bodies. This makes animals more
mobile than plants and enables them to scour for readymade food because they cannot
produce their own.

Invertebrates
Invertebrates are animals that do not have backbones. Examples include ocean
organisms that obtain their food from plankton, such as worms, corals, clams, and
oysters. Insects, which make up most living things on Earth, are another type of
invertebrate that can impact human lives positively or negatively. Insects, such as
bees, are integral in cross-pollination during which pollen from a male reproductive
system of a flower is transferred to the female parts of another flower to enhance
reproduction. This leads to the reproduction of other plant species, such as cucumbers,
tomatoes, and apples, among others. However, certain insects have been responsible
for the spread of harmful diseases, such as mosquitoes, which cause malaria in
humans, and the tsetse fly, which can cause sleeping sickness.

Bloodsucking insects such as mosquitos transmit many harmful human diseases.

Vertebrates
In contrast, vertebrates are animals that have backbones. They include amphibians,
such as salamanders, frogs, and toads, reptiles, like lizards, turtles, and snakes, birds,
and mammals. A key characteristic of reptiles is that they were the first vertebrates to
complete their life cycle on land, while amphibians lay their eggs on land away from
predators in the water. Birds are warm-blooded and lay eggs with hard shells until
they fertilize, whereas mammals have fur and their young are fed milk.

Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Every organism requires a constant supply of energy to survive.

Life Depends on the Sun

Photosynthesis is an integral process through which plants transform solar energy
into sugar molecules. These sugar molecules, known as carbohydrates, are energy-rich
molecules that enable different organisms to execute their daily activities. For
example, plants release carbohydrates through their leaves from where they are
consumed by different organisms, such as animals and humans. This involves a
transfer of energy from the plant to the organism consuming it in the form of
carbohydrates.

A coyote is an example of a consumer, or heterotroph.

From Producers to Consumers

A producer, also known as autotrophs or self-feeders, refers to organisms that
produce its own food. A consumer, also known as a heterotroph, is an organism that
acquires energy by eating other organisms. Plants are categorized as autotrophs
because they producing their own food by converting sunlight into sugar molecules
(carbohydrates) through photosynthesis. However, a rabbit can be classified as a
consumer because it obtains carbohydrates by consuming a plant that already contains
carbohydrates. Similarly, a coyote can be categorized as a consumer if it eats the
rabbit and obtains carbohydrates from its prey.

An Exception to the Rule: Deep-Ocean Ecosystems

Within deep-ocean ecosystems are bacteria that act as producers by providing the
various organisms needed for energy. This is despite the absence of light, which
makes photosynthesis impossible. The organisms in these regions derive their energy
from bacteria within them, as well as hydrogen sulfide, which is abundantly present in
hot water that emerges from cracks in the ocean floor.

What Eats What

Depending on how they obtain their energy, living organisms can either be classified
as herbivores, omnivores, carnivores, or decomposers. Carnivores refer to consumers
that obtain energy by eating other consumers, such as hawks and lions. Herbivores,
such as rabbits, cows, deer, and sheep, are consumers that obtain their energy by
consuming producers, such as plants. Human beings are categorized as omnivores
because they are consumers that obtain energy by eating consumers and producers.
Bacteria and fungi belong to the decomposers category because they obtain energy by
breaking down dead organisms.

Cellular respiration occurs inside the cells of most organisms.

Cellular Respiration: Burning the Fuel

Cellular respiration is the process during which cells of the body harness energy from
the food consumed by a living organism. The process of cellular respiration is
characterized by the combination of sugar and oxygen to produce water, carbon
dioxide, and energy. The energy is important for performing various daily activities.

Energy Transfer
Food chains, trophic levels, and food webs can help us understand the energy transfer
between various organisms in an ecosystem. These flow charts provide a logical flow
of how organisms consume fellow organisms, causing energy transfer between the
two organisms.

Food Chains and Food Webs

A food chain is a simple sequential explanation of energy transfer between different
organisms when one consumes the other. A case in point is in an ocean ecosystem in
which algae may be consumed by krill, which are then eaten by cod. The cod may be
eaten by a leopard seal, which may become prey to a killer whale. However, certain
ecosystems have complex relationships as far as the energy flow is concerned. This is
because these ecosystems may contain numerous species that consume more than one
type of food. A perfect example is human beings who are omnivores. More complex
feeding relationships may be better explained through a food web.
Trophic Levels
A trophic level refers to the various levels in a food chain or web during which
energy is transferred from one organism to another. During the energy transfer, some
energy is lost as heat, which leaves the organisms in the next trophic level with less
energy. 90 percent of the energy transferred from one organism to the next helps in
various body functions, including cell reproduction, regulation of body temperature,
and movement. The remainder becomes part of the organism's system where it is
stored in the molecules. This 10 percent of energy is transferred to the next trophic
level when the organism is consumed by another one.

Since bears eat both animals and plants, they are omnivores.

Energy Pyramids
An energy pyramid enables us to understand how the transfer of energy occurs in each
trophic level. It also ranks the various types of organisms based on the amount of
energy they contain. At the base of the pyramid are producers who have the most
energy, followed by herbivores who feed on the producers, but have less energy than
them. After herbivores, come carnivores, which feed on herbivores. At the top of the
pyramid are carnivores, which feed on other carnivores.

Zebras and other herbivores exist in great numbers on the African savanna.

How Energy Loss Affects an Ecosystem

Energy losses at each trophic level impacts the organization of an ecosystem since
there are fewer organisms at the top of the energy pyramid compared to the bottom.
Most ecosystems do not have more than five trophic levels because of unavailability
of enough energy to support organisms at higher levels. For example, a lion, being at
the top of the pyramid, moves long distances to access energy and food. For another
organism to feed on lions, it would require more energy than is available at that
trophic level. Subsequently, organisms that often feed on organisms at the highest
trophic level happen to be small and do not need as much energy. For example,
parasitic worms or fleas that slowly feed on larger animals.

The Cycling of Materials

What will happen to the next ballpoint pen you buy? You will probably use it until its
ink supply runs out and then throw it away. The plastic and steel the pen is made of
will probably never be reused. By contrast, materials in ecosystems are constantly
reused. In this lesson, you will read about three cycles by which materials are reused-
the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, and the phosphorus cycle.

The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is a process in which the element carbon moves between the
atmosphere, organisms, land, and water. When in the ecosystem, carbon is first
converted by producers into carbohydrates through photosynthesis. After consumers
eat producers, they obtain carbohydrates before releasing some of the carbon into the
atmosphere when their bodies undergo cell respiration. This is the same case for
producers who release some carbon into the atmosphere during photosynthesis.
Carbon can also enter in a long-term cycle as is the case of carbonates, in the hard
parts of shells and bones.

Seashells are composed mainly of carbonates.

Carbonate deposits on earth also lead to the formation of limestone rocks, which have
been in existence for millions of years. In other organisms, carbohydrates are
converted into fats and oils to store energy after which the carbon is released into the
soil upon the organism's death. The carbon molecules may accumulate to form fossil
fuels, which are deposits of natural gas, coal, or oil that formed underground over the
years.

How Humans Affect the Carbon Cycle

Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels or wood in forest fires, have steadily
increased the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. It is estimated that 6 billion metric
tons of carbon are emitted into the atmosphere annually due to human activities. High
levels of carbon in the atmosphere is possibly linked to global warming, which
implies an increase in Earth's temperature. Furthermore, the carbon that does not
remain in the atmosphere, a billion metric tons to be specific, dissolve into oceans to
form a carbon sink while the rest is absorbed by different plants.

Legumes are host to Nitrogen‐fixing bacteria.

The Nitrogen Cycle

The nitrogen cycle is a process in which nitrogen moves between the atmosphere,
bacteria, and organisms. Known as nitrogen-fixing, the role of bacteria in this process
is to fix atmospheric nitrogen into chemical compounds that can benefit organisms by
providing them with proteins for cell reproduction. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, found
in roots of legumes or in the soil, releases the excess nitrogen into the soil. Other
organisms, such as animals, obtain nitrogen by consuming plants that are rich in the
nitrogen-related compounds.

Decomposers and the Nitrogen Cycle

Decomposers are integral to the nitrogen cycle since they break down waste products
and harness nitrogen, which is released into the soil. These waste products include
dead animals, plants, urine, and dung. Some of the nitrogen released into the soil is
released back into the atmosphere as nitrogen gas. This means that most of the
nitrogen absorbed in the ecosystem remains in the ecosystem where it constantly
cycles between the soil and organisms.

Eroding rocks contribute to the phosphorus cycle.

The Phosphorus Cycle

The phosphorus cycle involves the back-and-forth movement of phosphorus between
the environment and organisms. It is an important element that aids in cell
reproduction as well as formation of teeth and bones in animals. Plants obtain
phosphorus from water and soil when rocks erode and dissolve into phosphates that
plants can use as food. Animals also provide plants with phosphorus when they
excrete excess phosphorus in the form of waste. Later, these animals obtain
phosphorus by consuming these plants. Some phosphorus also ends up in bodies of
water where they sink to the bottom and become sediment.

Fertilizers and the Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles

Excess application of fertilizers, which contain phosphorus and nitrogen, can cause an
algal bloom. Which are visible and dense patches of algae that cover the surface of
water when the excess phosphorus and nitrogen wash off into the bodies of water.
Algal bloom can deprive aquatic organisms of the oxygen required for survival.

Adequate oxygen levels in water are essential for the survival of most sea life.
Acid Precipitation
Acid precipitation occurs when nitric oxide combines with water vapor and oxygen in
the atmosphere to cause nitric rain. Nitric oxide is formed through human actions,
such as burning of fuel, which interferes with the nitrogen cycle.

How Ecosystems Change

A demolished building covered by shrubs and mosses and a rainforest in which
wildflowers and shrubs cover its floor, are two examples of the ever-changing nature
of ecosystems. These phenomena can be better explained through ecological
succession.

Moss accumulates on an abandoned rock structure.

Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is a gradual change process that an ecosystem undergoes
during which some or all of its species are replaced. A process that often takes
hundreds or thousands of years, ecological succession can either be categorized as
primary succession or secondary succession. Primary succession occurs in a place
that had no ecosystem before whereas secondary succession is more common where
an ecosystem had previously existed. These ecosystems may have been disrupted by
the actions of humans, animals, or natural causes, such as storms, earthquakes, floods,
and volcanoes. The 1980 volcanic eruption of Mount St. Helens is a good example of
secondary succession. In the aftermath of the disaster, during which over 44,000 acres
of forest were burned down by hot ash and other volcanic debris, plants began to grow
around the volcanic debris in what is known as pioneer species. They are called so
because they are the first organisms to colonize a new area and begin ecological
succession. Continued growth of these new plants will eventually lead to the
formation of a climax community, which refers to a stable and final community that
will continue undergoing small changes.

Fire and Secondary Succession

Minor natural fires, mostly caused by lightning, aid in secondary succession by giving
an opportunity for new species of trees, such as Jack Pine, to grow. These fires
destroy deadwood and brush that if left to accumulate, can lead to major forest fires.
Certain animals also benefit from the new vegetation that grows after a minor forest
fire.

Minor forest fires can be a benefit to the surrounding environment.

Old-field Succession
Old-field succession is a man-made secondary succession that occurs when a farmer
stops cultivating their field for a lengthy period of time. The process often begins by
the growth of pioneer weeds and grasses that over time are replaced by taller plants
that block their access to sunlight. These taller plants may eventually be replaced by
trees that similarly block their access to sunlight and deprives them of nutrients in the
soil. These trees, such as hickories, maples, oaks, and beeches, may eventually
establish a climax community consisting of a mature oak forest.

Lichen’s ability to break down rock contributes to primary succession.

Primary Succession
Primary succession can occur on new islands created out of volcanic eruptions, an
exposed area after the disappearance of a glacier, and other surfaces that have not
previously supported life. The process is slower and takes hundreds or thousands of
years during which the first pioneer species, such as bacteria and lichens, do not need
soil to grow.

With time, the absorption of nutrients and dust particles from the atmosphere leads to
the formation of soil, which gives rise to other plant species. Even in urban areas,
primary succession occurs in places, such as dilapidated buildings that are often
characterized by the growth of mosses and fungi on the walls or the roof.

What Is a Biome?
A biome is a large area that has a particular type of climate that effectively influences
the types of plants and animals that inhabit each ecosystem.

Rainforests are an essential biome present on the earth.

Biomes and Vegetation

The types of plants that are found in a certain region provide a picture of the features
of the biome. For example, an area littered with mahogany trees show that the biome
is a tropical rainforest considering that mahogany require abundant rainfall to survive.
Various plant species have varied adaptive characteristics that enhance their survival
in specific biomes. These adaptive characteristics relate to their size, color, and shape.
For instance, cactuses are able to survive in the desert because they have needle-like
structures to aid in water retention.

Temperature and precipitation primarily dictate a region’s climate .

Biomes and Climate
The ability of a plant species to survive in a specific biome is determined by
the climate of that area, including weather conditions, humidity, temperature, wind,
and precipitation.

Temperature and Precipitation

Most organisms, including animals and plants, cannot survive in areas that have
temperatures that are not suitable for their adaptive features. The same is true for
precipitation, which influences whether an organism will be able to get enough water
for survival. Thus, biomes with high temperatures and abundant precipitation, such as
tropical rainforests, tend to have vegetation that is taller and denser than biomes with
low temperatures and little precipitation.

Altitude is a determinant in the types

of vegetation present in a biome.

Latitude and Altitude

The features of a biome are also determined by its latitude and altitude. Measured in
degrees, latitude is the distance north or south of the equator while altitude is the
height above sea level. These factors influence climatic conditions of various biomes,
an increase in altitude and latitude leads to cold climatic conditions, such as when
mountaineering. The most suitable latitude for agricultural activities is 30 and 60
North and 30 and 60 South because of the moderate temperatures and fertile soil that
are found at this point.

Biomes
Within the category of forest biomes, which are the most common biome worldwide,
are found tropical forests, taiga, and temperate forests. Tropical rainforests, situated
in a belt near the equator, are important in enhancing nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon
cycles and help in regulation of the global climate. They are always warm and humid,
receiving 200-450 cm of rainfall annually. Due to the high precipitation in these
biomes, they are home to various species of animals and plants. Compared to one
hectare of temperate forest, which may only contain a few plant and tree species, the
same area of tropical rain forest may have hundreds of plant species.

A tropical rainforest in Vietnam.

Nutrients in Tropical Rain Forests

Tropical rain forests are characterized by quick decomposition of organic matter that
enables plants to quickly absorb nutrients from the soil. The absorption of the
nutrients happens efficiently to the extent that the water running out becomes as clear
as distilled water. However, tropical soils are unsuitable for farming because of the
faster absorption, which may render them unable to support crops for many years.
Tropical rain forests are also characterized by the growth of above-ground roots
(known as braces/buttresses) that provide trees with additional anchorage.

Layers of the Rain Forest

Tropical rain forests consist of four different layers in which various plants grow. The
top layer is known as the emergent layer, which is home to the tallest trees (60-70 m)
within the rain forest. It is followed by the canopy, which can be further subdivided
into upper and lower canopy. The upper canopy is home to trees that can grow to a
maximum height of 30 m. Because the tall trees absorb 95 percent of sunlight, the
lower canopy is composed of epiphytes, which are plants that grow on tall trees to
access sunlight.

The rain forest floor recieves very limited light.

Within this layer are also flowers and fruits that attract most of the animals in the
tropical rainforest who use these plants as food. At the bottom is the understory,
which receives minimal sunlight that only allows the plants to reach a height of 3.5m.
It is here that herbs with flat, large leaves grow. Most of the indoor plants belong to
tropical rain forest floors and are hence adapted to grow indoors without a lot of
sunlight.

Species Diversity in Rain Forests

Since tropical rain forests contain a wide variety of plant species, they are also home
to a wide variety of animal species. These species have varied adaptive features to
enable them catch their prey or escape their predators. An example is the collared
anteater that has a long tongue to enable it to suck out insects from holes and cracks.
Another example is the Costa Rican mantis that uses camouflage to hide from its
enemies.

Threats to Rainforests
The fact that tropical rainforests now only account for 7 percent of Earth's surface is
proof enough that they are threatened with habitat destruction. Tropical rain forests,
which previously accounted for 20 percent of Earth's surface, is home to various
animal and plant species as well as indigenous people who face extinction. An
estimated 50 million people depend on the rain forests for food, shelter, and clothing,
as well as for cultural practices. Animals, such as parrots, have become susceptible to
pet traders who regularly raid rain forests and capture them for exotic pet trading.

The Douglas Fir is one of the dominant

species in the temperate rainforest.
Temperate Forests
Temperate rain forests, commonly found in New Zealand, Australia, and North
America, are characterized by high precipitation levels, moderate temperatures, and
high humidity. The Pacific Northwest is home to North America's only temperate
rainforest that contains various plant species, such as Douglas Fir, Sitka Spruce,
Redwood, Pacific Silver Fir, and Western Hemlock. These trees can grow to a height
of 90 m. Although located north of other rain forests, the Pacific Northwest temperate
rainforest has been able to maintain moderate temperatures thanks to the cool ocean
wind that comes from the nearby Pacific Ocean. These cool winds, combined with
coastal mountains, enable constant rainfall that keeps the forest moist and cool.

Temperate Deciduous Forests

Temperate deciduous forests are characterized by changing temperatures, which
subsequently affect the vegetation. In the summer, temperatures can often reach 95°F,
which causes many plant species to bloom. This is the opposite case during winter
when temperatures drop to below the freezing point while trees shed their flat, broad
leaves. At this time, decomposition occurs slowly while nutrients are not quickly
absorbed by the plants, which makes the soil more fertile than in a tropical rainforest.
Temperate deciduous forests are located between 30° and 50° north latitudes.

Plants of Temperate Deciduous Forests

Just like tropical rain forests, deciduous forests have different layers in which
different plants grow. At the top is the canopy where tall trees, such as maple, oak,
and birch live, whereas the understory is inhabited by shrubs and small trees. Unlike
tropical rain forests, more sunlight reaches the floor of deciduous forests, which allow
for the growth of mosses, herbs, and ferns. These plants have adaptive characteristics
to cope with seasonal and weather changes. During fall and winter, these trees will
shed their leaves whereas others, such as bulbs, herb seeds, and rhizomes become
dormant. The onset of summer allows for these trees to grow new leaves and the herb
seeds can germinate and rhizomes can grow new stems and shoots.

Animals of Temperate Deciduous Forests

Similarly, animals of the deciduous forests have adaptive features that enable them to
survive in this biome. For example, the canopy provides birds with a place to nest in
the summer while squirrels are able to feed on the abundant nuts and fruits in the
forest. Other animals commonly found in this biome include deer and bears that feed
on trees and shrubs. In harsh weather conditions, some of these animals may choose to
reduce their activities in order to conserve energy as is the case with bears during
hibernation.

Taiga
The taiga is a northern coniferous forest that stretches just below the Arctic Circle and
across the Northern Hemisphere. It is characterized by long winter periods of 6-10
months during which temperatures fall to -10°F. Many of the trees are often straight
with few leaves. However, the summer is often characterized by abundant plant
growth due to a constant supply of sunlight and high precipitation.

Sparse floor vegetation is a characteristic of Taiga forests.

Plants of the Taiga

A key part of the vegetation of the taiga are conifer trees, that have needle-like leaves
and seeds. Their leaves are also waxy to prevent them from losing a lot of water,
especially in the winter when they may be unable to absorb water from the soil.
Conifers are also cone-shaped to prevent snow from accumulating on its branches and
subsequently breaking them. Taiga does not have many plants growing on its forest
floor because the needle-like leaves turn the soil acidic when they fall to the ground.
This acidity also reduces the rate of decomposition such that soil formation takes a
longer time.

Animals of the Taiga

Within the taiga are many swamps and lakes that provide birds with aquatic food in
the summer. In the winter, food is often scarce, which forces these birds to migrate to
warmer areas. Other animals, such as jumping mice, hibernate underground while the
snowshoe hare sheds it brown fur for white fur to better camouflage itself from its
predators, such as wolves, lynx, and fox.

Grassland, Desert, and Tundra

Biomes
Deserts are commonplace in regions that do not receive a lot of rainfall whereas
savannas are common in warm areas with minimal precipitation. In temperate areas,
we find biomes, such as chaparral and grassland.

Savannas
The vegetation within a savanna is dominated by shrubs, small trees, and grasses,
which is food for different herbivores, such as antelopes, elephants, and giraffes. The
presence of these animals also attracts others, such as lions, cheetahs, and hyenas, that
prey on them. The Savanna biome is found in Western India, parts of Africa, some
parts of South America, and Northern Australia. Rain only falls for a few months
during which time the plants can grow.

Giraffes are abundant on the savanna.

Plants of the Savanna
To survive long periods without enough water, most plants of the savanna have large,
horizontal roots that enable them to absorb water from as large of a surface area as
possible. Some of them shed their leaves during the dry season before growing new
ones in the rainy season. The savanna grass has vertical leaves that reduce their
exposure to the hot sun, which may result in excess loss of water. Others have sharp
leaves or thorns to ward off hungry herbivores.

Animals of the Savanna

Animals of the savanna also have adaptive features or behaviors to enhance their
survival. Herbivores, such as elephants and buffalo often migrate to other areas with
abundant rainfall and vegetation for consumption. These animals are sometimes
stalked by predators for food. Other herbivores, such as giraffes and rhinos, are
physically adapted to feed on certain vegetation, including tree leaves, shrubs, or
grasses. During dry conditions, most of these animals wait until the rainy season
before giving birth when food is more plentiful.

Temperate Grasslands
Temperate grassland occurs where there is moderate rainfall that is still insufficient
for tall trees to grow. This biome is common in the interiors of the continents, such as
the prairies in North America, the veldt in South Africa, the Pampas in South
America, and the Steppes in Asia. The moderate rainfall is often attributable to the
presence of mountains as is the case for the Prairies in North America. The rain clouds
from the west often release most of their moisture when passing over the Rocky
Mountains. Rainfall increases as you move eastward, which results in the growth of
taller shrubs and grasses. Temperate grasslands are uniquely vulnerable to forests fires
in the summer resulting from lightning strikes.
 Temperate grasslands have the most fertile soil in the world.

Plants of Temperate Grasslands

Temperate grasslands have many plant species regardless of the fact they only have
one layer. Wildflowers and grasses constitute the majority of the grassland's
vegetation and have multi-layered root systems to protect them from drought and fire.
Others, such as trees and shrubs only grow near river banks where enough water can
be found. Of all the biomes, grasslands have the most fertile soil due to the
accumulation of organic matter over time. They have been commonly transformed
into farmlands for raising wheat and corn, and other crops.

Animals of Temperate Grasslands

Grassland herbivores, such as bison and pronghorn antelopes, have large flat back
teeth suitably adapted for chewing prairie grasses. Others, such as prairie dogs,
badgers, and burrowing owls have underground burrows that protect them from
predators and forest fires.

Threats to Temperate Grasslands

Grasslands are threatened by farming and overgrazing, which has reduced the number
of native grasses that are integral to soil formation. Unlike these grasses, the grains
that are commonly planted on grasslands have shallow roots that cannot hold the soil
efficiently in place. Constant farming of the grassland and overgrazing, exposes it to
soil erosion, which may eventually transform it into a desert biome.

The dominant scrub-cover in the chaparral offers perfect camouflage for many species.

Chaparral
Chaparral is a shrub land biome that receives enough rainfall to support the growth of
shrubs, despite having a fairly dry climate. Situated in areas with a Mediterranean
climate, the predominant vegetation for chaparral includes scattered tree communities
of coniferous trees, such as junipers and pinon pines. It is located approximately 30°
North and South of the equator.

Plants of the Chaparral

Scrub oak, olive trees, chamise, sage, bay, and manzanita are some of the predominant
vegetation in the chaparral. Some of them have tiny, leathery leaves to minimize
water loss. These leaves are also oily to enhance natural fires that destroy trees that
might deny the chaparral plants light and space. After a forest fire, the plants are able
to immediately grow out of surviving plant tissues.

Animals of the Chaparral

Most animals of the chaparral, such as quails, chipmunks, mule deer, and lizards, use
camouflage as a survival technique. They have a brownish-gray coloring to enable
them to move discreetly.

Roadrunners thrive in the chaparral biome.

Threats to the Chaparral

The Chaparral's greatest threat is human development, such as commercial and
residential buildings. This is attributable to their mild climate, access to sunlight, and
desirable location near the oceans.

Deserts
Deserts are the driest places on earth because they receive little or no rainfall all-year
round. This is because they are situated near mountain ranges that block the passage
of rain clouds. Due to the lack of moisture in the atmosphere, deserts experience rapid
temperature changes that can go from scorching hot in the day time (115°F) to near
freezing at night. Their vegetation is widely scattered and minimal. Examples of
desert biomes in the world include the Sonoran Desert, Sahara Desert in Africa, and
Atacama Desert in Chile.

Plants of the Desert

Deserts plants, such as cactuses, are known as succulents, due to their adaptive
characteristics that allow them to survive in the harsh desert weather. They have waxy
leaves to prevent water loss, and thick, fleshy stems and leaves to store as much water
as possible. Cactuses also have spines to prevent animals from eating them and
shallow roots that absorb the little rainfall that falls on the surface of the soil. In dry
seasons, some of the plants shed their leaves or drop their seeds to the ground where
they remain dormant until the rainy season. Other plants are able to survive even
when water levels reduce to 30 percent of their mass, although a drop of 50-70 percent
would be fatal.

Animals of the Desert

Desert animals have also physically adapted to live under the dry conditions.
Rattlesnakes and Gila monsters, for example, have thick scales to minimize water
loss. Others, such as the spadefoot toad engage in estivating by burying themselves
underground in the dry season whereas the elf owl hides inside cactuses. Insects, such
as desert spiders have physical features to enable them retain water. Most of the
animals are only nocturnal who come out at night when the temperatures are cooler.

Tundra
Situated in the northern arctic regions, the tundra biome is characterized by extreme
weather conditions that hinder the growth of vegetation. It also
experiences permafrost during which deeper layers of the soil freeze permanently
throughout the year. The top layer of the permafrost often thaws in the summer, which
makes the landscape moist and spongy. In these conditions, various insects, such as
mosquitoes and black flies are able to breed.
Vegetation of the Tundra
Using the Alaskan tundra as an example, the vegetation is mostly comprised of
lichens and mosses that usually grow on rocks in the biome. The thin soil means that
most plants have shallow and wide roots that protect them from icy winds especially
in the case of flowering plants, such as the campion and gentian. The shortness of the
roots also helps them to harness energy from the sunlit soil. Other plants, such as
birch and willow have evolved into dwarf forms while some grow on or along the
ground.

Animals of the Tundra

In the summer, the tundra often receives many visitors in the form of birds and
animals who come to breed and eat the abundant food that is often available during
this season. Animals that inhabit the tundra include arctic foxes, wolves, moose,
hares, lemmings, mice, and caribou, among others. Apart from being effectively
insulated against the cold weather, the arctic fox assumes a white fur in the winter for
camouflage purposes.

Caribou are a main source of food for predators populating the tundra.

Threats to the Tundra

Following the discovery of oil in Northern Alaska, the newest threat to the tundra has
been human activities. Oil exploration and transportation has put the habitat at
incredible risk of pollution from oil spills or leaks, as well as other toxic materials.
This is dangerous to the survival of plant and animal species that rely on the biome for
food and water. This biome is one of the most fragile places on Earth and is easily
susceptible to damage but slow to recover.
Freshwater Ecosystems
The type of organisms that live in an aquatic ecosystem depends on the salinity of the
water. These ecosystems can be subdivided into either freshwater or marine
ecosystems. Freshwater ecosystems include lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, as well
as wetlands, where land is periodically underwater, while marine ecosystems are
comprised of coral reefs, swamps, marshes, and vast oceans.

Characteristics of Aquatic Ecosystems

Factors that influence which part of aquatic ecosystems certain organisms live in
include sunlight, nutrients, oxygen, and temperature. Based on these factors,
organisms in an aquatic ecosystem can be grouped as plankton, benthos, or nekton.
Plankton is also known as a drifter because it cannot swim against current. Most
aquatic organisms obtain their food from phytoplankton, which are drifting plants that
are mostly microscopic. Drifting animals are known as zooplankton and may be
microscopic or large as a jellyfish.

Beavers frequently create ponds by damming up streams.

In contrast, nekton is a free-swimming organism, including turtles, whales and fish.

Those that dwell at the bottom of the aquatic ecosystem are known as benthos most
of which attach themselves to hard surfaces. Examples include worms, mussels, and
barnacles. Within the aquatic ecosystem, there are also decomposers that break down
dead organisms.

Lakes and Ponds

Freshwater ecosystems, such as lakes and rivers, can be formed naturally when
groundwater seeps up to Earth's surface. They can also be formed artificially through
damming by humans who intentionally adjust the flow of streams and rivers to create
dams for irrigation, recreation, water storage, or electricity.

Life in a Lake
Lakes and ponds are subdivided into vertical and horizontal zones. Near the shore is
the littoral zone, a nutrient-rich zone that is home to diverse and abundant aquatic
life, including pond lilies, cattails, and reeds. Further away from the shore, the most
dominant form of aquatic plants is phytoplanktons, which use photosynthesis to
manufacture their own food.

In the deep areas of aquatic ecosystems, there is minimal sunlight to enable organisms
produce food using photosynthesis. Thus, these organisms have adaptive
characteristics to enable them survive in the benthic zone. For example, bacteria
survive by feeding on dead plants and animals that drop down from the surface of the
water. The catfish has whiskers to enable it to sense danger or find food in the dark
depths of the ecosystem whereas water beetles have hairs that trap enough surface air
to help them survive in the deeper regions.

Eutrophic lakes become inhospitable to oxygen-loving organisms.

How Nutrients Affect Lakes

Excessive amounts of nutrients in a lake leads to eutrophication. A eutrophic lake is
characterized by large amounts of plant and algae growth, which leads to an increase
in bacteria that feed on these organisms. The increase in bacteria subsequently results
in a decrease in oxygen levels in the lake considering these bacteria consume most of
the dissolved oxygen in the lake. This is very bad for other organisms that rely on the
oxygen for survival, such as fish. A major cause of eutrophication is runoff that is
caused by the spillage of sewage, animal waste and fertilizers in the lake.
Freshwater Wetlands
Freshwater wetlands are land areas that are periodically covered with fresh water.
They can be either marshes, which are home to non-woody plants, or swamps, where
most woody plants, such as trees and shrubs grow. Wetlands help in reducing water
pollution by trapping and filtering harmful waste before it washes into freshwater
bodies. They help in reducing floods by accommodating extra water that flows in
when rivers burst their banks, thus safeguarding property, lives, and homes of people
and other living organisms. Furthermore, they are a source of food for most game fish
caught in the U.S. and regulating the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by
trapping carbon from the waste products.

Marshes
Freshwater marshes are quite common in low, flat land areas and have little water
flow. An example is the Florida Everglades, the largest freshwater wetland in the
country, which is located in the southeast United States. Rushes, cattails, and reeds are
the most common plant species in freshwater marshes especially in shallow areas
where they are rooted in the rich sediments. Animal species, such as grebes, ducks,
herons, as well as migratory birds from tropical and temperate habitats, frequent
marshes in search of fish and insects that are deeply buried in the benthic zone.
Nonetheless, each of these animals is adapted to burrow deep within the mud to find
food. For instance, herons have spearlike beaks to enable them dig into the mud for
frogs or grasp small fish. The salinity of marshes ranges from slight salty brackish to
highly salty like the ocean.

Freshwater swamps are the ideal habitat

for many amphibians, such as frogs.
Swamps
Swamps are common in flat land areas with poor drainage and near streams.
Similarly, their salinity ranges and subsequently determines the plant species that can
survive there. An example of a tree that grows in saltwater swamps and tropical
climates is mangrove. However, in freshwater swamps, the most common animal
species include amphibians, such as salamanders and frogs that depend on the
continuously moist environment for survival. Wood ducks are also popular around
swamps where they build their nests in the hollow barks of the trees. These organisms
attract reptiles, such as snakes, which prey on them.

Human Impact on Wetlands

Unlike the past, wetlands are currently recognized for their pivotal role in the
environment as flood preventers and purifiers of waste water. Previously, wetlands
were frowned upon as breeding grounds for pathogenic insects and were thus
reclaimed for residential and commercial purposes. An example is the Florida
Everglades that now covers less than 2 million acres of land in contrast to back when
it covered 8 million acres of south Florida. Luckily, there are several federal and state
laws that protect wetlands and prohibit their destruction.

Rivers
Many rivers start from a snow melt in the mountains at which point they are often
freezing cold and full of oxygen. The also flow swiftly via shallow riverbed before
they slow down, become warmer, and widen as they flow down the mountain. A river
constantly changes its features depending on the climate and land through which it
flows. Furthermore, it changes according to activities, such as runoff from nutrients
and sediments from surrounding lands.

Life in a River
The river is home to numerous plant and animal species. At the headwaters, there are
mosses anchored to rocks by rhizoids as well as trout and minnows, which are
physically adapted to handle the strong currents as well as the cold, oxygen-rich
water. Downstream, other plant species, such as the crowfoot are rooted in the rich
sediment whereas arrowheads are also available in different shapes of leaves
depending on the current. Common animal species at this calmer point of a river
include carp and catfish.

Human communities and industries can have an adverse impact on rivers.

Rivers in Danger
Human activities, both communal and industrial, have polluted rivers and killed most
of the organisms, including fish. Rivers have become common sites for disposal of
garbage and sewage, some of which are toxic. Most runoff that ends up in rivers
include harmful pesticides that accumulate into toxic sediments.

Marine Ecosystems
These ecosystems are commonly found in and around ocean areas and are
characterized by salty water. Within a particular area of an ocean, the available
nutrients and sunlight determines the salinity of the water. In coastal areas, water
levels and salinity vary throughout the course of the day.

Coastal Wetlands
Coastal wetlands are areas covered by salty water periodically or all the time. They
are suitable habitats for numerous wildlife and fish. Additionally, coastal wetlands
helps prevent flooding by absorbing excess rainfall and filter out pollutants. They are
popular sites for recreational activities, such as boating, hunting, and fishing.
 Estuaries are very productive ecosystems because they constantly receive fresh nutrients
from the river.

Estuaries
An estuary forms from a combination of salt water from the ocean and fresh water
from the river. The combination of these water bodies is accompanied by formation of
currents that result in a muddy sediment that is mineral and nutrient-rich. Just like
marshes and swamps, estuaries are an important source of nutrients, such as marsh
grass.

Plants and Animals of Estuaries

Estuaries are home to many plant and animal species that are attracted by the plentiful
nutrients and sunlight. These organisms are further boosted by the varying salinity
levels of estuaries that change according to the constant mixing of freshwater and
saltwater. Animal species include mammals, such as manatees, dolphins, and otters,
and invertebrates, such as clams, barnacles, and oysters. Due to the availability of
small fish and crab eggs, estuaries also receive migratory birds, such as shorebirds,
which feed on fish and horseshoe crab eggs. Commercially, estuaries provide harbors
with access to the ocean or river. They are the starting points for some of the world's
major cities, including New York, Shanghai, Buenos Aires, Bombay, and Rio de
Janeiro.

New York City is one of the most

well-known cities built on an estuary.

Threats to Estuaries
Estuaries were commonly used as solid landfills as well as sites for disposing of
agricultural runoff, industrial waste, and sewage. Later, they were reclaimed for
commercial and residential purposes as was the case in California where current
efforts are being made to restore estuary wetlands.

Salt Marshes
Salt marshes form as a result of deposits of mineral-rich mud into estuaries by rivers.
They are home to many animal species, such as aquatic birds, clams, and fish, some of
which stay here when they are still young. Just like estuaries, salt marshes are
important in protecting inland areas and absorbing pollutants.

Mangrove Swamps
Mangrove swamps, found in subtropical and tropical areas, are swampy areas
characterized by dense growths of mangrove trees, which are adapted to shallow, salty
water. They safeguard the coastline from erosion and minimize damage from storms.
Mangrove swamps are home to over 2,000 animal species although recent
developments have seen most of these swamps reclaimed for development projects
worldwide.

Rocky and Sandy Shores

Compared to sandy shores, rocky shores host more plant and animal species, such as
seaweed, sea anemones, sponges, and mussels. However, there are diverse plant and
animal species in the water and sand of the sandy shores. These animals are adapted to
cope with the tidal pull that makes them susceptible to other predators. Sandy shores
run parallel to barrier islands, whose main function is to safeguard the coastal
wetlands and mainland from ocean waves and storms.

Coral reefs are among the most diverse ecosystems on Earth.

Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are limestone ridges that are constructed by coral polyps, a tiny coral
animal. They have photosynthetic algae that benefits from abundant sunlight in
gradually building coral reefs. Coral reefs are home to diverse animal and plant
species. They include fish, clams, snails, and sponges, among others. Corals
themselves obtain their food by stinging animals that float nearby using their stinging
polyps.

Coral Reefs in Danger

The biggest threats to coral reefs include overfishing and pollution. Overfishing
destroys the reef ecosystem, which may take long to recover since coral reefs grow
slowly. Pollution causes coral bleaching, a whitening of the corals, which may lead to
the death of the corals and the reefs themselves. Coral bleaching occurs due to the
dissolution of the algae that helps coral manufacture coral reefs. Pollution of coral
reefs occur in many ways, including oil spills, polluting runoff, global warming,
excessive nutrients, temperature extremes, and muddy water.

Oceans
Sunlight only reaches to about 100 meters (330 ft.) into the ocean, which subsequently
restricts most of its life to shallow, coastal waters. These areas benefit from enough
sunlight to enable plants manufacture food through photosynthesis while various
rivers drain nutrients into the ocean. Some of the organisms found within shallow
waters of the ocean include fish, invertebrates, seaweed, algae, and phytoplankton.

Plants and Animals of Oceans

The coastal or shallow water area of the ocean is home to many organisms, such as
zooplankton, which is the smallest herbivore in the ocean. It includes jellyfish, tiny
shrimp, and larvae of fish, oysters, and lobsters. These organisms feed on
phytoplankton, which float to avoid sinking into the inner depths where there is no
sunlight for manufacturing food. Because of lack of sunlight, the depth of the oceans
is dark and inhabited by dead organisms, filter feeders, and decomposers.

Threats to the Oceans

Despite their large size, oceans are increasingly becoming polluted with runoff from
fertilized areas, oil spills, sewage, and industrial waste. This poses a danger to the
lives of various plant and animal organisms in the ocean. Overfishing and use of poor
fishing methods are also a danger to the population of fish in the ocean. Certain
fishing methods or lines make it harder for certain fish species and animals to survive
in the ocean, such as dolphins and sea lions.

Modern fishing technologies have increased the risk of overfishing.

Arctic and Antarctic Ecosystems

The Arctic and Antarctic ecosystems at the North and South Poles are marine
ecosystems due to the oceans and seas that provide nutrients to the various organisms.
Plankton is the basis upon which the entire food web in this area, is formed. The fish
eat the plankton, which are eaten by whales, seals, and ocean birds, which become
prey for polar bears and humans.

How Populations Change in Size

According to biologist Charles Darwin, a population of living organisms is influenced
by their interaction with their environment. He came to this conclusion after studying
a group of elephants and the way they related to their environment. He further
calculated and projected that a single pair of elephants could theoretically produce 19
million offspring within 750 years.
What Is a Population?
A population refers to members of the same species who live together at the same
place and time. This is a reproductive group considering that the members often breed
amongst themselves. As a term, population can be used to refer to a group or to the
number of individuals within a group.

A densely populated school of fish.

Properties of Populations
The various aspects of populations include dispersion, density, and
size. Density refers to the number of people per volume or unit area,
whereas dispersion is the relative arrangement or distribution of individuals within an
area. Dispersion may be even, clumped, or random. These aspects of populations are
helpful for making population projections.

How Does a Population Grow?

Population growth rate refers to changes in the size of populations due to new births
and deaths. It is usually calculated by subtracting the population's death rates from
birth rates. Growth rates can either be zero, positive, or negative. A growth rate of
zero means that the birth rates are equal to the death rates, whereas a negative growth
rate implies that there are more deaths than births. This is the opposite for positive
growth rates where more people are born compared to those who die.

How Fast Can a Population Grow?

Various factors, such as health status, determine the population growth rate for
various species. It is normal for the population size to remain constant from year-to-
year due to these intervening factors.
 The reproductive potential of Elephants
is much lower than bacterium.

Reproductive Potential
Reproductive potential is the ability of a species to produce a certain number of
offspring. It determines a species' biotic potential, which is the quickest rate at which
its populations can grow. For instance, while a pair of elephants could sire 19 million
descendants within 750 years, a bacterium can reproduce the same number within
days or weeks. Reproduction potential is enhanced by frequent reproduction, early
reproduction in life, and reproduction of many offspring at a time. Of these three
factors, the one with the greatest effect is early reproduction in life, which shortens the
average period when members of a population reach reproductive age, otherwise
known as generation time. Compared to bacteria that have shorter generation times,
large organisms, such as elephants and humans take a considerable amount of time
before they attain reproductive potential.

Exponential Growth
Exponential growth occurs when populations grow at an exceptionally fast rate. An
example is a dog, which may give birth to 6 puppies at once; these puppies may also
grow to give birth to 6 puppies resulting in 36 dogs in the second generation. The
ability to grow exponentially is hinged upon the availability of abundant food and
space as well as the absence of predators or competition. This was the case for the
European starling and dandelions that grew massively when they were first imported
into the U.S.

Dandelions are capable of exponential growth.

What Limits Exponential Growth?

Exponential growth is a rare occurrence considering that natural conditions can never
be constant or perfect for too long. Depletion of natural resources and other
environmental changes impact the number of births and deaths within a population.
Furthermore, the forces of natural selection determine which species will survive at
the expense of others.

Carrying Capacity
An ecosystem's carrying capacity is the maximum population size that it can
comfortably accommodate indefinitely. Although population size may extend beyond
the carrying capacity, it is impossible for this overwhelming trend to remain
permanent. For example, Australia previously had no rabbits in their ecosystem before
they were introduced in 1859. Their population skyrocketed in the face of abundant
vegetation to feed on as well as lack of competition. However, depletion of natural
resources and diseases caused their numbers to dwindle before they rose again when
the vegetation recovered.

Resource Limits
A species' carrying capacity becomes overstretched when it consumes a specific
natural resource, at an equal rate or greater rate, than the ecosystem can produce the
resource. The natural resource then becomes a limiting resource for this species. A
case in point is that of plants whose growth is restrained by water supply, mineral
nutrients, and sunlight.

Competition Within a Population

Competition among members of a population is often exhibited in the fight for
territorial dominance or social dominance. Territory is an area that is claimed by one
or more individuals and restricts admission to other people within a population. The
need to access shelter, breeding sites, and food are the major reasons why members of
a population may fight for territorial dominance. Such competition is a product of
natural selection in which most members of a population spend much of their energy
establishing their territorial dominance.
A severe winter storm can freeze crops and fruiting trees regardless of the density of plants
in the area.

Two Types of Population Regulation

The regulation of population size is affected by deaths that are density dependent or
density independent. Density dependent deaths are as a result of the high density
within a population. In large populations, there are likely to be intense battles for
meager resources, which result in resource depletion, diseases, and predation. Density
independent deaths are those that occur no matter if the population density is high or
low. This category includes natural disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, and
typhoons as well as road accidents. In plants, winter storms can destroy crops
regardless of the area's crop density.

How Species interact with Each

Other
Understanding the interactions of various species in their native surroundings provides
a clear picture of how the species interact with each other. An example is that of a
lion, which is at the top of the food web, although it is fed upon by ticks and fleas.

Kangaroos exhibit a pattern of use on Australian grasslands

An Organism's Niche
Organism niche refers to the role played by a particular organism within its habitat. A
niche is different from a habitat in that niche refers to the species pattern of use of its
habitat. Factors that shape the niche of a particular organism include its physical
homes, interactions with other organisms, and environmental factors required for its
survival. An example is the American bison whose niche is a grazing herbivore as is
the same case for kangaroos in Australia.

Ways in Which Species Interact

Different species interact through predation, mutualism, competition, commensalism,
and parasitism. These relationships are determined by whether these organisms have
harmful or beneficial effects on each other. These effects, which must occur over
time, are often mixed whereas some organisms may not fit into certain categories
properly.

Competition
Competition refers to the relationship between individuals or populations attempting
to get enough of a limited resource. Competition between different species leads to a
niche overlap due to the fact that they have different niches.

Some insects, like Locusts,

directly compete with humans for food.

Indirect Competition
This type of competition occurs when the competitors for the same resource do not
come into direct contact with each other. An example is that of two insect species that
feed on the same flower but at different times. Humans and insects are also indirect
competitors because both of them compete for food resources.

Adaptations to Competition
One of the key ways species adapt to competition is by dividing up the niche by time
or space. An example is that of two barnacle species, one of which, known as
Chthamalus stellatus, is only found in the upper levels of the intertidal zone of rocky
shorelines when the other species is around. Otherwise, this species of barnacles will
be found at the deeper levels of the zone. In most cases, organisms do not use their
niche to their fullest potential.

The Canadian lynx feeds mostly on

snowshoe hares during the winter.

Predation
Predation is when organisms feed on other organisms, in this case known as prey.
This interaction may seem as a reserved for meat-eating animals. Contrary to this
perception, certain predators may end up as prey of others. However, certain prey has
defensive mechanisms against their predators. Most predators will always capture
anything that comes their way, but certain predators only eat specific prey such as the
Canadian lynx that only eats snowshoe hares in the winter.

Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship between a parasite, an organism that lives and feeds on
another organism, and a host, the organism being fed on. Tapeworms, ticks,
bloodsucking leeches, mistletoe, and fleas are examples of common parasites. They
do not kill their host but make them weak by exposing them to diseases.

Mutualism
Mutualism is a close relationship between two different organisms that provide
mutual benefits to each other. Humans have a mutualistic relationship with specific
species of bacteria in their stomach that produce vital vitamins for the body and assist
in the digestive systems. The stomach of a human provides a warm and nutrient-rich
surroundings for the bacteria to grow.
Commensalism
Commensalism is characterized by one species benefiting from another species
without endangering it. A good example is that of orchids and trees. Orchids can grow
around a tree's limbs in search of sunlight without harming the tree.

Commensalism exemplifies the relationship between certain orchids and trees.

Symbiosis and Coevolution

Symbiosis refers to a relationship in which different species live close to each other,
which is often the case in many interactions between species. Such relationships may
lead the species to coevolve, at which point they develop adaptations that increase
their mutual benefits or reduce their harms. An example is that of flowering plants,
which sometimes evolve their structures to accommodate insects or animals that help
them in cross pollination.

Studying Human Populations

The 20th Century witnessed a rapid increase in world population, more than any other
period of human existence. Although it is a term that refers to the study of
populations, demography has been frequently associated with the study of human
populations. It involves studying the make-up and historical size of specific
populations in order to make comparisons and projections about the population. Of
equal importance to demographers are economics and social structure, which are key
factors that influence population growth. Demographers categorize countries into
developed countries and developing countries.

The Human Population Over Time

Human population growth rate experienced exponential growth in the 1800s due to
abundant food and better hygiene thanks to advancements made in science and during
the industrial revolution. It is impossible for Earth to sustain this rapid growth for too
long.

The human population is now in a stage of exponential growth.

Forecasting Population Size

There are various factors that guide demographers in forecasting the population size
of an area. However, these projections may be inaccurate because human behavior is
unpredictable.

Age Structure
Age structure is the way ages are distributed within a specific population at a certain
period. A population of predominantly young people can be projected to increase
considering that these young people will reproduce. This is often the case in societies
that have high population growth rates. On the other end, slow growth rates or stunted
growth will precipitate an even age distribution. The age structure in a population can
be represented graphically in a population pyramid.

Survivorship
Survivorship, expressed as a percentage, refers to the number of people within a
population that are likely to survive to a certain age. It is often calculated by looking
at a group of individuals who were born at the same time to understand when each
them dies. Survivorship can be rated as Type I, Type II, or Type III. Type I is
common in developed countries, like Germany and Japan where people get to live
until old age. Type II populations are characterized by equal death rates at all age
levels. Type III is synonymous with many developing countries where many children
die compared to the elderly.
 Smaller families are becoming more prevalent in the United States.

Fertility Rates
Fertility rate refers to the number of babies born each year for every 1,000 women
within a population. Also important is the total fertility rate, which is the average
number of children conceived by a woman in her lifetime. Closely related to the
fertility rate is the replacement level, which is the average number of children that
parents must conceive to replace themselves in the general population. Usually, the
replacement level for the U.S. is 2.1 although the fertility rate dropped below this
level in 1972 until the 90s. Nonetheless, the general population increased because the
children of the Baby Boom era grew up and became parents.

Migration
Migration describes people's movement between places, in which case immigration
refers to movement into an area and emigration refers to movement out of an area.
Migrants between countries influence the population size of their destination
countries, such as is the case for many developed countries. These countries would be
experiencing decreased population if not for the arrival of immigrants.

Vaccines have helped decrease global death rates.

Declining Death Rates

Unlike the past, the last 200 years has experienced declining death rates that have
influenced the rapid population growth. Death rates have declined because of
increased access to adequate food for more people, as well as access to clean water
and safe sewage disposal. Infant mortality rates have also declined due to the
discovery of vaccines.
Life Expectancy
Life expectancy is the average number of years that members within a population are
projected to live. It is affected by infant mortality rates, the death rates of newborns
less than a year old. For instance, a life expectancy of 40 years old in the 1900s was
accompanied by a high infant mortality rate. When the life expectancy increased to 67
by 2000, the infant mortality rate had declined to almost a third of the rate in the
1900s. Reducing infant mortality rates is dependent on the parent's ability to access
food, education, clean water, and fuel, which would guarantee a safe and healthy life
for the baby. The emergence of contagious diseases like TB and AIDS, in southern
African countries, for example, has caused life expectancy there to slightly dwindle.

The Demographic Transition

Demographic transition is a model that explains the effects of social and economic
changes on population growth rates. It enables us to understand why populations in
certain areas increase rapidly before suddenly shrinking in the next century, such as in
most developed countries.

Stages of the Transition

The first stage of the demographic transition resembles the preindustrial society of the
1700s when the birth and death rates were equal and population size was stable. In the
second stage, the scientific and industrial revolutions sparked off a rapid increase in
population as the various advancements in health, education, hygiene, and nutrition,
as well as increased food production, reduced the overall death rates while birth rates
remained high. Within 30 years, these populations can double. Stage three of the
transition is characterized by a decrease in birth rates, which hover close to the death
rates. By the fourth stage, population declines as the birth rate drops below the
replacement level. This process is estimated to take three generations as has been
observed in most developed countries.
 Education of women in developing countries can eventually contribute to lower birth rates.

Women and Fertility

Increased economic independence and empowerment are two major reasons for
declining birth rates. This explains why stage two of the demographic transition
model is characterized by reduced death rates while the third stage is characterized by
declining birth rates. Education empowers women about the economic and health
benefits of family planning after which they do not see the need to bear as many
children. Working class females also spend a majority of their time working to feed
their families, which leaves them less time for childbearing. In most developed
countries, the fertility rate averages 1.6 children for every woman while the rate is 3.1
children per woman in developing countries.

Changing Population Trends

Over time, large population sizes lead to an increase in environmental problems.
Resource depletion is common within such populations as well as scarcity
of infrastructures, which are the basic services and facilities supporting a
community. Examples include sewer lines, power plants, subways, roads, water
supplies, and hospitals. Signs that the population is strained beyond capacity include
suburban sprawl, polluted rivers, inadequate housing, overcrowded schools, and
barren land.

Problems of Rapid Growth

Rapid growth can lead to faster depletion of resources within a community. The most
affected natural resources include land, vegetation, and water.

Parts of Africa have been cleared of vegetation by people collecting fuelwood.

A Shortage of Fuelwood
Many developing countries experience a shortage of fuelwood, which is their main
source of fuel for cooking food and boiling water for drinking. This fuelwood is
mainly deadwood, including branches and twigs that are shed by trees and fall to the
ground. Rapid population growth rate decreases the amount of deadwood forcing the
people to cut down living trees as has been witnessed in many parts of India, Africa,
and Asia. When people cannot get enough wood for fuel, they will be exposed to
malnutrition and diseases since they cannot boil water drawn from the river or cook
food properly.

Unsafe Water
Cities and countries that lack proper water supply infrastructures expose their
populations to contaminable diseases, such as typhoid, dysentery, and cholera. These
places often use bodies of water as sites for waste disposal as well as sources of water
for drinking and washing. Rapid population growth in an area can be
counterproductive when water supply systems are not improved to accommodate this
increasing population. As a result, over 1 billion people globally did not have access
to clean and safe drinking water in 2015.

Egypt loses farmland to housing development on the Nile.

Impacts on Land
Rapid population growth also reduces the space available for arable land, land used
for crop farming, and land that provides easy access to resources. Take the example of
Egypt whose population of 73 million people and annual growth rate of 2 percent has
reduced the amount of arable land in the country. Most cities worldwide are also
experiencing rapid urbanization where people migrate from rural to urban areas in
search of better economic opportunities. A case in point are various U.S. cities, which
have attracted many people who have subsequently formed suburban sprawl by
moving to the suburbs. These suburbs are a major cause of strained infrastructure,
reduction of farmland, and wildlife habitat, not to mention traffic jams.

A Demographically Diverse World

Instead of categorizing countries as either developed or developing, demographers
have resorted to the more conservative terms of more developed and less developed.
They also note that not all countries undergo demographic transition as described
earlier. Some countries may have educated and stable populations, yet with little
industrialization occurring.

The least developed countries are receiving

more international attention.

Other countries, such as the least developed countries, may experience high birth
rates, but little industrialization. These countries have been the focus of various
development programs and foreign aid to assist them in solving their environmental
and demographic problems.

Managing Development and Population Growth

Following the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) in
1994, many countries, including the less developed countries, are now conscious of
the relationship between population, environment, and development. Countries, such
as China, India, and Thailand, have recognized the need for stable populations by
reducing birth rates. Some of the strategies applied include public advertising,
economic incentives, family planning programs, legal punishments, and women
empowerment. This has caused a decline in women fertility rates worldwide.
Growth Is Slowing
The worldwide human population is quickly increasing towards 8 billion. Between
1985 and 1990, the global population growth rate peaked at 87 million annually
before reducing to 81 million in 1990-1995. Although fertility rates have declined
globally, the less developed regions are still characterized by higher fertility rates
compared to their more developed counterparts. Demographers predict that population
in the less developed regions will continue to increase even though the global growth
rate in this century will be slower than the last. By 2050, most countries' fertility rates
will equal their replacement levels leading to a stop in the population growth rate.

Less developed regions are still experiencing high birth rates.

Projections to 2050
Demographers project that by the year 2050, the world's population will peak at 9
billion and the population growth rate will be medium.

What Is Biodiversity?
The study of biodiversity helps us understand the importance and reasons behind
extinction as well as to what extinction is natural or man-made. Understanding
biodiversity also enhances our understanding of how to prevent extinction and
whether it is preventable in the first place.

Tropical rain forests contain an extraordinary variety of species.

A World Rich in Biodiversity

Biodiversity is a shortened form of biological diversity and refers to the amount of
selected plant or animal species within a habitat. Certain areas, such as tropical
rainforests are home to extraordinary species. Understanding and preserving
biodiversity is integral to human survival.

Unknown Diversity
Although the recorded number of species on earth is 1.7 million, scientists estimate
that there are close to 10 million species that are yet to be identified. A new species
becomes known when it has been identified and described scientifically. Most of the
unknown species inhabit deep depths of the ocean, cities, and remote parts of
wildernesses.

Genes are responsible for unique color traits in birds.

Levels of Diversity
Scientific study of biodiversity occurs at the following three levels: species diversity,
genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Species diversity, the focus of most
biodiversity studies, is the study of the variety of species within a particular area.
Ecosystem diversity looks at the number of ecological processes, variety of habitats
and communities within and between ecosystems. Genetic diversity studies the
variation of genes within members of a particular population. A gene is part of the
DNA that codes for an inheritable trait.

Benefits of Biodiversity
Biodiversity has a major effect on our ecosystems' stability as well as population
stability.

The Sea Otter is considered a keystone species.

Species Are Connected to Ecosystems
Diversity of species is integral to healthy ecosystems and can help guarantee a healthy
biosphere. A healthy biosphere consists of balanced cycles of nutrients and energy in
which all species are interdependent on each other. This is best explained by the food
web, which undergoes drastic changes in case one of the organisms disappears,
through extinction, for example. In certain cases, the food web would collapse
if keystone species, which are those that are absolutely critical to the functioning of
the food web, were to become extinct. An example are the sea otters, whose
disappearance off the U.S. Pacific coast led to a decline in the population of kelp beds.

Species and Population Survival

Populations that are genetically diverse have better chances of longer survival than
those that are less diverse. Within genetically diverse populations, chances are good
that there are enough people or organisms that could adapt through natural selection to
withstand an environmental change. This is not the case for populations that are small
and isolated, which instead face the risk of extinction. Such populations can never
become genetically diverse again, even when they increase in population size. Instead,
they may have a high percentage of people with certain genetic diseases.

Medical, Industrial, and Agricultural Uses

Medical biodiversity has contributed to the production of various drugs for treating
numerous diseases. A quarter of prescription drugs in the U.S. are made from plants
whereas fungi are a key source for antibiotics.

In the agricultural sector, genetic combination of two or more plant materials has
resulted in hybrids, which have enhanced food security for humans. Scientists predict
that more hybrids will be developed in the future by crossbreeding certain crops with
varieties of wild plants. This, it is hoped, will improve the crops' resilience to disease
and drought.
 Ecotourism has become a popular activity in recent years.

Ethics, Aesthetics, and Recreation

Certain people have argued that it is ethically important to preserve biodiversity
because ecosystems and species have a right of existence regardless of their value to
the ecosystem. Biodiversity is also a source of recreation and aesthetical amusement
for other people. It promotes ecotourism, which is a type of tourism that focuses on
conserving and sustainably developing ecologically unique areas.

Biodiversity at Risk
Mass extinction occurred approximately 65 million years ago during which various
changes in Earth's ecosystem and climate precipitated the extinction of over 50
percent of the species globally. Such extinction occurs within a short period after
which the affected biodiversity takes millions of years to recover.

Current Extinctions
Since 1800, extinction rates on earth have increased by a multiple of 50 while
scientists believe that 25 percent of all species may become extinct by 2100. This
indicates that another mass extinction is underway, and the main cause is believed to
be humans.

Several species of apes are classified as endangered.

Species Prone to Extinction

Apart from rats and cockroaches, whose large populations can adapt to various
habitats, other species are at danger of extinction. This is especially true for species
that have small populations and live in limited areas. Also susceptible are those that
require special or large habitats and those that are undergo human exploitation.
Organisms facing extinction can either be endangered species or threatened
species. Endangered species refers to those that are in extreme danger of extinction if
protective measures are not instituted. Threatened species are those whose
population is declining and nearing the threat of extinction.

How Do Humans Cause Extinctions?

The past two centuries have been characterized by increased human population and
has resulted in an increase in extinction. Human beings have accelerated extinction by
destroying habitats, pollution, introducing non-native species, and overharvesting.

Over the years, the Cougars′ habitat has shrunk.

Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation

Human encroachment on the habitat of other organisms has become the biggest cause
of extinction, 75 percent of extinctions to be exact. For example, the population of
wild cougars within North America has decreased due to commercial developments
across their habitats, including fences, canals, and roads. By 2003, the number of
Florida panthers east of the Mississippi River had been reduced to less than 100.

Invasive Exotic Species

Exotic species are not native to a specific habitat, and can be any organism as long as
they are introduced to an ecosystem in which they have never existed before. Exotic
species can pose problems for the native species within that ecosystem, which may
not be naturally prepared to defend themselves against these organisms. An example
is fire ants, which can cause problems for livestock.
Harvesting, Hunting, and Poaching
Harvesting and hunting has been responsible for the extinction or the threat of
extinction of certain species. An example is that of 2 billion pigeons that became
extinct due to hunting, as well as bison, which almost became extinct in 1800-1900s.
Until today, people hunted and harvested rare plant and animal species to make food,
wood, herbal medicines, pet-keeping, and houseplants. This has prompted various
governments to enact stringent laws that curb hunting and harvesting rare species
whose populations are low. Nonetheless, this zero-tolerance attitude has been unable
to curb poaching, an illegal form of hunting. Furthermore, most developing countries
are still grappling with the problem especially considering that certain species have
been a long-time source of income, medicine, or food for certain communities.

Pollution
Harmful chemicals that are disposed of inappropriately in the environment pose a
great danger to the survival of various plant and animal species. Examples of these
chemicals include cleaning agents, pesticides, and drugs, among others. The bald
eagle is an example of an organism that nearly became extinct because of the
widespread use of DDT on various farms around America. Its population
subsequently recovered when the use of DDT was outlawed. However, the pesticide is
still used in other countries worldwide.

There is still much to learn about Marine ecosystems .

Areas of Critical Biodiversity

Because plants are a core part of an ecosystem, endemic plant species are often used
by ecologists when assessing the overall biodiversity of an area. Endemic species are
either plants or animals that only exist within a limited area in which they are native.
Tropical Rain Forests
Although tropical rain forests cover a mere 7 percent of Earth's land surface, they are
home to over 50 percent of the world's species, most of which have never been
identified and described. The biggest threat to the survival of these species is the
clearing of rain forests for agriculture. Also affected are indigenous communities that
inhabit these forests and have always depended on them as their source of livelihood.

Coral Reefs and Coastal Ecosystems

Coral reefs and coastal ecosystems, such as swamps, marshes, kelp beds, and shores,
are hugely threatened by pollution and overfishing. As such, over 60 percent of coral
reefs globally are under threat. This is unfortunate considering the many benefits that
reefs provide, including home to diverse species, preventing waves, and attracting
tourism revenue. Due to poor studies on coral reefs, there are minimal laws to protect
them.

Islands
New islands are often colonized by few species from the mainland, which may
eventually evolve into new species. This means that islands are sites where new
species are formed, as is the case of the Hawaiian Islands that are home to 28 species
of an endemic bird family known as honeycreepers. However, these birds, as well as
other species on the island, face competition from exotic species introduced to the
island.

Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity hotspots are areas that are home to endemic species, which face
extinction due to human activities in their habitat. According to international
conservationists, most of these hotspots, 25 in total, have lost at least 70 percent of
their natural vegetation, including coastal areas, islands, and rain forests. Madagascar
is an example of a biodiversity hotspot that has lost 82 percent of its original forests. It
is home to approximately 8,000 flowering plants that are endemic and over 250 reptile
endemic species. It is also where the entire 33 species of lemur, which constitute 90
percent of the globe's primate species, are found.

Human activities in Madagascar are encroaching on the habitats of Lemurs.

Biodiversity in the United States

The U.S. is home to various biodiversity hotspots as well. The California Floristic
Province is one such hotspot that contains over 3,400 native plant species of which
over 2,100 are endemic. The other biodiversity hotspots include the Florida
Everglades, the Midwestern prairies, Hawaii, Pacific Northwest forests, and the
California coastal region. The U.S. is often home to large populations of mussels,
freshwater fishes, crayfish, and snails as well as plant species, such as sunflowers and
pine trees.

The Future of Biodiversity

Preserving our biodiversity is possible if new approaches are adopted while staying
aware of human needs.

Saving Species One at a Time

Plant and animal species threatened with extinction are often given first priority by
conservationists who will often attempt to save the last survivors.

Captive-breeding programs are attempting to save the California condor.

Captive-Breeding Programs
Captive-breeding programs aim to increase the population of a species faced with
extinction by breeding it in captivity before releasing it into its natural habitat. Faced
with extinction due to lead poisoning, habitat loss, and poaching, wildlife experts
captured nine wild California condors, which were the last surviving condors of the
species. After being bred in captivity, these birds were then released into the world
with the hope that they would continue breeding and recovering their population. As
of 2018, the worldwide California condor population is estimated to be around 500.

Preserving Genetic Material

Experts can also save a species from extinction by collecting its germ plasm and
storing it in a germ plasm bank. Germ plasm is a form of genetic material, which
may include reproductive or germ cells as well as plant cells. The germ plasm, stored
as a seed, eggs, sperm, or DNA, will be used in the future for research or species
recovery.

Zoos, Aquariums, Parks, and Gardens

Zoos, aquariums, parks, and gardens are like museums that showcase the biodiversity
of an area. Also included are botanical gardens that contain over 90,000 plant species
worldwide. Although originally used to display exotic animals, zoos, wildlife parks,
and aquariums have become homes for other species threatened with extinction.
Within such habitat, these animals can recover their populations without the threat of
human interference.

A botanical garden in Spain.

More Study Needed

Captive-breeding programs may not be entirely successful when the captive species
are reintroduced to their natural habitat. It may also precipitate infectious diseases
caused by inbreeding among a small population.
Preserving Habitats and Ecosystems
The key to saving endangered species from extinction is to protect their habitats,
which in most cases, are large swathes of land.

Conservation Strategies
Most conversation strategies have focused on protecting an entire ecosystem and not
just particular endangered species. This is because the various organisms in an
ecosystem are interconnected; therefore, it is prudent to save the species within it.
Apart from prioritizing biodiversity hotspots, conservation efforts have also paid
attention to preserving and restoring native habitats and promoting use of products
manufactured using sustainable practices.

More Study Needed

Over time, in-depth questions have emerged over various ecosystem-related issues.
One of them has been the required size of a protected reserve in order to maintain a
certain amount of species. Conservationists have also determined the maximum
fragmentation that an ecosystem can handle.

Legal Protections for Species

The U.S. has some of the most stringent laws to avoid extinction of various species, as
is the case in other countries worldwide. However, enforcement of these laws remains
controversial and challenging.

U.S. Laws
Passed in 1973 by Congress, the Endangered Species Act is the major law that
safeguards endangered species from extinction. It mandates the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service (USFWS) to identify and list all endangered and threatened species. By 2017,
1,653 plant and animal species had been listed as endangered or threatened. The
Endangered Species Act also criminalizes the harm to, purchase or sale of any of the
endangered species and the body parts. Under the act, the federal government is also
prohibited from implementing projects that endanger the lives of any species listed by
USFWS.

Real estate developers may be prohibited from building on their

own land because it contains critical habitat for a species.

Recovery and Habitat Conservation Plans

The Endangered Species Act also mandates USFWS to prepare a species recovery
plan for every endangered species. Restoration of natural habitats is often the
recommended solution although its implementation has been controversial. Recovery
of habitats would imply restricting land use for commercial, residential, and
agricultural purposes. This has put real estate developers and conservationists at odds
compelling each one to compromise with a habitat conservation plan. This plan is
often the product of a trade-off in which both parties agree to protect the affected
species across large swathes of land.

International Cooperation
Consisting of 200 government agencies and more than 700 private conservation
groups, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN) has been at the forefront of conservation efforts. It regularly publishes the
Red List, including endangered species around the globe and works hand-in-hand with
the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) to sponsor conservation efforts. It also advises
governments on natural resource management strategies.

International Trade and Poaching

The IUCN was instrumental in the development of the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which was an international treaty meant to
stop the killing of African elephants for their ivory. Following unsuccessful efforts to
curb ivory trade during the 1970-80s, CITES members resolved to ban ivory trade,
which subsequently reduced elephant poaching as the price of ivory drastically
declined.

The Biodiversity Treaty

The United Nations conference on Environment and Development or the Earth
Summit, held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, brought about the development of
the Biodiversity Treaty. This is an international treaty that aims to preserve
biodiversity through prudent and sustainable use of genetic resources worldwide. The
adoption of the treaty into law in the U.S. has, however, been crippled by a tug-of-war
between conservationists and political groups. Political groups oppose the suggestion
that trade and economic agreements should hinge on their impacts on biodiversity.

Private Conservation Efforts

WWF is one such private conservation organization that has constantly supported
efforts to use resources sustainably and protect wildlife. Similarly, the Nature
Conservancy has protected millions of hectares of natural habitats in 29 countries,
whereas Conservation International has been helping in identifying biodiversity
hotspots. It also collaborates with other organizations and local communities on
developing ecosystem conservation initiatives. Greenpeace International is a more
controversial group that sometimes employs confrontations to oppose environmental
threats.

Conservation groups have helped ensure that many endangered habitats remain
undisturbed.

Balancing Human Needs

Human interests and attempts to protect endangered species often clash. The key to
avoiding these conflicts is to educate people on the importance of biodiversity in their
ecosystem.
12.1
Water Resources
Water is an essential component of life that human beings cannot survive without,
even for a few days. Water, some of which has been in existence on Earth before life
began, is used for drinking and agriculture. It can either be fresh water or salt water.

Most human uses for water, such as drinking and agriculture, require fresh water.

The Water Cycle

Earth is nicknamed the 'water planet' because of the abundance of water in solid,
liquid, and gaseous forms. It is a renewable resource often replenished through the
water cycle. It involves the travel of water molecules between the atmosphere and
Earth's surface. Oceans are also an important part of the water cycle since a big
percentage of water on earth is found in oceans.

Global Water Distribution

Ironically, water is a limited resource despite accounting for 71 percent of the earth's
surface. Approximately 97 percent of the water is salt, whereas 77 percent of the fresh
water is available in frozen icecaps, and glaciers. The minimal fresh water that is
accessible to human beings and animals are available in lakes and rivers as well as
from a narrow area beneath Earth's surface.

Power generation is one of the many

uses people have for water.
Surface Water
Surface water is the fresh water that is available in rivers, lakes, wetlands, and
streams. For centuries, many cities and towns have been built near bodies of water.
Even today, many large cities rely on surface water for the livelihood of its residents.
Apart from drinking water and irrigation, bodies of water also provide local
communities with fish, transportation, and hydroelectric power.

River Systems
Rivers are formed from melting snow from plateaus, hills, plains, and mountains,
which combine with other streams that are formed from falling rain. The size of a
river is determined by the number of streams that flow into it and result in a river
system. A river system is a large flowing network of streams and rivers moving
across a land area. Some of the most common river systems in the world include the
Amazon, Nile, and Mississippi.

The amount of water that enters a

watershed varies throughout the year.

Watersheds
A watershed is a land area that is drained by a river, this area could endanger a river
if it becomes polluted. Depending on the rate of melting snow and amount of rainfall,
the amount of water that reaches a watershed varies. A reduction in rainfall and
melting snow may eventually reduce the amount of water drained by a river, which
may negatively affect communities dependent on the river.

Groundwater
Groundwater is the freshwater available beneath Earth's surface in rock formations
and sediments. It consists of water that often sinks into the ground during a rainfall.
Eventually, groundwater reaches a water table level at which point the soil and rocks
become saturated with water. In certain wet regions, the water table maybe visible on
the earth's surface where a spring of freshwater flows from below the ground.

Aquifers
An aquifer is an underground formation in which groundwater accumulates. Its upper
part is the water table and consists of gravel, rock, and sand with a lot of spaces
through which water seeps in. Aquifers can sometimes become underground lakes
especially in caves where groundwater dissolves the rock formations made of
limestone.

Porosity and Permeability

Porosity refers to the percentage of a rock's total volume that has pores and spaces.
Rocks with more pores are able to hold more water than those with less. Nonetheless,
the ability to hold water is dependent on its permeability, which is a rock's ability to
allow water flow through it. Examples of permeable rocks include limestone, sand,
and gravel as well as sandstone. In contrast, rocks, such as granite or clay are
classified as impermeable because they do now allow water flow. Water flows in
permeable rocks from pore to pore.

The Recharge Zone

A recharge zone is a point at which water from Earth's surface reaches down into the
aquifer. It is a sensitive area that should not be polluted because the aquifers will be
subsequently polluted. A recharge zone is also influenced by its permeability, which
affects the amount of water that percolates into the aquifer. Prudent management of
recharge zones is necessary because aquifers take tens of thousands of years to refill.
Therefore, no buildings should be built on recharge zones.

For thousands of years, humans have dug wells to reach groundwater.

Wells
Humans dig wells, deep holes drilled below the water table to access groundwater,
and the water is purified and filtered as it travels underground. However, wells may
dry up when the water table falls below the wells. This requires that wells must be
constantly drilled in line with the changes in the water table.

Water Use and Management

The rapid population growth worldwide has created a shortage of fresh and clean
water. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that over 1 billion people do
not have access to clean and reliable sources of fresh water.

Global Water Use

Water is mostly used for industrial, agricultural, and residential purposes. However,
the pattern of water use varies in different regions of the world. In Asia, 80 percent of
water is used for agricultural use compared to 38 percent in Europe for the same
purpose. Europe and North America lead the way for using water mostly for industrial
purposes. Overall, industrial use accounts for 19 percent of water use while residential
use accounts for 8 percent of water use around the world.

A vast amount of fresh water in the U.S. is used for irrigation.

Residential Water Use

While the average American consumes approximately 300 L of water per day, a
resident of India only uses an average of 41 L of water daily. This indicates marked
differences in residential water use around the world. However, in the U.S., most of
the water is used for outdoor activities, such as watering lawns and cars whereas the
rest is used for cooking, washing, sanitation, and drinking.
Water Treatment
Water treatment is necessary to make water potable and remove harmful elements,
such as arsenic, lead, and mercury. It also removes pathogens, such as bacteria,
protozoa, viruses, and parasitic worms that inhabit in water.

Industrial Water Use

Water is used in various industries to manufacture goods, generate power, and waste
disposal. It is a major raw material in manufacturing products, such as 1 kg of
aluminum that takes about 1000 L of water. Water is essential for cooling industrial
machines.

The production of corn uses requires an enormous amount of water.

Agricultural Water Use

Sixty-seven percent of water use in the world is directed towards agricultural
activities. Sadly, 80 percent of this water evaporates before it reaches plant roots.

Irrigation
Irrigation is a method of watering plants using other water sources other than direct
precipitation. It is commonly practiced in areas with fertile soils but receive
insufficient rainfall. In the beginning, people used to irrigate their farms by flooding
them with water from nearby bodies of water. Modern irrigation techniques include
water-filled ditches and overhead sprinklers, among others. Overhead sprinklers,
popularly used in the U.S., is uneconomical because much of the water evaporates and
does not reach the roots of plants.

Water Management Projects

Water management has been an important activity to human beings as is evidenced by
the Romans two thousand years ago. They erected huge canals and aqueducts to
harness water from the mountains to the desert areas of Spain and France. Today,
improved engineering skills have enabled us to develop water management
techniques, such as dams and water diversion canals. Areas that were previously
uninhabitable due to lack of enough rainfall have begun to attract people such as the
Southwest United States. Water management may also be geared towards generating
electric power or creating reservoirs for recreational purposes.

The human water demand on the Colorado River often depletes it.

Water Diversion Projects

Water diversion projects seek to divert part or all of water flow from rivers to enable it
to reach as many areas as possible. An example is the Colorado River that has been
diverted into several canals to meet the water supply needs of Arizona, California, and
Utah, among others. The water is used to irrigate farms and for household activities.

Dams and Reservoirs

A dam is a structure built across a river to control its flow and create a reservoir, or
artificial lake. Dams are useful for irrigation, generating hydroelectric power,
drinking, controlling floods, and recreation. Twenty percent of the world's electric
power consists of hydroelectric power. However, interruption of a river's flow has
various side-effects. They can cause flooding of the land behind them and deaths of
many people should the dams collapse.

Furthermore, dams may render the surrounding lands infertile by restricting access to
nutrients and minerals that a river's flow contains. Indeed, an estimated 50 million
people have been displaced by dam projects worldwide. Large scale dam construction
projects are common in countries, such as China, India, and Brazil.
Water Conservation
Depletion of water resources results in increased expenses towards digging of wells,
piping water at great distances, and cleaning up polluted water. Water conservation
remains the most affordable way of managing water resources and ensuring that
everyone has enough access to clean, fresh water.

Water Conservation in Agriculture

Drip irrigation systems are a conservative way of watering crops without losing a lot
of water to runoff, seepage, and evaporation. It is conducted by delivering droplets of
water directly to plant roots using perforated tubing. This ensures that the individual
crops receive enough required water, while wasting very little. Drip irrigation may be
conducted using satellite data that controls the watering times for the crops.

Water Conservation in Industry

Water conservation efforts in industries have been geared towards recycling
wastewater and cooling water. The result is that products have been manufactured
using little amount of water than in the past. Small businesses, such as some in
Colorado, have also been pivotal in water conservation initiatives. The city of Denver
pays various small businesses to conserve water, which in turn increases the water
supply and availability for the residents.

Water Conservation at Home

Within the home, it is important to change our habits that involve wasting water, such
as leaving taps running or using more water than is necessary for particular activities.
Various technologies, such as shower heads and low-flow toilets, can also help
conserve water by limiting the amount of water flow. Those that use water for
landscaping could adopt xeriscaping, which is the designing of a landscape such that
it uses minimal amounts of water. Watering the lawn should also be conducted at
night or in the evening when the rate of evaporation is slow.
Solutions for the Future
Desalination and transportation of fresh water are two plausible strategies that could
help improve water access for many populations.

Desalination
Desalination is the conversion of salt water into fresh water. It is common in some
Middle East countries, which have built desalination plants to harness fresh water. It
involves heating salty water before collecting the fresh water that evaporates.
However, it is a costly method that consumes a lot of energy.

Almost half of the available fresh water in the U.S. is found in Alaska.

Transporting Water
In various Greek islands in the Mediterranean Sea, large ships often transport
freshwater from the mainland in plastic bags. The water is then pumped into the island
to provide residents with adequate water supply. In the U.S., experts have similarly
considered the possibility of transporting fresh water from the Alaskan rivers to much-
needed areas, such as California. Although experts have also considered towing
icebergs to communities that need water, they are yet to discover an efficient way of
towing icebergs.

Water Pollution
Water pollution occurs due to the presence of physical, chemical, and biological
agents that degrade its quality. Rapid population growth and industrialization have
been the main causes of water pollution, especially in developed countries.

In developing countries, the major causes of pollution are agricultural runoff and
sewage disposal. Water pollution can result from point and non-point sources.
 A leaking oil tanker is a cause of Point-Source Pollution.

Point-Source Pollution
Point-source pollution occurs when a pollutant is discharged from a single source,
such as a leaking oil tanker, a factory, or sewage treatment plant.

Nonpoint-Source Pollution
Nonpoint-source pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged from various
sources that are unidentifiable. An example is runoff whose source could be from any
of the land areas that river flows through as well as runoff due to rainfall. Curbing this
kind of pollution is dependent on creating public awareness on various activities that
cause nonpoint-source pollution, such as poor disposal of used motor oil and spraying
harmful pesticides.

Principal Water Pollutants

There are many different kinds of water pollutants.

Wastewater
Wastewater from industries or homes flows through a series of sewage pipes to reach
a treatment plant. Here, the water undergoes filtration and treatment to make it clean
and safe for return to the lake or river.

Treating Wastewater
Although most wastewater contains biodegradable material, it may contain harmful
substances that cannot be broken down efficiently by the treatment plant.

Sewage Sludge
Sewage sludge is a solid by-product of wastewater treatment. Considering that it may
contain toxic substances, it is often incinerated and then buried in a landfill. In recent
times, however, sludge disposal has become burdensome for many cities that have
been forced to seek alternative ways other than landfills. Still, sludge can be
detoxified of its toxic substances and used as a fertilizer or combined with clay for
building purposes.

Artificial Eutrophication
Artificial eutrophication is the overconcentration of nutrients in water bodies due to
human activities, such as farming or washing. In agriculture, excessive use of
fertilizers may cause artificial eutrophication when the fertilizer runoff flows into
bodies of water.

Eutrophication is a natural process, unless caused by humans.

Use of certain phosphoric detergents and dishwashing may also stimulate

eutrophication through an overconcentration of phosphorus in the water sources.
Eutrophication is symbolized by an algal bloom, which is a floating mat-like alga that
form in water and deprive other organisms of enough oxygen supply.

Thermal Pollution
Industries and power plants are the main cause of thermal pollution because they
often discharge warm water into water sources after using it for cooling. A slight
increase in the water temperature reduces oxygen levels in the water and is life
threatening to large fish. Overtime, this would destroy the entire aquatic ecosystem.

Groundwater Pollution
Groundwater pollution occurs when pollutants, such as herbicides, pesticides, and
fertilizers, percolate through the recharge zone into the aquifers. It is also caused by
leakages in underground storage tanks that contain toxic substances, such as
petroleum products, heating fuel, and gasoline. Leakages occur due to old age which
is why modern underground storage tanks have special features to prevent them from
leaking. Unlined landfills, industrial wastewater lagoons, and septic tanks are other
sources of groundwater pollution.

Groundwater pollution is one of the most challenging

environmental problems in the world.

Cleaning Up Groundwater Pollution

Prevention of groundwater pollution is a tough task that has little chance of success.
Decontaminating groundwater would be unhelpful because the water travels through
large parts of soil and rocks. Recycling and purging of water from aquifers would also
take many years. Even if this were to succeed, some of the pollutants may attach
themselves to the rocks underneath exposing groundwater to pollution once again.

Ocean Pollution
Most of our oceans' pollution (85 percent) begins from inland activities, including
toxic wastes, medical wastes, and oil spills. Oceans are also susceptible to polluted
runoff that is transported by the various rivers that flow into these oceans. However,
ships also legally dump garbage and wastewater in some parts of the ocean.

Oil Spills
Nonpoint sources account for 200-300 million gallons of oil spills that pollute oceans
annually. On the other hand, tanker accidents are responsible for 37 million gallons of
accidental oil spills each year. One famous accidental oil spill was the 1989 Exxon
Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound in Alaska and the 2001 fuel-oil spill off the
coast of the Galapagos Islands. Even so, oil spills account for only 5 percent of ocean
pollutions.
Water Pollution and Ecosystems
Effects of water pollution can be far reaching especially when the pollutants
accumulate overtime. Such pollutants are often non-biodegradable and take a long
time before decomposing.

Accumulation of pollutants eventually leads to biomagnification in which pollutants

increase as one moves higher up the food chain or food web. For example, fish may
consume plankton with pesticides after which these pollutants are transferred to
bigger fish that consume the smaller fish.

Cleaning Up Water Pollution

In 1972, the U.S. Congress passed the Clean Water Act that subsequently enhanced
the quality of various bodies of water in the United States. Motivated by the
Cuyahoga River disaster in 1969, in which it caught fire due to excessive pollution,
the act sought to reduce the pollution of national waters by chemical, physical, and
biological agents and make all surface water clean for consumption by 1983.
Although the second objective is yet to be fully realized, headway has been made
considering that the number of rivers and lakes that are now suitable for fishing and
swimming have increased by 30 percent.

The Cuyahoga River has caught fire several times, this event was in 1952.
Image courtesy of Cleveland Press Collection at Cleveland State University Library.

Motivated by the impact of the Clean Water Act, various states have also enacted
strict laws to maintain the quality standards of their various bodies of water. Other
legislation that have followed in the footsteps of the Clean Water Act include the
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, which fought against
ocean pollution. Also, the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, requiring all oil tankers using
U.S. water must have double hulls by 2015 to minimize the chances of accidental oil
spilling.

What Causes Air Pollution?

Air pollution results from excess accumulation of harmful substances in the
atmosphere to unhealthy levels. It is mostly caused by human activities, although
natural occurrences, such as volcanic eruptions and forest fires are also responsible for
air pollution.

Air pollution can come from natural sources, like volcanoes.

Primary and Secondary Pollutants

A primary pollutant is that which is released directly into the atmosphere by human
activity, such as soot from smoke. Secondary pollutants occur due to a reaction
between two different primary pollutants or a reaction between a primary pollutant
and a naturally-occurring substance like water vapor. Ground-level ozone is a
secondary pollutant that is formed from a reaction between oxygen in the air and
emissions from automobiles and natural sources, such as UV rays.

Sources of Primary Air Pollutants

The main sources of primary air pollutants include power plants, motor vehicles, and
household products. Motor vehicles emit carbon monoxide gas through their exhaust
pipes as well as nitrogen oxides. Coal power plants, metal smelters, and refineries are
also sources of nitrogen oxide as well as sulfur dioxide, which form when coal and oil
are burned together. Automobiles are also responsible for the emission of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs), which are present in many household products. Another
cause of air pollution is particulate matter from vehicles, power plants, cement plants,
incinerators, fields, mining operations, roads, and wood-burning fireplaces. They can
be divided into fine particles, from coal power plants and motor vehicles, or coarse
particles, that come from mining operations, cement plants, fields, and wood-burning
fireplaces.

Most air pollution comes from motor vehicles and industry.

The History of Air Pollution

Compared to the pre-industrial ages, air pollution is rampant today. The earliest
recorded effort to reduce air pollution was in 1273 when King Edward I of England
outlawed the burning of a dirty kind of coal known as the sea-coal.

Motor Vehicle Emissions

Gasoline burned by vehicles is responsible for approximately one-third of air
pollution. The U.S. Department of Transportation estimates that American vehicles
were driven 3.2 trillion miles in 2017, the majority of which was driven by passenger
automobiles.

Technology has helped reduce automotive emissions since the 1980s.

Controlling Vehicle Emissions

Amendments to the Clean Air Act in 1990 mandated the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) to control vehicle emissions in the United States. The agency rolled
out a plan to gradually eliminate use of lead in gasoline and consequently reduced
lead pollution by 90 percent. Another success of the EPA was to reduce emission of
pollutants by motor vehicles by 35 percent compared to 30 years ago. This was
achieved by implementing regulations requiring automobiles to be fitted with catalytic
converters which purify exhaust gases of pollutants before they exit the tailpipe.
California Zero-Emission Vehicle Program
The Zero-Emission Vehicle Program is an initiative of the California Air Resource
Board aimed at encouraging the production of energy-efficient and air-friendly
automobiles. Started in 1990, this initiative has successfully encouraged the
production of less-polluting vehicles, such as battery-powered electric cars, hybrid
cars and methanol-fueled vehicles. Hybrid cars are both gasoline and battery-powered.
Zero-emission vehicles are advantageous because they do not emit gasoline, tailpipe
emissions, or emission control systems that may eventually deteriorate.

Industrial Air Pollution

Industries that use fuel for energy have been the main culprits of fossil fuel emissions
that pollute the air. These fossil fuels have nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide that are
released into the atmosphere when burned. The dry cleaning industry, furniture
refinishers, automobile garages, and chemical manufacturers are also responsible for
the emission of VOCs, which are chemical compounds that have toxic fumes when
burned.

Regulating Air Pollution From Industry

Due to the Clean Air Act, many industries are required to use a scrubber, a machine
that helps dissolve pollutants before release into the air. Electrostatic precipitators are
another machine commonly used to trap toxic dust particles and allow clean air to
escape into the atmosphere. They have been successful in removing 22 million metric
tons of ash from coal power plants annually in the U.S.

Smog
Smog is a state of poor visibility in a certain area due to chemical reactions in the air
between ozone, automobile exhaust fumes, and sunlight.
 Temperature inversions often trap smog in Los Angeles.

Temperature Inversions
Temperature inversion is a situation where the air above becomes warmer than that
near Earth's surface. The warmth of the air above prevents the cooler air near Earth's
surface from rising along with pollutants. It interferes with air circulation in the
atmosphere, which is integral to regulating pollution so that they do not reach
dangerous levels. Temperature inversion traps pollutants near Earth's surface along
with the cooler air. Its occurrence is dependent on a city's altitude and affects those
with low altitudes as is the case for Los Angeles.

Air, Noise, and Light Pollution

Air pollution is responsible for many health problems that affect Americans, including
heart and lung complications. Estimates from the American Lung Association show
that Americans pay tens of billions of dollars annually to treat respiratory illnesses
caused by air pollutants.

Air pollution can aggravate the symptoms of people with existing respiratory problems.

Short-Term Effects of Air Pollution on Health

Victims of air pollution will often experience short-term effects, such as nausea,
irritation to the eyes, headache, tightness in the chest, irritating throat and nose,
coughing, and chest pains. These effects are reversible although people who suffer
from emphysema and asthma are in even greater danger.
Long-Term Health Effects of Air Pollution
Besides illnesses, such as asthma, emphysema, heart disease, and lung cancer, air
pollution, in the long run, can worsen health conditions of older people or damage the
lungs of children.

Building ventilation methods have greatly improved over the years.

Indoor Air Pollution

Indoor pollution negatively affects air quality in buildings and results in sick-building
syndrome. The most affected structures are those that are tightly erected next to each
other to prevent entry of heat. Sick-building syndrome is characterized by growth of
fungi in the ceilings, air-conditioning ducts, furniture, carpets, and tiles. The fungi can
cause allergic reactions in occupants of such buildings. Other common sources of
indoor air pollutants include chemicals for cleaning carpets and painting furniture.

Radon Gas
Radon is a radioactive gas that is produced by decaying uranium and is odorless,
colorless, and tasteless. It seeps through holes or cracks in foundations and into the
homes, offices, or schools where it sticks to dust particles. Inhalation of radon as part
of the dust particles can cause lung damage or lung cancer. Radon is the second major
cause of lung cancer in the United States and destroys the genetic materials in the
cells of the air passages.

Asbestos
Asbestos is a cluster of minerals in the form of long, thin fibers, which were
previously valued for their ability to withstand intense heat. This was before it was
discovered that inhalation of asbestos fibers can cause the disease asbestosis, which is
scarring and cutting of the lungs. Consequently, billion-dollar investments have been
made to rid schools and other public places of asbestos.
 Noise pollution comes from a wide variety of sources.

Noise Pollution
Noise pollution can be described as unwanted noise that is irritating and destructive to
the hearing ability. In the last three decades, hearing loss has increased by 50 percent
in the U.S., out of which 12 percent are teenagers. Using decibels (dB) as a unit of
measure for the intensity of sound, the most extreme decibel level that meets the
threshold of pain is 120 dB. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) states that 85 dB
per 8 hours is the safety threshold for personal listening devices. Noise pollution is a
consequence of modern living as it is common in cities more than in rural
communities. A study discovered that members of quiet rural communities in Africa
had better hearing at 80 years old in contrast to Americans in urban centers.

Light pollution is a downside of large cities, often totally obscuring the night sky.

Light Pollution
Light pollution may not present a direct danger to our health but it still impacts the
environment. Light pollution involves a lot of energy waste by using light sources
even when they are not required. For example, most billboards and building exteriors
direct light up into the sky where it is not needed but instead obstructs a clear view of
the sky. The better solutions are to use low-pressure sodium light bulbs and directing
the light rays downwards where they are required.

Acid Precipitation
A water body, such as river or lake that has clear waters such that its bottom can be
seen may have been a victim of acid precipitation. Fishing trips on lakes or rivers like
these may be a fruitless venture, because all or most of the fish may have died from
acid rain.

Despite the beauty of the Adirondacks, some lakes nearby are victims of acid precipitation.

What Causes Acid Precipitation?

Also known as acid rain, sleet or snow, acid precipitation occurs when sulfuric and
nitric acid falls back to Earth's surface in the form of rain, snow, or sleet. From here, it
is then washed into the nearby bodies of water where it can kill living organisms.
Sulfuric and nitric acid are formed in the atmosphere through a combination of sulfur
and nitrogen oxides and water vapor. The sulfur and nitrogen oxides are released
during the burning of fossil fuels.

Using pH (power of hydrogen) as a measure of acidity or alkalinity, acid precipitation

generally has a pH of less than 5.6, which is the pH for normal precipitation. It is
noteworthy that the pH of precipitation varies geographically: the average pH for
Eastern Europe and Scandinavia is 4.3 to 4.5 while that for U.S. and Canada is 4.2 to
4.8. With a pH of 4.2, Lake Ontario and Lake Erie experience the most acidic
precipitation.

Lake Erie has some of the most

acidic water in North America.

How Acid Precipitation Affects Soils and Plants

Acid precipitation can cause acidification of soils in which the pH drops and
concentration of acid increases. This interrupts the soil chemistry by dissolving certain
nutrients, which are then washed away by rainwater. Acidification also increases
aluminum levels in the soil as well as other toxic metals, which are then absorbed by
the roots. Dissolution of sulfur dioxide in vapor blocks the openings on plant surfaces.

Acid Precipitation and Aquatic Ecosystems

Acidification of bodies of water can be tragic for the many organisms within that can
only survive at a certain pH range. Soil surrounding the lake can also become too
concentrated with aluminum, which builds up in the gills of fish and suffocates them
gradually. In certain bodies of water, acidification can cause acid shock, a case where
sudden influx of acidic water causes a sudden change in the pH. Large numbers of
fish have died from acid shock whereas the reproduction of fish and amphibians has
been hindered. Eventually, these organisms cannot produce enough eggs that hatch.
The offspring that survive experience birth defects and infertility.

Acid precipitation is dissolving the Acropolis in Greece.

Acid Precipitation and Humans

Acid precipitation causes poisoning in humans who consume crops, fish, and water
that have accumulated aluminum, mercury, and other toxic metals. Communities that
experience acid rain frequently have high cases of respiratory complications among
children. The death of fish is also an economic blow to many communities that rely on
fishing as a livelihood. Acid rain also damages buildings by dissolving calcium
carbonate in limestone, concrete, and marble as is the case of world monuments, such
as the Taj Mahal, the pyramids of Egypt, and the Acropolis in Greece.

China still burns large amounts of high-sulfur coal without pollution controls.
International Conflict and Cooperation
Various countries have collaborated to tackle acid precipitation, considering it is
mostly caused by pollutants released from far away. The Canada-U.S. Air Quality
Agreement of 1991 is an example of a collaboration in which both parties undertook
steps to minimize emissions across the Canada-U.S. border. It has resulted in dramatic
decreases in sulfur dioxide emissions. Similar agreements in Europe have brought a
40 percent reduction in sulfur dioxide emissions since the 1980s. Efforts to reduce
nitrogen oxide emissions have, however, been set back by increased emissions by
motor vehicle exhausts. Efforts to reduce acid precipitation in Asia have also been
hindered by lack of pollution controls, as in China, where there is burning of large
amounts of high-sulfur coal.

Climate and Climate Change

Weather is defined as the atmospheric state at a particular time and place. On the
other hand, climate is the long-term weather conditions in a particular area on the
basis of the records taken. For example, Seattle and Phoenix have two contrasting
climates: Seattle's climate is moist and cool while Phoenix's climate is hot and dry.
That does not mean that both places cannot experience the same weather conditions,
such as rainfall, wind, or dry weather.

What Factors Determine Climate?

Factors that influence climate include atmospheric circulation, oceanic circulation
patterns, latitude, solar activity, volcanic activity, and the local geography.

Giant Tortoises inhabit the Galapagos Islands, located on the equator.

Latitude
Latitude is the distance north or south from the equator. Measured in degrees, the
most southerly latitude is the South Pole at 90° South, and the most northerly latitude
is the North Pole at 90° North.

Low Latitudes
The amount of solar energy received by an area is dependent on its latitude and
whether it is closer or further from the equator. Areas near the equator receive more
solar energy, and are consequently warmer, than areas that are further from the
equator. Such regions near the equator often have nights and days that are equally 12
hours in length.

High Latitudes
In contrast, areas of high latitudes do not receive as much solar energy as those that
are near the equator. This is common at the northern and southern latitudes where
sunlight hits at an oblique angle, which affects the overall temperatures, and are lower
than those at the equator. Furthermore, the length of days and nights vary. In the
summer, daylight may last for 16 hours while in the winter it could last for only 8
hours. Near the North and South poles, the sun rises for a few hours in the winter and
sets for a few hours in the summer.

Monsoon season is a feature of areas near the equator.

Atmospheric Circulation
Atmospheric circulation involves the movement of cool and warm air to and from
Earth's surface and atmosphere. Solar energy heats Earth's surface and the air around
it, which causes the warm air to rise into the atmosphere. On the other hand, the cool
air in the atmosphere becomes dense and thus sinks to Earth's surface where it is
warmed by sunlight. The warm air is able to accommodate more water than cool air.
After the warm air rises into the atmosphere, it condenses into liquid and may fall
back to Earth's surface as fog, rain, or snow. This circulatory movement of air within
the atmosphere is known as wind. Atmospheric circulation patterns vary in different
areas because of the differences in latitude and the rotation of Earth. In equatorial
regions, which receive a lot of sunlight, there is a high percentage of warm air that can
hold large amounts of water from the surrounding areas as well as bodies of water.
This explains why these areas often receive large amounts of rainfall.

Global Circulation Patterns

In the equatorial regions, cool air does not sink to Earth's surface, rather it rises
towards the North and South poles. Nevertheless, some of the cool air sinks back to
Earth's surface at approximately 30° north latitude and 30° south latitude. At this
point, the air is warm and can either move toward the poles or the equator. As it
moves towards the poles, it collides with cold air at 60° north and 60° south most of
which is forced toward the poles while some returns to the circulation pattern. The
descending cold, dry air at the poles essentially creates cold deserts.

Sailors have relied on prevailing winds since seafaring began.

Prevailing Winds
Prevailing winds blow exclusively in one direction throughout the year. Due to Earth's
rotation, these winds blow to the left in the Southern Hemisphere and to the right in
the Northern Hemisphere instead of southward or northward. Trade winds are a type
of prevailing winds that blow in both hemispheres at 30° north and south latitudes,
and at the equator. Prevailing winds produced between 30° north and 60° north as
well as 30° south and 60° south latitudes are known as westerlies. In the Northern
hemisphere, they are known as southwest winds while in the Southern hemisphere,
they are known as northwest winds. Polar easterlies are another type of prevailing
winds that blow from the poles to 60° north and south latitudes.

Oceanic Circulation Patterns

Because oceans hold large amounts of heat, ocean currents dramatically influence
climatic conditions. These currents are caused by the rotation of Earth, as well as
winds, which enhance the redistribution of cool and warm masses of water.

El Niño - Southern Oscillation

El Niño is a 6-12 month periodic change in the location of cold and warm water
masses in the Pacific Ocean. It is characterized by an eastward pushing of warm water
by winds in the western Pacific Ocean, which are often weak. This causes increased
rainfall in southern U.S. and equatorial South America while causing drought in
Australia and Indonesia. La Niña is the opposite of El Niño in that water in the
eastern Pacific Ocean becomes cooler than usual. Both are part of the El Niño-
southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.

Pacific Decadal Oscillation

Unlike the ENSO cycle, Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) is a 20-30 year change in
location of cold and warm water masses in the Pacific Ocean. It affects the climate of
North America and the northern Pacific Ocean as well as air temperatures,
precipitation patterns, and ocean surface temperatures.

Topography
The case of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania shows the impact of altitude on climate.
Located 3° South of the equator, its peak at 5,896 m (19,343 ft), this extinct volcano is
covered with snow throughout the year. Its temperatures drop by 6° C for every 1,000
m increase in altitude. The Sierra Nevada Mountains of California is another example
of how mountains influence climate. It experiences rain shadow, a phenomenon where
the mountain receives rain on its western side and not the eastern side. This occurs
when warm air from the Pacific Ocean hits the mountain, rises, and falls as rain.

Rain shadows are a common feature in the Sierra Nevadas.

Other Influences on Earth's Climate

During a solar maximum, the sun can produce excess UV radiation to heat the lower
atmosphere and Earth's surface. Volcanic eruptions can also cause an increase in
temperature when they emit sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere where it reacts with
dust and water vapor to form a bright layer of haze. This haze causes an increase in
temperature.

Seasonal Changes in Climate

Changes in temperature and precipitation is caused by the tilting of Earth's axis
approximately 23.5° related to the plane of its orbit. As it revolves around the sun, the
angle at which sunlight reaches the earth changes. Consequently, the Northern
Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun during summer in the Northern Hemisphere
during which time the Southern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun. The scenario
is reversed when it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. Hence, the number of
hours of daylight is usually longer in the summer than in the winter.

The Ozone Shield

Situated within the stratosphere, the ozone layer is an area highly concentrated with
ozone, a molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is Earth's "sunscreen" that
absorbs the sun's harmful UV light and prevents it from reaching Earth's surface.

The ozone in the stratosphere acts like a sunscreen for the Earth’s inhabitants.
Chemicals That Cause Ozone Depletion
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were once perceived to be environmentally-friendly
chemicals because they were non-poisonous, non-corrosive, and non-flammable.
However, experts soon discovered that CFCs can damage the ozone layer when
released into the stratosphere. Within the stratosphere, each CFC molecule breaks
down into 1-4 chlorine atoms. Scientists estimate that one chlorine atom can destroy
100,000 ozone molecules.

The Ozone Hole

The ozone hole is a depletion of ozone levels in the stratosphere, which occurs at the
North and South poles in the spring. This was discovered by research conducted in
Antarctica in 1985, which revealed the ozone layer had thinned by 50-98 percent.
NASA scientists further revealed data from the Nimbus 7 weather satellite indicated
that the ozone layer had been thinning since 1979.

The Nimbus 7 weather satellite

How Does the Ozone Hole Form?

The formation of the ozone hole begins in the polar winter when the polar vortex,
strong circulating winds, blows over Antarctica. They separate cold air from the
surrounding warm air and create a separate vortex region that is extremely cold. This
causes temperatures to fall below -80° C, which leads to the formation of polar
stratospheric clouds, high-altitude clouds consisting of nitric acid and water as well
as molecular chlorine caused by CFCs. When spring comes, the sunlight causes the
molecular chlorine to break down into two chlorine atoms, which then destroys the
ozone. Being chemically reactive, the ozone formed as air pollution cannot replace the
stratospheric ozone because it reacts with various other substances in the troposphere
before it reaches the stratosphere.
Effects of Ozone Thinning on Humans
Thinning of the ozone allows more UV light to reach Earth's surface, which can
destroy human DNA as well as cause skin cancer.

Increased UV levels can damage amphibians’ eggs.

Effects of Ozone Thinning on Animals and Plants

Extreme levels of UV light can damage phytoplankton which, in effect, could deny
various aquatic organisms, such as fish and amphibians, a key source of food.
Reduced population of phytoplankton in the aquatic ecosystem can also increase
carbon dioxide levels, which creates harsher conditions for survival. Amphibians,
which often lay their eggs in shallow waters, can also lose a lot of these eggs to
extreme UV light. In plants, high levels of UV light interfere with photosynthesis and
hence, the plant's ability to manufacture their own food.

Montreal Protocol meeting in 2016

Protecting the Ozone Layer

The Montreal Protocol was the first step towards reducing the use of CFCs in an
attempt to protect the ozone layer. The agreement was signed by a group of nations
that congregated in Canada in 1987. During a subsequent conference in Copenhagen,
Denmark in 1992, developed nations pledged to eliminate most CFCs within the next
three years. The U.S. also undertook efforts to eliminate all substances that can
deplete the ozone layer by the year 2000. Although these efforts have reduced the use
of CFCs, the battle is far from won considering that CFCs stay in the stratosphere for
60-120 years.
Global Warming
The way that a greenhouse works is similar to a car that has warmer air on the inside
than the air outside. This is because sunlight streams into the car through its windows
from where it is converted into heat energy that cannot pass through glass.

The Greenhouse Effect

The atmosphere is Earth's version of car windows, through which sunlight streams
down to Earth's surface, heating it. The heat is radiated from Earth's surface, some of
the heat escapes into space whereas the rest is absorbed by greenhouse gases, gases
that absorb and radiate heat, in the troposphere. Examples of greenhouse gases include
CFCs, carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and methane. Carbon dioxide and
water vapor absorb most of the heat in the atmosphere.

Water vapor accounts for a large amount of the absorption of heat that occurs in the
atmosphere.

Measuring Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere

An experiment by Charles Keeling in 1958 provided a measure of the amount of
CO2 in the environment. The geochemist conducted this experiment on the volcano
Mauna Loa in Hawaii, where he reasoned could provide an average measure of the
amount of CO2 for the entire Earth. He concluded that the amount of CO2 varies with
the seasons. In the winter, the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is low because plants
use much of it for photosynthesis while releasing very little. In the summer,
CO2 levels increase as decaying plants and organisms release CO2.

Rising Carbon Dioxide Levels

Burning of fossil fuels has caused a 20 percent increase in CO2 levels in the
atmosphere within less than 50 years. An analysis of ice cores shows that current
CO2 levels are the highest that the earth has ever experienced in the last 20 million
years.

Greenhouse Gases and the Earth's Temperature

The increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will cause an increase in global
temperature, according to experts. Carbon dioxide levels, in particular, have increased
in the last 400,000 years during which time global temperatures have been steadily
increasing.

Deforestation is affecting atmospheric CO2 amounts.

Global Warming
Global warming is a term that refers to the increase in Earth's average temperature in
the 20th Century. Experts predict that the temperature increase will continue in the
21st Century. However, this has minimal effect on climatic variability in various
regions.

Modeling Global Warming

Meteorologists and other scientists use computer models to predict weather changes,
including factors, such as temperature and sea level. These models are developed by
writing equations representing the atmosphere and oceans after which they enter
various data, such as prevailing winds and CO2 levels, among other factors.

The Consequences of a Warmer Earth

Some scientists predict that global warming will affect living organisms, including
human beings. Already, they have discovered that bird species, such as robins and
Baltimore orioles nest 11 days ahead of their schedule compared to 50 years ago. It is
also thought that global warming may precipitate increased sea levels and shifts in
weather patterns. Nonetheless, there is little consensus on the magnitude of the
potential damage caused by global warming. It is possible that different regions may
react differently to the effects of global warming as far as climate is concerned.

Glacial calving.

Melting Ice and Rising Sea Levels

Increased temperatures may cause melting of ice from polar landmasses and a
subsequent increase in ocean levels. This could cause flooding of the surrounding
areas rendering inhabitants homeless and economically crippled. It may also affect
salinity of estuaries and bays thereby complicating the survival of marine fisheries.
Aquifers could also be affected, which could possibly become too salty for
consumption.

Global Weather Patterns

Global warming can cause oceans to absorb more heat than usual, which increases the
risk of typhoons and hurricanes. It could also affect ocean current patterns by shutting
off the Gulf Stream, which could bring many new problems. Different regions would
receive rainfall disproportionately and suffer natural disasters, such as floods or
drought.

Human Health Problems

Global warming can cause an increase in heat waves and subsequently expose people
to heat strokes or heat-related deaths, especially those living in cities. By causing
flowering plants to flower earlier than usual, global warming poses a threat to people
who are allergic to pollen. It would also increase breeding conditions for pathogenic
insects or organisms, such as mosquitoes which could spread diseases more easily,
like malaria and encephalitis.
Agriculture
Global warming could cause increased drought and reduced crop yield as a result of
high temperatures. As people turn to irrigation as a plausible solution, more aquifers
will be depleted.

Effects on Plants and Animals

Increased temperatures due to global warming may disrupt the composition of plant
communities. Examples include colonization of cooler areas by trees and shrinkage of
forests and loss of diversity in the warmer areas. It could also affect the migratory
behavior of certain birds that may not have to migrate to the south during winter. High
temperatures in bodies of water may kill zooplankton, which is a main source of food,
for the Crabeater seal. Additionally, high temperatures kill algae in corals thereby
preventing them from building coral reefs.

Recent Findings
The Third Assessment Report (TAR) by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) describes the current state of climate change and future predictions on
its effects. It reveals that while ice and snow cover has decreased in the 20th century,
the average global surface temperature has increased by 0.6°C. Furthermore, TAR
suggests that human activities have increased the levels of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere and predicts that human activities will continue to influence the
composition of the atmosphere in the 21st century.

Emissions from industry and power generation.

Reducing the Risk

The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 was a bold step towards reducing greenhouse gases by
convincing developed countries to reduce greenhouse emissions by an average of 5
percent below their 1990 levels. This was an objective that was supposed to be
attained by 2012 but has not been successful because the protocol has not been ratified
by 55 percent of the 160 countries that attended the conference, including the U.S.
The U.S's announcement in 2001 that it was not going to ratify the protocol is an
indicator of how the differing social, political, and economic factors have slowed
down the campaign against global warming. Nonetheless, most developed countries
have expressed their commitment to implementing the protocol.

How We Use Land

Land all around the world is quickly being converted into cities and suburbs. This
trend brings with it many environmental and economic implications.

All over the world, more farmland, rangeland, and woodland is being converted into suburbs
and cities.

Land Use and Land Cover

Land cover is dependent on land use, it may be a corn field, parking lot, or
forest. Urban land is land cover with many buildings and road whereas rural area is a
land cover with relatively few people and large swathes of open land. People live in
certain land areas to access the resources that the areas offer, such as mineral
resources, crops, and wood.

Machinery has made it possible for fewer people to operate a farm.

Where We Live
The Industrial Revolution shifted huge populations of people from rural to urban
areas. In the 1800s, agriculture was the predominant economic activity for people, but
the Industrial Revolution brought many new job opportunities, most of which were
located in the urban areas. This precipitated a rapid growth of urban areas especially
in the 20th century. While developed countries experienced rapid rural-urban migration
between 1880 and 1950, this phenomenon still continues today in developing
countries.

The Urban-Rural Connection

People's decision to live in specific areas is influenced by the ecosystem services
provided by these areas. Ecosystem services refer to resources produced by natural
and artificial ecosystems.

Developing nations have less access to healthy resources.

Supporting Urban Areas

The proportion of ecosystem services used by one person varies with people living in
developed countries compared to people in developing countries. In the U.S., for
example, one person consumes ecosystem services provided by 12 hectares of land
and water, while in Germany it is 6 hectares of land and water per person. This is in
sharp contrast to developing countries where one person consumes ecosystem services
produced by less than one hectare of land and water.

Urban Land Use

Urban areas provide the best chance for people to access the resources they need the
most, such as schools, jobs, and health care.

Urban green spaces such as parks may provide urban areas with much needed ecosystem
services.
Urbanization
Urbanization refers to rural-urban migration, which is motivated by the search for
better paying job opportunities and better resources. Over the years, rural-urban
migration has slowed down in developed countries in contrast to developing countries
where it is increasing. In the U.S., the urban population reached 75 percent by 1980
and has only slightly increased since then. However, there has been an increase in
metropolitan areas, which consist of small towns that come together to form an urban
area.

The Urban Crisis

Urban crisis is a term coined to describe the challenges that follow a rapid
urbanization process. High populations in urban areas can strain the infrastructure,
such as roads, hospitals, sewers, water supply, schools, and bridges. Substandard
housing, polluted water and air, as well as traffic jams are characteristic of an
infrastructure that is overwhelmed.

Urban sprawl encroaches on the surrounding countryside.

Urban Sprawl
Urban sprawl occurs when an urban area expands into the countryside around it. It is
characterized by the construction of residential and commercial buildings at the
boundary of the urban areas. By 2015, it was estimated that more Americans were
residing in suburbs compared to those living in cities and rural areas. Annually,
suburbs spread out to over 1 million new hectares of land in the U.S.

Development on Marginal Lands

Rapid expansion of urban areas has resulted in the construction of suburbs on
marginal land, land that is unsuitable for building. Examples include Mexico City and
Los Angeles, which have expanded into the surrounding mountains regardless of the
risk of landslides, expensive repairs, and insurance.

Other Impacts of Urbanization

A heat island is a common occurrence in urban areas, which have many buildings
and roads that absorbs heat and traps it. This increases the temperature in such urban
areas and results in increased rainfall as is the case for Atlanta. Planting trees or
installing rooftops that reflect heat can help reduce heat islands.

Governments require developers to report on potential projects.

Urban Planning
Land-use planning is a process of assessing and determining how land will be
utilized. It involves assessing the environmental impact of locating various
infrastructure, such as sewers and utility lines. It is a collaborative process that
requires the input of state, federal, and local governments, as well as environmental
stakeholders.

Technological Tools
The geographic information system (GIS) is a computerized system that aids land-
use planners to store, manipulate, and view geographic data. It is software that enables
users to key in various data about a particular land area, such as location of parks,
sewer lines, and roads, which then helps in developing maps.

Transportation
Unlike American roads, most of which were constructed after the invention of
automobiles, most roads in Europe were built before the invention of automobiles and
as a result, are narrow and compact. Mass transit systems have proven to be a better
solution, that can transport many people at the same time and saves energy, minimizes
air pollution, limits land loss, and minimizes traffic jams.

Bike paths are popular green spaces in urban areas.

Open Space
Open space is a land area, such as biking and hiking trails, public gardens, and parks,
within an urban center that is used for recreational and scenic pleasure. Another
variety of open spaces is greenbelts, which are natural open spaces, such as botanical
gardens. They are important for absorbing rainwater runoff and reducing flooding
after heavy downpours.

Land Management and

Conservation
The rapid population growth rate has created a need for more hectares of rural land to
support the growing population. Most of these rural areas have been converted into
urban areas where various residential and commercial buildings have been built.
Human beings are also notorious for exploiting and depleting the resources that are
available in rural areas.

Farmlands
Following increased conversion of farmland into urban centers, the federal
government enacted the Farmland Protection Program that sought to avoid the paving
over or development of farmland. Conversion of farmland has been prevalent
considering that the U.S. is home to over 100 million hectares of prime farmland.
 The most common human use of rangeland is for the grazing of livestock.

Rangelands
A rangeland refers to a land area that is not used for timber production or farming but
supports various vegetation, such as shrublands, deserts, and grasslands. These
rangelands are an important site for grazing for various livestock and native wildlife.
The increasing population growth may require rangeland to increase food production
by 40 percent from 1977-2030.

Problems on the Range

The biggest threat to the sustainability of rangelands is overgrazing, which depletes
the natural resources and disrupts the plant community. In certain instances, the plant
species may be replaced by the less desirable ones.

Ranchers use different methods to reduce overgrazing on rangeland.

Maintaining the Range

Under the Public Rangelands Improvement Act of 1978, rangeland in the U.S. were
deemed public land that is maintained by the federal government. Other prudent ways
of maintaining the range is to reduce overgrazing and provide small water holes
within the rangeland that can provide the livestock with sufficient water.

Forest Lands
Cutting down or harvesting of trees is the biggest threat to survival of forest lands.
Many ecosystem services are provided by forests and cutting them down has
implications.
Harvesting Trees
Consumption of wood in the U.S. is the highest in the world considering that one
person uses an average of 5,400 cm3 of wood each year. This is three times the
worldwide average of 1,800 cm3 per year. Forest land can be categorized as virgin,
native, or tree farms. Virgin forest is one that has never been cut, native forest is one
that is planned and managed, whereas tree forests refer to those that have been raised
and harvested just like normal crops. Trees can be harvested by either selective or
clear cutting. Clear cutting is more detrimental to the environment as it involves the
removal of all trees from a particular land area. Though expensive, selective cutting is
more environmentally-friendly as it involves the cutting of mature or middle-aged
trees only.

Unwise land use resulted in the Dust Bowl of the 1930s.

Deforestation
Deforestation is the removal of many trees within an area without replacing them.
This results in increased risk of soil erosion and the reduction of wildlife habitat as
was the case of New York forests that were cleared for agricultural activities in the
19th Century. The area subsequently suffered a 90 percent rate of soil erosion.

Reforestation
Reforestation is the process of replacing trees that have been cut down in a particular
area by replanting other trees. This is what is happening in New England in areas that
suffered a lot of deforestation as large swathes of the land area that had been cleared
for farming. Governments worldwide are currently collaborating with many private
agencies to reclaim former forests by replanting trees.
Parks and Preserves
Since the 1870s, the U.S. has created approximately 60 national parks to safeguard
forest cover in the country. It began when Congress created the first national park in
Wyoming and Montana known as Yellowstone National Park. These public lands
provide fishing opportunities as well as safeguard endangered species. Globally, there
is the Man and Biosphere program created by the United Nations that encourages
governments to collaborate with the public in managing public reserves as part of the
biosphere reserves program.

Wilderness
Wilderness refers to a protected region in which the ecosystem and land are
safeguarded from any kind of exploitation. Currently, wilderness in the U.S. covers an
estimated 13 million hectares, some of which are sites for fishing, boating, camping,
and hiking.

Yellowstone National Park is part of the vast U.S. National Parks system.

Benefits of Protected Areas

Protected areas ensure that endangered species are secure from extinction. They are
also sites of recreation, such as hiking, camping, bird watching, and fishing.
Wilderness areas are also a kind of research lab through which scientists learn more
about various plant and animal species in these habitats.

Threats to Protected Areas

Just like the outside world, protected areas are susceptible to the ravages of climate
change, which may disrupt the way of life for the organisms living there. Human
activities, such as littering also affect the sustainability of protected areas, such as
national parks. Some of these protected areas are dangerously situated near mines,
power plants, factories, and urban areas.

Feeding the World

The 1985 drought in Ethiopia caused a famine, widespread starvation due to a
shortage of food, and opened the world's eyes to the reality of feeding an ever-
increasing population. Statistics projecting the world's population will hit 9 billion
people by 2050 are further indication that the task of feeding the global population
will only get more difficult.

In some parts of the world, the only sources of food may be corn or rice, sometimes leading
to malnutrition.

Humans and Nutrition

Food is a source of calories and materials for building and maintaining various body
tissues. It is a source of nutrients, such as proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates as well as
minerals and vitamins, the lack of which leads to malnutrition. Malnutrition can
occur due to lack of carbohydrates, proteins and minerals and vitamins as well as a
combination of these nutrients.

Sources of Nutrition
The amount of nutrients, minerals and vitamins that a person gets from the food they
eat is their diet. A healthy diet is one that involves the consumption of nutrients,
minerals, and vitamins in the right proportions.

Almost half of Americans’ caloric intake is meat.

Diets Around the World
There are various diets determined by cultural values and geographical location.
Compared to the developing regions, people in the developed countries consume a lot
of fats and proteins including foods, such as oil and fish.

Meat provides more nutrients per gram than most food from plants.

Food Efficiency
Agricultural efficiency refers to the quantity of food produced using minimal energy
and resources on a particular piece of land. The energy and resources used to produce
food from plants is less than the amount of energy used to produce the same quantity
of food from animals. An efficient food crop is one that produces abundant harvest
with minimal negative impacts on the environment. Even though the majority of the
human diet is derived from plants, animals produce more nutrients per gram.

Old and New Foods

Researchers' main focus, currently, is to find crops that have high yield, the amount of
food that can be produced in a given area, and can thrive in various climatic
conditions. Some of these crops have been in existence for years whereas others are
just being discovered.

World Food Problems

Although there is enough grain in the world to feed up to 10 billion people a
vegetarian diet, most people prefer to consume calories from animals, rather than
grains.

Poverty
Malnutrition commonly affects poor people, most of whom are subsistence farmers
and farm workers. These people have tiny plots on which they farm crops to feed their
families and usually live on less than $1 a day. The mountains of South America,
Africa, and Asia are regions that are home to many who experience malnutrition.

More Income and More Food

Rapid economic progress in East Asia has contributed significantly to the reduction of
poverty worldwide by about half a billion people. Nonetheless, the rapid population
growth continues to pose a challenge to food security even though grain production
has increased by 50 percent. This then requires stakeholders to step up efforts against
poverty in addition to increasing food production in expectation of the increasing
population by 2050.

Because subsistence farmers often live in extreme poverty, they do not have
the money to acquire the water and chemicals that the new crop varieties need.

The Green Revolution

The green revolution occurred between the 1950s and 1970s when Mexico and India
successfully increased their production of wheat and rice respectively. These were
new varieties of grain that had produced large yields without increasing the farmland
area. However, the green revolution did not benefit subsistence farmers most of who
are poor and do not have a large farmland area. Thus, present-day research focuses on
crop varieties that can produce high yields on poor soils without using many
chemicals or fertilizers.

Crops and Soil

A mere 10 percent of the Earth's surface is arable, land that can be used to grow
crops, but these areas are being threatened by the urbanization process where urban
centers are expanding into farmland areas.
Agriculture: Traditional and Modern
The main processes involved in farming are plowing, fertilization, irrigation, and pest
control. Unlike traditional agriculture where these processes were carried out
manually, the modern times has ushered in the use of machinery for plowing and
synthetic fertilizers and chemicals to nourish the crops and kill pests.

Modern farming techniques have greatly improved crop health and yields.

Fertile Soil: The Living Earth

Fertile soil facilitates the growth of healthy plants and is composed of various layers
including the topsoil, subsoil and the bedrock. Often rich in organic matter,
fertile topsoil contains rock particles, organic matter, water, air, and living organisms.
Soil is formed through the gradual breaking down of rocks into smaller fragments due
to water, wind, and chemical weathering. Chemical weathering occurs due to
reactions between minerals in the rock and other substances, such as water. Other
processes that help in producing fertile topsoil include the decomposition of dead
animals or plants as well as other insects, such as earthworms that add more nutrients
to the soil by allowing passage of air and water into it. Bedrock is the bottom layer of
soil and is where the formation of soil begins.

Soil Erosion: A Global Problem

Erosion occurs when rock and soil is blown away by wind or washed away by water.
This is the case in the U.S. where half of the original soil has been eroded in the last
200 years. Farming methods, such as plowing, also accelerate the rate of erosion by
uprooting plants that hold soil in place. Certain irrigation methods, such as flood
irrigation, may also wash away some of the soil into the rivers or lakes.
Land Degradation
Land degradation occurs due to natural processes or human actions that damage the
land and render it unable to support the surrounding ecosystem. In extreme cases, it
can result in desertification in which the land becomes desertlike as is the case of the
Sahel region of Northern Africa. The growing population in the region has reduced
the fallow period for the land, which has been overgrazed and over-cultivated.

Soil Conservation
Examples of soil conservation methods include soil terracing, contour plowing, no-till
farming, and use of drip irrigation. Drip irrigation is a better solution to overhead
irrigation, which washes away the soil. Soil terracing involves constructing terraces
across a hillside especially in the case of coffee and wine grapes. No-till farming is a
technique that entails farming without turning over the soil but leaving the remains of
the previous crop in the farmland. However, it is a method that may be unsuitable for
certain crops even though it is time-saving. Contour plowing involves cultivating the
land across the slope and not along it.

Enriching the Soil

Soil can be enriched traditionally using organic matter, such as leaves and manure that
add nutrients and boosts the texture of the soil when they decompose. The use of
inorganic fertilizers that contain potassium, nitrogen, or phosphorus have
revolutionized and increased food production in the last 50 years. Presently, the
practice is to mix inorganic and organic fertilizers in the form of compost. A compost
pit can be purchased or self-made.

Salinization
Salinization refers to the buildup of salts in the soil due to irrigation methods. It is
prevalent in Arizona and California, which experience low rainfall and have naturally
salty soil. In other places, irrigating the soil using salty water can leave behind salts in
the soil after they evaporate.
 Fields of crop plants are especially inviting for pests.

Pest Control
Pests, including insects, are one of the greatest threats to food production worldwide.
In Kenya, insects are responsible for the destruction of approximately 25 percent of
crops. These insects are aided by the tropical climate that enhances their survival and
reproduction. A pest is an organism that moves in large enough numbers to precipitate
economic damage or one that occurs where it is unwanted. Pests prefer to attack food
crops most of which do not have efficient defense mechanisms against them, unlike
wild plants.

Pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals used to eradicate crop pests, such as weeds and insects,
among others. Overtime, their use may become counterproductive because they may
harm useful animals and insects as well as human beings.

Pesticide Resistance
Eventually, pests may develop resistance to the pesticide used on them rendering them
useless. Since the 1940s, over 500 insect species have evolved resistance to various
pesticides.

Human Health Concerns

Excessive application of pesticides on fruits and vegetables may be the cause of
increased cancer rates and nervous system disorders. Employees of pesticide
manufacturing companies may become exposed to serious respiratory diseases as is
also the case of people who live near these factories.
Pollution and Persistence
Persistent pesticides do not break down easily into harmless components and instead
remain in their harmful state. An example is DDT, which was outlawed in the U.S. in
the 1970s but still remains an environmental problem. It has even been discovered in
women's breast milk.

American prickly pear cactus is used for biological pest control.

Biological Pest Control

Biological pest control refers to the use of other living organisms to control pests.
For example, the introduction of American beetles in India in the 1800s helped to
control the spread of the American prickly pear cactus that was ravaging the insects
that were valued for their red dye.

Pathogens
Bacillus thuringiensis, abbreviated Br, is an example of how pathogens can help in the
fight against pests. It is used to kills caterpillars of butterflies and moths.

Plant Defenses
Various plant varieties, such as tomatoes, have artificial plant defenses against pests.
Some of these plants are labeled VNT meaning that they are resistant to specific
viruses, worms, and fungi.

Chemicals from Plants

Chrysanthemum plants are an example of organisms with natural pesticides. These
chemicals have been harnessed and developed into artificial pesticides that are
environmentally safe for use on farms and in the home.
Disrupting Insect Breeding
Breeding of insects can be disrupted through a growth regulator that is available in the
form of a pill and fed to animals that are usually breeding grounds for pests. Another
approach is to disrupt the pheromones of certain organisms, such as is the case of
moths and butterflies. A pheromone is a chemical released by an organism and elicits
a reaction from another organism. In certain cases, insects may be treated with x-rays
to sterilize them and prevent them from reproducing.

Integrated Pest Management

Integrated pest management is a modern pest control method that seeks to eradicate
pests with minimal side effects. It is often a combination of various farming methods,
chemical pest control and biological pest control. The first step is to identify the
particular pest and formulate a plan to eradicate it. This plan may include biological
methods, such as use of natural predators and pathogens or use of better cultivation
methods, such as vacuuming.

Engineering a Better Crop

For centuries, farmers have identified and selected seeds that are resistant to pests or
drought, and that taste good. This method has transformed into genetic engineering, a
process of modifying the genetic material in a living cell for industrial or medical use.
It involves the isolation of genes from one organism and implanting them into another
organism. The result of genetic engineering in plants is genetically modified (GM)
plants.

Scientists may use genetic engineering to transfer desirable traits, such as resistance to
certain pests.
Implications of Genetic Engineering
The world, but especially the U.S., now consumes a lot of GM foods. Sadly, most of
them have not been tested for their environmental ramifications, which may pose
health problems in the future. Some of the plants may pass these genes to other plants
or wild ones, which may turn out to be a pest.

Sustainable Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture is a farming approach aimed at conserving natural resources
and keeping the land area productive for an indefinite period. Also known as low-
input farming, this method involves minimal use of water, energy, fertilizers, and
pesticides.

Animals and Agriculture

Approximately 50 animal species, including sheep, chicken, fish, cattle, silkworms,
and honey bees, have been domesticated to provide humans with food and other raw
materials. Pigs, goats, and water buffalo have also been domesticated in certain parts
of the world.

Domesticated goats can be found all around the world.

Food from Water

Fish are one of the important foods for human beings and has become a core industry
for many communities around the world.

Most aquaculture is practiced in China.

Overharvesting
Overharvesting is the removal or catching of organisms at a faster rate than their
populations can recover. The most affected have been fish, which has prompted many
government authorities to develop no-fishing zones to allow ample time for the fish
population to recover.

Aquaculture
Aquaculture, the raising of aquatic organisms for human consumption, began with
the Chinese 4,000 years ago. It can either be a fish farm or ranch. In a fish farm, the
fish are raised in different ponds depending on their stage of development until they
reach maturity, at which time they are harvested.

A fish ranch involves the raising of fish until maturity after which they are released
into their natural habitat. Aquaculture can, however, cause the depletion of natural
water supplies or environmental pollution through the fecal waste released by the fish.

Many products come from cattle.

Livestock
Livestock are domesticated animals that are reared for food or sale. In the U.S., the
increasing meat consumption per person, by 1950, has been attributed to the increase
of large-scale livestock operations. In developing countries, different livestock are
valued for their meat, manure, wool, eggs, and leather.

Ruminants
Ruminants are livestock that have three or four-chambered stomachs. They chew
cud, which is food regurgitated from the first chamber of the stomach to be chewed
again to help in digestion. They are aided by microorganisms in their intestines that
allow them to digest foods, such as woody shrubs and stems that humans cannot
digest. Ruminants, such as cattle are widespread in Africa, India, and North America.
India is home to approximately one-fifth of the global cattle population where cattle
are sacred and thus, not consumed for meat.

Turkeys are usually raised in factory farms in the U.S.

Poultry
Poultry are domesticated birds that are reared for eggs or meat. The most prominent is
chicken whose population has increased by a greater percentage than all other
livestock since 1961. Other poultry, such as ducks and geese, are raised worldwide
although they are most popular in China where they are part of an integrated system.
Their droppings are applied on rice paddies or fields.

Minerals and Mineral Resources

Although minerals are important in every aspect of our lives, their use has come at an
enormous cost to the environment.

Minerals that are valuable and economical to extract are known as ore minerals.

What Is a Mineral?
A mineral is a naturally occurring solid that is characterized by a unique chemical
composition, unique physical properties, and orderly internal structure. Minerals are
made of atoms of a single element or of compounds, which determine the physical
properties of a particular mineral. Minerals, such as copper, gold, and silver are
considered native elements.
Ore Minerals
Ore minerals are those that are economical and valuable to extract. They are often
extracted alongside gangue (GANG) minerals, which are the minerals with no
commercial value. The next step is to separate the ore minerals from the GANG
minerals to extract the valuable elements from the ore. A profitable mining process is
one in which the final product is costlier than the expenses incurred in extracting and
refining it.

Gold is a very valuable native element.

Metallic Minerals
Metallic minerals are ore minerals, such as silver, copper, or gold, which conduct
electricity, are opaque, and have shiny surfaces. Other ore minerals are a combination
of metallic and non-metallic substances, such as oxygen and sulfur. Nonmetallic
minerals are ore minerals that are good insulators with dull or shiny surfaces that
allow light to pass through them.

Nonmetallic Minerals
Nonmetals tend to be good insulators, may have shiny or dull surfaces, and may allow
light to pass through them. Nonmetallic minerals can also be native elements or
compounds.

How Do Ore Minerals Form?

Most metallic minerals form below the Earth's surface during the cooling and
hardening of magma. These minerals form during the cooling process before sinking
into the bottom part of the magma body.

Ore deposits are often found in veins.

Hydrothermal Solutions
Hydrothermal solutions refer to hot subsurface waters, which contain dissolved
minerals. These minerals are formed when the hydrothermal solutions flow through
cracks and dissolve these minerals. The aftermath is a crystallization of new minerals
from the hydrothermal solution, after which, they fill the resulting fractures to form
veins or ore deposits.

Evaporites
Evaporites are deposits of salts that are formed when water in the seas or lakes
evaporate. They are first deposited in the seas or inland lakes when water flows
through land areas, dissolve these salts, and wash them into the bodies of water. They
are common in arid areas that experience high rates of evaporation and include
minerals, such as gypsum and halite (rock salt).

Industrial sand and gravel is used in computer components.

Mineral Resources and Their Uses

Metals can be combined to form alloys, which contain the most desirable
characteristics of the metals used to make them. Nonmetals are also widely used in
many industries, such as the case of gypsum, which is used in the construction
industry. Gemstones are another type of nonmetals that are valued for their durability,
rarity, and beauty. They include diamond, emerald, aquamarine, ruby sapphire,
tourmaline, and topaz.

Mineral Exploration and Mining

Technological advancements have enhanced the process of mineral exploration by
identifying locations of ore deposits.
 Exploring rock for mineralization is the first step in finding an ore deposit.

Mineral Exploration
Mineral exploration allows mining companies to identify areas with high
concentrations of mineral deposits, which must be at least 100 or 1000 times more
than ordinary rocks to warrant mining. These companies use planes and instruments
that help develop a geological map by assessing patterns in magnetism, radioactivity,
and gravity. This is then followed by testing of rock samples from the area to
determine the ore grade. A high ore grade might lead to the process of drilling test
holes to enable miners to understand the three-dimensional extent of the ore.

Subsurface Mining
Subsurface mining is often used when mining ore deposits located 50 m or more
beneath the Earth's surface. Room-and-pillar mining is a common subsurface mining
method used to mine coal and salt by developing rooms, which are networks of entries
into the mine. These rooms are often supported by pillars of coal, which are then
removed after the mining is completed.

Longwall Mining
Longwall mining is an efficient method of subsurface mining that involves the use of
a shearer to mine coal from the face of a coal seam. Known as the longwall, the wall
of the seam, which measures over 300 m, is used as a conveyor that transports the coal
out of the mine, while a hydraulic roof safeguards the miners and the equipment. The
movement of the shearer through the coal seam causes the mine roof behind the
hydraulic support to collapse.
Solution Mining
Solution mining involves the injection of hot water into a soluble mineral ore, such as
salt, potash, and sulfur. After injecting hot water, compressed air is pumped into the
ore causing air bubbles that enable the minerals to float to the surface.

In an open-pit mine, the ore is mined downward, layer by layer.

Surface Mining
Surface mining is used when ore deposits are situated close to the Earth's surface. An
example is the open-pit mining method that involves the layer-by-layer mining of coal
and metals, such as copper. Explosives may be used in certain cases when the ore is
difficult to break down. The ore is then carried by trucks to factories where it is
further refined, such as in the case of gold extraction.

Surface Coal Mining

Surface coal mining involves the removal of overburden, which are rocks that cover
near-surface coal seams. The process begins with the removal of soil that covers the
mining area before using heavy equipment to remove overburden, which may extend
to 50 m deep and a kilometer long. The next process is the removal of coal seams
before the resulting pit is refilled with the overburden and the topsoil.

Quarrying
Quarrying is a process used for mining building stones, such as marble and granite as
well as crushed rock, gravel, and sand known as aggregates. Quarries are also used to
produce gypsum, talc, and clay.

Salt harvesting generally occurs once a year.

Solar Evaporation
Solar evaporation is commonly used to mine salts especially in arid areas that
experience high rates of evaporation. The process involves the filling of shallow,
enormous ponds with sea water that contains 2.7 percent sodium chloride. Exposure to
solar energy increases the sodium chloride concentration to 25 percent after which salt
crystals begin to form. Further evaporation leads to the formation of halite or
crystalline salt.

Placer Mining
Placer deposits are formed from the weathering and disintegration of rock, which
releases the minerals within them. An example of a placer deposit is a stream placer
that is formed by the transportation of mineral grains by streams. These minerals are
deposited at points where the river current is slow and the dense minerals sink and
gather. Placer deposits are also common in coastlines where they may be washed from
ocean waves transporting minerals from streams that flow into the ocean. Placer
deposits of diamonds or gold are often excavated using dredging, a process in which
buckets are attached to a conveyor and are used to excavate sediments. Afterwards,
the gold and diamond deposits are separated from the sediments before the sediments
are disposed of via a conveyor attached behind the dredge.

Smelting
The smelting process involves the melting of crushed ores at high temperatures to
separate the molten metal from impurities. A flux is a material within the furnace that
bonds with the impurities and forms a layer known as slag, which floats at the top of
the molten metal. The molten metal then sinks to the bottom of the furnace where it
can then be extracted. The furnace also traps gases, such as sulfur dioxide before they
are released into the environment.
 Smelting is a way to separate impurities from molten metal.

Undersea Mining
Undersea mining seeks to mine the significant mineral resources that are located
within the ocean, including diamonds, sand, gravel, mineral ores, as well as gold and
silver. Undersea mining has been successful, despite persistent efforts since the late
1950s, due to competition from land-based companies that offer cheaper mining
alternatives.

Mining Regulations and Mine

Reclamation
The increasing U.S. energy requirements have caused environmental concerns about
the use of surface mining of coal to satisfy the energy demands. Mining is now one of
the most heavily regulated industries in the country and demands that environmental
conservation be a major focus of most mining companies and activities.

Reclaiming the land is part of every surface coal mining operation.

The Environmental Impacts of Mining

Presently, the federal and state governments have directed many resources towards
cleaning up abandoned mines in conjunction with various mining companies. These
ventures have cost billions of dollars.

Air and Noise Pollution

Surface mining is a cause of air and noise pollution. The removal, loading, hauling,
and dumping of soil and overburden can increase air pollution by releasing dust
particles into the atmosphere. This is the same case for open-pit mines that may
increase air pollution when the ores are blasted. Some of the equipment used in
surface mining may also cause noise pollution or physical damage to nearby
structures. It is for this reason that mining activities must be situated away from urban
populations. U.S. regulations also prevent companies from allowing the emission of
dust or noise into surrounding populations.

Water resources can be negatively impacted by mining.

Water Contamination
Mineral activities can wash off toxic substances, such as arsenic into lakes and rivers
where they can kill aquatic life. Other minerals, such as coal, may contain sulfur,
which reacts with oxygen and water to form diluted sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid
dissolves toxic minerals and contaminates bodies of water in a case known as acid
mine drainage (AMD). Thus, the U.S.'s mining regulations dictate that acid-producing
rocks should be disposed of in a manner that does not pollute surrounding lakes or
rivers.

Displacement of Wildlife
Mining activities, such as removal of soil, may disrupt wildlife as well as plant life. It
may cause the migration of certain wildlife from their natural habitat and the
destruction of plants. Even with the returning of the soil to the mine site, wildlife may
never return but a new ecosystem may be introduced. This can also happen to the
aquatic ecosystem when dredging is used haphazardly with no regard for aquatic
biodiversity. Nonetheless, the use of mine reclamation strategies may spare wildlife
from the ravages of mining operations.

Erosion and Sedimentation

Erosion and sedimentation occurs when water erodes unprotected dumps and washes
off the resulting sediments into nearby bodies of water. Dumps are excess rocks from
mines that have been dumped into large piles.
 Acidified soil can inhibit plant growth.

Soil Degradation
Removal of soil from a mine site may be a recipe for soil degradation when these soils
are not returned in the arrangement of layers that it was found in. A case where the
deeper soil layers end up on top may expose the sulfur within to chemical reactions
with water and oxygen to form sulfuric acid. This leads to acidification of the soil,
which makes it unsuitable for farming.

Subsidence
Subsidence is the sinking of regions of the ground with minimal or no horizontal
movement. It is caused by the collapse of pillars in mines as well as the mine roof or
floors. This poses a great risk to infrastructure that have been built over abandoned
mines. An example is in Scotland where the hundred-year old limestone mines
collapsed in November and December of 2000, subsequently forcing the evacuation of
many people and causing extensive property damage.

Underground Mine Fires

Underground coal mine fires are one of the most serious environmental issues caused
by coal mining. They are often started by burning trash, forest fires, or lightning and
are hard to extinguish. They are also caused by the reaction of sulfur and oxygen.
Some of the fires may take years or centuries before they burn out by themselves,
which is the case for an underground coal mine in an Australian mountain that has
been burning for 2,000 years. Underground mine fires can cause respiratory
complications when they are released into the Earth's atmosphere.

Mining Regulation and Reclamation

The Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act ensure that mining operations
do not contaminate water sources. The Comprehensive Response Compensation and
Liability Act also prevent the release of hazardous substances into water, air, and soil
through mining operations. All mining companies are also required to comply with
Endangered Species Act to ensure that their operations do not affect threatened or
endangered species and their habitats.

Reclamation
The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) of 1977 is important
in reclamation of mines, which is the process of returning mine lands to their original
state or even better. SMCRA regulates surface coal mining on private and public land
by setting standards to minimize the effects of these activities. It also establishes a
fund dedicated to reclaiming water and land resources that have been seriously
affected by previous coal-mining activities.

State agencies issue violations to companies that do not comply with environmental
regulations.

State Regulation of Mining

There are various state programs that regulate mining operations on state and private
lands. Before obtaining permits from relevant state environmental agencies, mining
companies must specify their mining designs as well as their reclamation plan. Some
companies may be required to post a bond, which is part of a bond forfeiture program.
This fund is to ensure that the mining company will honor their environmental
obligations in the course of mining. Failure to do this requires these companies to pay
state governments to facilitate the mine reclamation. In Pennsylvania, for example,
there are large-scale projects to reclaim abandoned mines as well as prevent AMD,
mine fires, subsidence, and dangers related to open shafts.
Energy Resources and Fossil
Fuels
Chances are that most of the energy we use in our lives is obtained from fossil fuels,
which are remnants of ancient organisms that changed into natural gas, oil, or coal.
However, supply of fossil fuels is limited and even then, its use has negative
implications for the environment. Thus, current efforts are geared at finding
alternative energy sources that have minimal negative impacts on the environment.

Fuels for Different Uses

The main uses of fuel include transportation, cooking, heating and cooling buildings,
generating electricity, and manufacturing. However, these uses depend on the energy
content of the fuel as well as its cost, safety, byproducts, and availability. For
example, coal would never be used to power airplanes, because of how heavy the
necessary amount of coal would be to supply enough power.

Your electricity comes from a power plant and then is carried to you through a distribution
grid.

Electricity-Power on Demand
Electric energy is suitable for powering machines because it can be transported
instantly regardless of the distance. It is used to power light bulbs in households and
computers, among others. However, electrical energy cannot be stored easily and it
requires other energy sources to generate it.

How Is Electricity Generated?

It is generated when an electric generator converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy by moving an electrically conductive material within a magnetic field.
Commercial electrical generators convert the movement of turbines into electrical
energy. A turbine is a wheel that changes the force of a liquid or moving gas into
electrical energy.

Energy Use
Most products require energy to be manufactured and this is often reflected in the cost
of the final product.

World Patterns
Energy use in developed countries is higher than in developing countries, however,
that disparity is decreasing. Within developed countries, an person in Canada or the
U.S. uses more than twice the energy of a person in Switzerland and Japan. These
differences are attributable to the amount of energy generated in those countries.

Energy Use in the United States

With the exception of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Canada, the energy
consumption per person in the U.S. is the highest worldwide. This is because it uses
25 percent of energy resources for transportation of people and goods, mostly by
personal automobiles and trucks. This is in contrast to Japan and Switzerland, which
have extensive rail systems in addition to the fact that they are smaller countries. The
low cost of gasoline also reduces the incentive for Americans to avoid driving. On the
other hand, Switzerland and Japan have minimal fossil fuels and therefore, rely on
alternative energy sources, such as nuclear power or hydroelectric energy.

How Fossil-Fuel Deposits Form

The distribution of fossil fuels is uneven, such as in the U.S. where oil production in
Alaska and Texas is abundant compared to places like Maine.

Coal varies in its hardness and appearance.

Coal Formation
Coal formation in the U.S. began about 300-320 million years ago in the eastern
region where there were vast areas of swampland. The rising and falling of ocean
levels deposited sediments in these swamplands, which thereafter compressed the
plant remains. Pressure within the Earth's crust then led to the formation of coal. This
was the same case in the western United States where coal deposits were formed 40-
100 million years ago in places such as Wyoming.

Oil and Natural Gas Formation

The formation of oil and natural gas began with the decay of tiny marine organisms
that accumulated at the bottom of the ocean millions of years ago. These remains were
then compressed by sediments after which heat and pressure transformed them into
energy-rich carbon-based molecules. After some time, the molecules moved into
porous rocks in which they are now contained. Alaska, Gulf of Mexico, California,
and Texas are the areas with abundant deposits of oil and natural gas.

Coal
Coal constitutes the majority of the world's fossil-fuel reserves, especially in Asia and
North America. It is very inexpensive and can be easily refined after being mined.
Fifty percent of the electricity generated in the U.S. is from coal-powered power
plants.

Coal Mining and the Environment

Unlike the underground mining of coal, surface-coal mining can cause water pollution
when the waste rock from coal mines is poorly contained. This releases toxic
chemicals that may find their way into nearby bodies of water.

Air Pollution
Higher grade coal, such as bituminous coal, is less harmful to the environment
because it contains low-sulfur. In contrast, low grade coal, like lignite, is dangerous to
the environment because it is high in sulfur content. Nonetheless, the use of clean-
burning coal technology has reduced air pollution in the United States.

Petroleum
Petroleum is also known as crude oil and is pumped from the ground. A petroleum
product refers to chemicals, plastics, and fuels that are manufactured from petroleum.
Forty-five percent of the world's commercial energy use is obtained from petroleum
products.

An oil well in operation.

Locating Oil Deposits

Natural sources of oil include major geologic features including faults, salt domes,
and folds. These features trap the oil as it moves within the crust thanks to their
impermeable rocks. Locations of most of the world's oil reserves include the North
Sea, Middle East, Siberia, U.S., Nigeria, and Venezuela. The first step to harnessing
oil from these geologic features is to drill exploration wells to assess the availability
and volume of the oil deposit. After that, the oil is pumped to the surface and then
taken to refineries to convert it into fuel and other products.

The Environmental Effects of Using Oil

Petroleum products are a major source of pollution, including production of smog,
acid precipitation, and oil spills. These pollutants are the cause of many health
problems, such as respiratory problems and cancer. They also pose a danger to various
living organisms as in the case of oil spills, which can kill aquatic life.
Natural Gas
Natural gas, also known as methane (CH4), has become valued for its production of
fewer pollutants compared to petroleum products. It accounts for 20 percent of the
world's nonrenewable energy. It is used today in electric power plants as well as
certain automobiles.

Fossil Fuels and the Future

Projections that the energy demand in the world will increase by 2050 create
expectations that the price of fossil fuels will increase. If this is the case, then
stakeholders need to start planning on how to identify alternative energy sources
considering that this process could take many years.

Offshore oil drilling is an expensive undertaking.

Predicting Oil Production

The prediction of oil production is mainly based on oil reserves, which are oil
deposits that are extracted profitably at present prices using current technology. The
predictions must also consider the technological changes as far as oil production and
extraction is concerned. The relative cost of oil extraction compared to the amount of
fossil fuels taken from the earth are also weighed. This may entail less reliance on oil
by restricting it to essential applications.

Future Oil Reserves

Geologists predict a decrease in the amount of readily available oil fields by 2025.
Although there are oil deposits at the bottom of oceans, there is no cost-effective
technology that can facilitate the extraction of such oil deposits.
Nuclear Energy
The 1950s and 1960s was a period in which nuclear energy was hailed as the power
source of the future. All this changed in the 1970s and 1980s as reflected in the
cancellation of 120 planned nuclear plants as well as the abandonment of 40 partially
constructed plants.

Nuclear fission releases a tremendous amount of energy and more neutrons,

which in turn collide with more uranium nuclei.

Fission: Splitting Atoms

Nuclear power plants obtain their energy from nuclear energy, the energy within the
nucleus of the atom, which is over 1 million times stronger than the chemical bonds
between the atoms. Nuclear power plants use atoms of the element uranium whose
nuclei are bombarded with neutrons. These combinations cause nuclear fission, a
process in which an atom's nuclei splits into two. During this process, massive
amounts of energy is released, an atomic bomb is an example of an uncontrolled
fission reaction.

How Nuclear Energy Works

Nuclear energy is generated by a nuclear reactor within which there are metal fuel
rods that have solid uranium pellets. These pellets are bombarded with neutrons that
begin a chain reaction, which leads to the production of more neutrons. At the center
of the reactor are control rods to prevent the neutrons from causing fission reactions in
the uranium whereas the reactor itself is surrounded by a thick pressure vessel that
contains a cooling fluid. The heat energy from the nuclear reactions helps in
generating electricity in a similar manner to the way power plants generate electricity
by burning fossil fuels.
 About three-fourths of France’s electricity
comes from nuclear power.

The Advantages of Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy releases fewer pollutants, radioactivity, and greenhouse gases than
fossil fuel- based energy. This is the case in France which obtains three-fourths of its
electrical energy from nuclear power. Compared to the United States, France produces
less than one-fifth of the air pollutants per person.

Why Aren't We Using More Nuclear Energy?

Compared to wind power and natural gas power plants, construction of safe nuclear
reactors is expensive and costs $3,000 per kilowatt of electrical capacity. Compare
that to $1,000 per kilowatt for wind power plants and $600 per kilowatt for natural gas
power plants.

Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository in Nevada.

Storing Waste
Considering that nuclear energy produces radioactive wastes, finding a safe place to
dispose of these wastes is one of its biggest challenges. These waste products remain
radioactive for many years and thus need a disposal site that is geologically stable. In
the U.S., experts have been exploring the Yucca Mountain in South Nevada as a
plausible disposal site for nuclear waste. Also researched is a process known as
transmutation, which involves the recycling of radioactive elements in nuclear fuel.
Safety Concerns
The Chernobyl nuclear disaster of 1986 in the Ukraine shed light on the safety
concerns associated with a poorly designed nuclear plant. The engineers conducted an
unauthorized test without switching on the reactor's safety devices, which resulted in
an explosion that emitted large amounts of radioactive materials into the atmosphere.
The 1979 nuclear accident at the Three Mile Island reactor in Pennsylvania was also
another example of the dangers associated with operating a nuclear plant.

An experimental Tokamak research fusion reactor in Switzerland.

The Future of Nuclear Power

Nuclear fusion is a safer alternative to nuclear fission because it produces radioactive
products that are less dangerous. It is created through the combination of lightweight
atomic nuclei that forms heavier nuclei and releases large amounts of energy.
However, achieving nuclear fusion is difficult because it must be heated to incredibly
high temperatures of 100,000,000° C or 180,000,000° F, while being properly
confined and kept at high concentrations. This is a process that might take years or
decades before a nuclear fusion power plant can be successfully constructed.

Renewable Energy Today

Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that can be replenished. Such
sources include wind energy, solar energy, and the Earth's heat. The expectations are
that using more renewable energy would reduce the environmental problems caused
by the use of nonrenewable energy.

Solar Energy-Power from the Sun

Solar energy is responsible for most of the renewable energy that we use in our daily
lives. It is produced by the sun, a medium-sized star that radiates energy from nuclear
fusion reactions at its core. Although most of this energy does not reach the Earth's
surface, the amount that does reach Earth is enough to provide renewable energy for
various functions.

Passive solar buildings are designed to make the best use of solar energy.

Passive Solar Heating

Passive solar heating involves the use of solar energy to heat objects directly, such as
in the case of passive solar buildings. These buildings have insulated walls and floors
that trap solar energy during the day and release it at night to keep the building warm.
Passive solar buildings also have overhang roof shades that helps prevent entry of
excessive sunlight in the summer during which the sun is directly above. During
winter, these buildings are oriented such that they can trap sunlight and keep the
house warm without using large amounts of other types of energy. Solar energy is
important for reducing energy bills associated with the use of electrical energy.

Active Solar Heating

Active solar heating is a technology in which solar energy is harnessed by collectors
and used for heating water or buildings. Today, there are over 5 million homes in the
U.S. that use active solar energy for heating water.

Photovoltaic Cells
Also known as solar cells, photovoltaic cells are used to convert solar energy into
electricity. They are powered by non-polluting solar energy but are not enough to
provide for all the energy needs of an entire city. This would require solar fields worth
of panels covering a wide land area, a practice that is growing in the United States.
Nonetheless, solar cells have become popular in developing countries where
electricity distribution networks are minimal. Since 1985, energy production from
solar energy has doubled every four years. In developing countries, it provides energy
to over 2 million households.

The cost of wind power has declined dramatically in recent years.

Wind Power - Cheap and Abundant

Wind power has become the most popular renewable energy source due to the cost
effectiveness of wind turbines as well as their ease of use. Wind turbines convert
moving wind into electrical energy and its world production quadrupled between 1985
and 2000, and continues to grow today.

Wind Farms
Wind farms are large groups of wind turbines that are becoming common in the
United States. They are common in windy rural areas where there are smaller wind
farms with approximately 20 wind turbines. Wind turbines take up little space, which
allow farmers to use their lands for other purposes. The electricity generated from the
wind farms can also be sold to other people.

An Underdeveloped Resource
Scientists estimate that the windiest areas on earth could produce ten times the energy
consumed worldwide. This has prompted many large energy companies to explore
ways of using more wind power. A key problem with wind power is that it cannot be
efficiently transported from rural to urban areas. A solution currently being explored
is how to use wind farms to produce hydrogen from water, which can then be piped or
transported in trucks to cities.

Biomass-Power from Living Things

Biomass fuel refers to manure, plant materials, and organic substances that provide
energy. Fossil fuels can also be described as organic although they are non-renewable
unlike most biomass fuels. In developing countries, many people use wood and dung
as biomass fuel, especially in rural areas. However, wood can become a nonrenewable
resource if the trees are cut down faster than they can re-grow.

Cow manure is one of many sources of methane fuel.

Methane
Methane gas is a byproduct formed when bacteria decompose organic wastes. When
burned, it can generate electricity or heat as is the case in China where biogas
digesters supply more than 6 million households with energy for cooking and heating.
Britain established its first dung-fired power station in 2002 and certain landfills in the
U.S. have been transformed as sites for generating electricity by harnessing methane
from decomposing trash.

Alcohol
Ethanol or alcohol is a type of biomass fuel that is manufactured by fermenting fruits
or agricultural waste. Corn is also used, especially in the U.S., as a source of ethanol,
which is mostly used to power automobiles. Gasohol, a combination of ethanol and
gasoline, is also popular in the U.S. thanks to its environmental friendliness. Certain
states require motor vehicle owners to power their cars using gasohol.

Hydroelectricity-Power from Moving Water

Hydroelectric energy is a renewable energy resource obtained from moving water. It
accounts for 20 percent of the world's electricity. The top six countries worldwide that
use hydroelectric energy include the following: Norway, Russia, China, Brazil, the
U.S, and Canada. Large hydroelectric power plants are often constructed by building a
dam across a river so that it holds back a reservoir of water, which helps turn a water
turbine to generate electricity.
The Benefits of Hydroelectric Energy
Because they release minimal air pollutants, hydroelectric dams are considered
environmentally friendly. Their operation is cost effective and they provide additional
benefits, such as recreation, fishing, prevention of flooding, as well as water for
irrigation.

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy

Hydroelectric dams can become counterproductive when plant matter accumulates in
the water reservoir, which can emit more greenhouse gases than even fossil fuels.
They can also cause deaths or displacement of people when the dams burst their
banks. People living below a dam usually cannot get high crop yields due to the fertile
sediment being deposited in the dam as opposed to downstream, and the reproduction
of certain aquatic species, such as fish may be disrupted.

Modern Trends
Although construction of hydroelectric dams continues in Brazil, India, and China, the
modern trend is micro-hydropower. This is electricity generated from a small stream
in which the water turbines float in the water and does not obstruct water flow. Apart
from being more safe, micro-hydropower is also relatively cheaper to construct and
maintain.

The United States is the world's largest producer of geothermal energy.

Geothermal Energy-Power from the Earth

Geothermal energy is derived from the heat in the water in Earth's crust, which is
pumped to the Earth's surface as heated water or steam. This water or steam helps to
power turbines that generate electricity. Apart from the U.S., which is the world's
largest producer of geothermal energy, other countries producing geothermal energy
include the Philippines, Japan, New Zealand, Mexico, and Italy. Even though it is a
renewable resource, poor management of the water in geothermal formations may
lead to its depletion.

Geothermal Heat Pumps: Energy for Homes

A geothermal heat pump takes advantage of the constant temperature beneath the
Earth's surface to warm and cool homes. It is a loop of piping that circulates water
from underground throughout a home. During summer, the cool temperature of the
underground water helps keep the home cool. In the winter, the underground water is
used to help keep the home warm. Geothermal heat pumps are used in over 2 million
homes in the United States.

Alternative Energy and

Conservation
Alternative energy refers to future energy possibilities that are still being explored
for their viability. An alternative energy is one whose source is cost effective and
environmentally friendly.

Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station‚ South Korea - Photo by Exj - Wikimedia Commons.

Tidal Power
Tidal power is energy derived from the tides in the oceans and seas as a result of the
gravitational attraction between the earth, moon, and sun. These tides occur twice
every day and are characterized by the rise and fall of sea levels. The energy is
harnessed through a tidal power plant that works like a hydroelectric dam. Rising of
tides is marked by water flows behind the dam after which water is trapped behind the
dam when the sea levels fall. The release of water in the reservoir powers the turbines
to generate electricity. Building a tidal power plant is an expensive undertaking that
has very few ideal locations.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a technology that uses the temperature
difference between the ocean surface and its deep depths to generate electricity. The
temperature differences in certain parts of the oceans, such as the tropics, can be as
large as 24° C (43° F). OTEC works by using ocean surface water to boil sea water,
an action made possible by the fact that water boils at low temperatures, especially
under low pressure. The boiling water becomes steam and powers a turbine that runs
an electric generator. After that, cold water from the ocean turns the steam into water
that can be used once again to generate power. Just like tidal power plants, OTEC has
proven to be a costly venture that uses a lot of electricity to pump the cold water.
Scientists are also unsure about the environmental effects of pumping cold water to
the Earth's surface.

Hydrogen fuel cell bus - Photo by Gnsin~commonswiki.

Hydrogen-A Future Fuel Source?

Hydrogen does not emit pollutants as is the case with fossil fuels. It can be harnessed
by using electricity to split molecules of water (H20).

The Challenge of Hydrogen Fuel

Presently, the methods used to produce hydrogen are ineffective, expensive, and
produce a lot of pollutants. Large amounts of hydrogen are required to produce the
same amount of energy as gasoline. There are also very few tanks that can hold
hydrogen safely at high pressures.
Fuel Cells
Fuel cells produce electrical energy by combining oxygen from the atmosphere with
hydrogen fuel in which water is a byproduct. They have long been used in space
shuttles and are presently being considered for use in cars. These cars may be able to
harness hydrogen from gasoline by refueling at existing gas stations.

Fluorescent light bulbs can save in energy costs.

Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency refers to the energy percentage put into a system that performs
useful work. It is determined using the equation: Energy efficiency (%) = useful
energy out/energy in X 100. The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy
input must be equal to the energy output in a system. This is the relationship between
the heat transferred and the transfer of energy to the work done. Most energy devices
used do not adhere to the first law of thermodynamics as is the case in the U.S. where
40 percent of the commercial energy is wasted. Most of the energy is wasted in fuel-
wasting furnaces, vehicles, and appliances as well as poorly insulated structures. Fuel
cell-powered cars and fluorescent light bulbs present great opportunities for
improving energy efficiency.

Efficient Transportation
Energy efficiency in America would be improved by the transition to fuel-efficient
power vehicles as well as increased use of public transportation systems. This would
also reduce air pollution which has been attributed to the use of gasoline to power
automobiles.
Hybrid Cars
Hybrid cars are energy-efficient automobiles that use minimal amounts of gasoline
and more electric motor. They are also lightweight, which reduces their need for large
amounts of gasoline to power them. Hybrid cars have a braking system that harnesses
energy and stores it in its batteries for future use. They turn off their gasoline engines
when the car does not need a lot of power and produces less harmful emissions.

Cogeneration
Cogeneration is a fuel-efficient method of energy production in which two useful
types of energy are produced from the same energy source. A case in point is that of
industrial furnaces that can use the wasted heat to power steam turbines to generate
electricity. The electricity harnessed can then be sold to a utility company.

Energy Conservation
Energy conservation refers to prudent ways of using energy, such as use of energy
efficient devices and wasting less energy. Conservation efforts between 1975 and
1985 succeeded in increasing the amount of energy available in the U.S.

Cities and Towns Saving Energy

With a population of 3,600 people, the town of Osage, Iowa developed an energy
conservation plan that saved over $1 million per year. These conservation efforts
included replacement of inefficient furnaces, insulation of water heaters, and sealing
of leaks around floors and windows, through which heat was escaping. These efforts
attracted a lot of business investments that wanted to take advantage of the low energy
costs.

Older homes often need a lot of energy conservation updating.

Conservation Around the Home
Most U.S. households accumulate $1,500 in electricity bills per year, however most of
the energy generated from the use of electricity goes to waste. This is due to poorly
insulated doors, windows, roofs, and walls. Preventing energy loss through these
household areas can reduce electricity bills by 15 percent. Therefore, it is important to
seal these leaks using weather stripping or caulk.

Conservation in Daily Life

Lifestyle changes, such as washing clothes in cold water instead of warm water, can
reduce the energy loss by 25 percent. This also applies to the use of other resources.
What are other ways you can think of to conserve energy?

Solid Waste
Dumping food leftovers into a garbage can may seem like a simple exercise that most
of us don't think twice about. Have you ever asked yourself, "where will this trash end
up?" and, "will it end up in a landfill?" These questions can help understand the
environmental ramifications of trash disposal.

Solid waste includes everything from junk mail to coffee grounds to cars.

The Generation of Waste

Any solid material that is disposed of is referred to as solid waste, such as cars, coffee
grounds, and junk mail. The U.S. produces more than 110 billion metric tons of solid
waste, which is double the amount of solid waste that Americans had produced before
the 1960s.
Space and Waste
An incident in 1987 involving a barge loaded with 3,200 tons of garbage indicates the
big headache confronting many towns that lack a space to dispose their waste. The
barge from Islip, New York sailed around the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coast for
over five months looking for a state that would be willing to help it dispose of the
waste products. The search was unsuccessful and the barge returned to New York
where the trash was burned and the 430 tons of ash was finally buried.

Population and Waste

The effect of the rapid population growth on waste disposal is evident in the United
States, where each person produces an average of 4.4 pounds of solid waste daily.
Coupled with the decreasing land area, waste disposal has become more challenging
every year.

A plastic bottle is a non-biodegradable, synthetic material.

Not All Wastes Are Equal

Another challenge to efficient waste disposal is the type of waste to be disposed of,
which can be either biodegradable or nonbiodegradable. Biodegradable products can
be broken down by biological processes. Examples of biodegradable products include
plant and animal matter as well as products manufactured from natural materials, such
as newspapers, cotton fibers, leather and paper bags. Nonbiodegradable products are
made from synthetic materials, such as polyester and plastic, which cannot be broken
down by biological processes.
Plastic Problems
Plastics are one of the most prominent non-biodegradable products and cause many
environmental problems in terms of waste disposal. Although made from petroleum
and natural gas, their molecular structures are unique and thus, cannot be broken
down by microorganisms. Which is why plastics can accumulate and stay in the
environment for hundreds of years.

Types of Solid Waste

Municipal solid waste makes up the majority of the waste that is disposed of in the
United States. Seventy percent of the other solid waste produced in the U.S. is
manufacturing waste and mining waste.

Municipal solid waste is the waste

produced by households and businesses.

Municipal Solid Waste

Municipal solid waste, the waste produced and thrown away daily by businesses and
households, constitutes approximately 2 percent of the total solid waste in the U.S.
When converted, this amounts to 236 million tons annually, meaning that the amount
of municipal solid waste will soon overtake the amount of agricultural or mining
waste.

Solid Waste from Manufacturing, Mining, and Agriculture

Sludge, plastics, ash, paper, and scrap metal are examples of solid waste from
manufacturing. Although consumers do not directly produce waste from
manufacturing, they indirectly contribute to the waste by purchasing manufactured
products. Examples of solid waste from mining include rock and mineral leftovers
from mining activities. Crop wastes and manure are the main types of agricultural
waste, most of which is biodegradable. However, prevalent use of pesticides and
fertilizers may make some agricultural waste non-biodegradable.

Solid Waste Management

Most municipal solid waste ends up in landfills whereas some of it is incinerated and
more than 30 percent is recycled. This is a huge improvement from 1970 when only
6.6 percent of the solid waste was recycled.

Landfills
Over half of the municipal and manufacturing solid waste in the U.S. are disposed of
in a landfill, a permanent waste disposal site in which wastes are covered with plastic
or soil to prevent the contamination of the environment. The landfills are monitored to
prevent waste from leaching toxins into groundwater supplies or the soil.

Problems with Landfills

The major problem affecting landfills is the formation of leachate, a liquid that forms
as a result of water seeping down the landfill and absorbing various chemicals from
the waste. These chemicals, some of which may be harmful, include batteries,
appliances, pesticides, paints, and cleansers. By measuring and storing leachate, it can
be converted into waste water that can make it environmentally safe. Failure to
monitor and treat leachate may lead to contamination of groundwater supplies when
the leachate flows into aquifers. Decomposition of organic waste in the landfill may
also produce methane, which is highly flammable and may seep underground into
people's homes.

Safeguarding Landfills
The updated Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1984 demands that new
landfills must have safety measures, such as plastic or clay linings as well as standards
for collection and treatment of leachate. Landfills must also have vent pipes to carry
methane out of the landfill into the atmosphere, or for production of energy. However,
these efforts have been hampered by the unavailability of space to build more landfills
as well as objections of city residents. The alternative would be to transport the solid
waste to a distant landfill, which may be costly.

Active landfills in 20 U.S. states will reach capacity soon.

Building More Landfills

Estimates by EPA indicate that most landfills will be filled to capacity by 2025. This
is not surprising considering that the number of active landfills by 2005 had only
increased to 9,000 since the 8,000 landfills recorded in 1988.

Incinerators
Incinerators have long been used as an option for reducing the amount of solid waste
disposed of in landfills. By 1999, there were 102 active incinerators in the U.S. that
were capable of incinerating approximately 94,000 metric tons of municipal solid
waste per day. However, the downside of incinerators is an increase in environmental
pollution caused by the emission of toxic gases into the environment when the waste
is incinerated. Although it reduces solid waste by 75 percent, the indiscriminate
burning of solid waste, including paints, batteries, and cleansers, may become toxic
when disposed of in a landfill.

Reducing Solid Waste

A better alternative to incineration and landfills is source reduction through the
reduced production of solid waste, increased use of recycling, and use of alternative
products and materials. It is the change in the design, manufacture, and purchase of
use of materials to minimize their toxicity levels before they become municipal solid
waste.
 Using both sides of a sheet of paper can reduce waste.

Reducing Solid Waste

There are many simple ways of reducing solid waste, such as writing on both sides of
a piece of paper and avoiding unnecessary use of utensils, bags, or napkins.

Buying Less
Consumers can contribute to solid waste reduction by purchasing products that have
less packaging, are longer-lasting, and are reusable. For example, using dish towels
instead of paper towels. Another example is using refillable bottles, instead of
disposable bottles, that can be returned to the manufacturer after use to produce more
of the same product.

Lasting Longer
Manufacturers could also re-design products that are long-lasting and repairable.
Ideally, these re-designed products would be made using as few materials as possible.

Aluminum recycling is helping to reduce solid waste.

Recycling
Recycling is the process of remanufacturing or reusing products from waste products
or scrap. It conserves energy, water, and other resources involved in the
manufacturing of the product. For instance, manufacturing aluminum from recycled
aluminum uses 95 percent less energy than manufacturing from aluminum ore.

Recycling: A Series of Steps

Recycling begins with the collection and sorting out of the discarded materials after
which they are taken to a facility for cleaning. For example, paper is sorted according
to type and then made into pulp, it is then manufactured into new products to be sold
to customers.

Composting serves a dual benefit to homeowners.

Composting
Composting involves the decomposition of yard waste, which mostly contains
biodegradable materials, such as fruits trimming, food leftovers, and vegetable
leftovers. These materials, when broken down by microorganisms, turn into compost,
which is a dark brown crumbly material that can be used as manure. Composting is a
viable option for managing waste from food processing companies and restaurants as
well as municipal sewage and manure from animal feedlots. Composting would
reduce the amount of solid waste disposed of in landfills.

Changing the Materials We Use

Solid waste reduction can be enhanced by using recyclable materials. We should
avoid discarding all of our household items most of which can provide other uses
apart from their main purposes. For example, old newspapers can be used as egg
cartons, building materials, or cardboard.

Degradable Plastics
Photodegradable plastic is a type of degradable plastic that eventually weakens and
breaks down into small pieces when exposed to the sun for many weeks. Green plastic
is another type of degradable plastic that is manufactured by combining sugars in
plants with a special chemical agent. This process uses 20-50 percent less fossil fuels
than the manufacturing of regular plastic. When buried, green plastic is eaten by
bacteria in the soil, which weakens it and leaves them with microscopic holes that
break it down into small pieces.
 Plastics are a serious hazard to marine species.

Problems with Degradable Plastics

Just like regular plastics, degradable plastics do not disappear completely but simply
break down into smaller pieces.

Hazardous Waste
The chemicals used to manufacture most of the products we use in our daily activities
are categorized as hazardous waste. Such waste poses health risks to human beings
and other living organisms.

An abandoned street at Love Canal at Niagara Falls, New York.

Types of Hazardous Waste

Hazardous wastes, such as gases, solids, or liquids contain explosive, toxic, or
corrosive materials that may harm people's health. This was the case in Love Canal,
Niagara Falls where residents experienced myriad health problems resulting from
improper disposal of hazardous waste in that area. Unknowingly, schools and homes
were built over this contaminated site. This incident highlighted the need to pay
attention to how hazardous waste is disposed of.

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

Abbreviated as RCRA, this act demands that producers of hazardous waste maintain
records of how they manage these wastes. This makes them legally responsible for
any environmental problems caused by the hazardous waste in the future.
Furthermore, producers of hazardous waste should construct hazardous waste
treatment and disposal structures in line with safety standards that prevent these
facilities from polluting the environment.

The Superfund Act helped clean up Love Canal.

The Superfund Act

The 1980 passage of the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and
Liability Act, also known as the Superfund Act, ensures that companies do not
illegally dump hazardous waste products. It empowers EPA to sue such companies
and to compel them to pay for the cleanup of the hazardous waste. The act also sets
aside a special fund to pay for the cleanup of abandoned sites for disposing hazardous
waste. This was seen in the massive $275 million that was incurred to clean up Love
Canal. By 2017, only about 400 out of the approximately 1,860 Superfund sites had
been cleaned up.

Hazardous Waste Management

The U.S. produces approximately 252 million metric tons of hazardous waste
annually, an amount that poses a huge threat considering that it will only increase in
the years to come.

Preventing Hazardous Waste

Producing less hazardous waste is one way of reducing it. Certain manufacturers have
resorted to using tiny plastic beads for cleaning metal parts instead of chemicals that
are hazardous. This technique has proven cost effective and environmentally friendly
considering that the beads can be reused. Some companies collaborate to reduce
waste, such as by selling cleaning solvents to one another for reuse rather than by
disposing of it.
Conversion into Non-hazardous Substances
Using lime can help turn certain hazardous substances, such as acidic substances, into
non-hazardous substances. Due to lime being a base, it reacts with acids to produce
salt, which is less harmful. Cyanide can also be made non-poisonous by combining it
with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Biological treatment of waste
products, such as sludge from petroleum refineries, can reduce their hazardous levels
by combining it with soil bacteria.

Modern landfills are much improved in containing wastes.

Land Disposal
One of the land disposal strategies is deep-well injection in which hazardous wastes
are dumped deep into the ground below the groundwater level where they are
absorbed by a dry layer of rock. This layer is then sealed with cement to prevent
contamination of groundwater. Surface impoundment is another method of
disposing hazardous waste by constructing a pond that accumulates the hazardous
waste. Some of the waste, mostly solid hazardous waste, is often dumped into special
landfills that have extra safety precautions.

Biologically Treating Hazardous Waste

Treating hazardous waste using biological or chemical agents can help reduce their
toxicity levels. Bacteria manufactured in the lab is an example of an agent that can be
applied to an area that was previously contaminated by hazardous waste. In certain
instances, plants that absorb heavy metals can be planted in contaminated areas to
neutralize and absorb these harmful wastes.

Incinerating Hazardous Waste

Although incineration has been commonly used to dispose of certain hazardous waste,
this is an expensive undertaking that requires the installation of pollution-control
devices. These incinerators must also be monitored to ensure they do not emit
poisonous gases and particles into the atmosphere. The ash obtained from hazardous
waste must also be monitored closely to ensure it does not seep into the landfill and
pollute the groundwater.

Exporting Hazardous Waste

Before the 1980s, most companies disposed of hazardous waste by sending it to other
states that had enough space or landfills to accommodate these wastes. Today, it is
common for hazardous waste to even be exported to other countries that have the
space for it.

Hazardous Wastes at Home

Household chemicals, such as batteries, pesticides, and house paint are examples of
hazardous waste materials in the home, school, and local businesses. These materials,
when poured down the drain, may end up in solid waste landfills.

Some cities collect household hazardous waste only once or twice a year.

Disposing of Household Hazardous Waste

There are numerous collection points at which people may dispose of their hazardous
materials from where they can be sorted out and disposed of properly. Some of these
materials, such as motor oil or car batteries can be recycled.

Motor Oil
Instead of pouring out used motor vehicle oil, you can take it to the nearest service
station where it can be recycled. There are numerous oil-collection receptacles in
various cities where the oil can be recycled properly.
Pollution and Human Health
Increasing public awareness about the effects of pollution on health, as well as
constant studies of the pollution-health connection by scientists, have led to most
Americans living in environments that are relatively free from pollution.

Polluted water in developing countries causes health problems.

Environmental Effects on Health

Pollution can affect our health directly or indirectly. Lead poisoning and lung cancer
are examples of direct effects of pollution on health. Pollution can affect our health
indirectly through pathogens that are spread through polluted environments. Examples
include pathogens that cause cholera, typhoid, and river blindness. This is the case in
developing countries where environmental causes of poor health are largely caused by
bacteria and parasites in polluted water, as well as insect-borne diseases, such as
malaria.

Toxicology
Toxic is a word used to refer to a poisonous substance while toxicology is the study of
the poisonous effects of substances on organisms.

Toxicity: How Dangerous Is It?

Toxicity of a pollutant depends on its concentration in the body as well as its amount
in the body, also known as the dose. Furthermore, the toxicity will depend on the
body size of the victim as well as how his or her body breaks down the chemical or
pollutant. Some of the pollutants may be defined as persistent chemicals due to the
fact that they take a long time to break down in the body. The damage caused by the
chemical to the victim is known as the response.
 Epidemiologists try to determine disease origins.

Dose-Response Curves
A dose-response curve is used to explain the toxicity of a pollutant by displaying the
relative effect of various dosage levels on an organism. Within the curve, there is a
threshold dose, which refers to the maximum level at which the effects of toxic
chemicals will not have adverse effects. Any dosage above the threshold level will
result in the adverse effects of the chemical.

Epidemiology
Epidemiology focuses on how diseases spread, such as when an epidemic occurs. In
the event of an epidemic poisoning, epidemiologists will often try to establish a
common link between all the victims. This entails interviewing and collecting data
from health workers who have been handling these cases.

Risk Assessment
Risk assessment refers to the evaluation of the health risks posed by a certain
pollutant or chemical. The first step is often to collect and assess existing information
on this pollutant before, step two, determining how people might be exposed to it.
Step three is to evaluate and determine the toxicity of the substance, which enables the
scientists to rate the risk-level posed by the substance. The EPA is one such agency
that undertakes risk assessment and comes up with government regulations on how
the substance can be used without exposing anyone to its side effects.

Pollution from Natural Sources

Apart from man-made pollutants, other pollutants, such as radon gas, may be naturally
occurring. They become dangerous when there are in high concentrations in the
environment. In the case of radon, it is odorless and people may unknowingly breathe
it in. It is responsible for approximately 15,000-22,000 cancer deaths every year in the
United States.

Volcanoes can produce large amounts of particulates.

Particulates
Particulates are natural pollutants, such as dust and soot, which are tiny enough to be
inhaled. They cause irritation in the lungs and causes respiratory conditions, such as
emphysema and chronic bronchitis.

Heavy Metals
Examples of heavy metals that can pose health risks when ingested in large volumes
include cadmium, mercury, selenium, lead, and arsenic. In the case of selenium, it is
actually beneficial when consumed in small amounts, but can cause birth defects in
birds and even humans when ingested in large quantities.

Pollution from Human Activities

Despite human activities being largely responsible for the release of chemical
pollutants, only 10 percent of these chemicals have been assessed for their toxicity
levels. More research needs to be done considering that 1,000 new chemicals are
released into the environment each year.

Recent Improvements
Strict regulations in the U.S. have reduced people's exposure to pollutants compared
to the past. Studies by the CDC in 2001, 2003, and 2005 revealed that U.S. residents
contain lower levels of mercury, nicotine (from smoking), and other toxic chemicals
compared to 1991. However, minimal knowledge on the effects of these chemicals on
health has created new health risks. As a matter of fact, Alzheimer's disease and
Parkinson's disease are thought to possibly be caused, in part, by chemical pollution.
Burning Fuels
Even with the advances in public health, burning fuels in home furnaces, power
plants, factories, and vehicles have been responsible for thousands of premature
deaths due to asthma, lung disorders, and heart diseases. These burning fuels emit
carbon monoxide gas as well as dust particulates that cause harmful health effects
when inhaled. According to a recent study, prolonged exposure to soot particles
increases the risk of death from heart and lung diseases.

Pesticides
Pesticides may have helped increase the worldwide food production in the last 60
years, but this has come at a price. Exposure to pesticides, especially to people who
work in pesticide manufacturing companies and those who apply them on crops, has
caused a variety of health complications. In the United States, organophosphate
pesticides have replaced previous persistent pesticides, such as DDT, but they have
not been efficient at avoiding the health risks associated with their predecessors. Data
from various poison centers indicate that approximately 7,200 people reported having
suffered organophosphate-related poisoning. These pesticides are very poisonous and
can cause nerve damage and cancer, especially in children whose organs are still
developing.

Most modern pesticides now in the U.S. break down quickly into harmless substances.

Industrial Chemicals
The 2001 accident involving railroad tankers, which overturned near Rochester, New
York alerted people to the health effects of exposure to industrial chemicals. The
accident sparked a fire created by spilling solvents that later caused breathing
problems for those who had inhaled the fumes. Industrial chemicals, which can be
toxic, are found in our homes, in the chemicals used to make cleaning fluids, furniture
paint, carpets, and building materials. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), used in
insulating electrical transformers, is a notorious industrial chemical responsible for
learning problems and IQ deficits of children who have been exposed to it while in the
womb. Studies also indicate that PCBs are responsible for memory problems in adults
who are exposed to it.

Waste Disposal
Poor waste disposal methods have also contributed to human exposure to harmful
chemicals. These chemicals are washed into bodies of water by wastewater whereas
certain waste disposal techniques, such as burning waste, releases toxic fumes into the
air. In other communities, raw sewage is directly released into rivers and lakes where
they affect aquatic life as well as humans who depend on these bodies of water. There
also remains uncertainty on how to dispose of radioactive waste without affecting the
environment. As that research continues, for now, the waste is kept in barrels where
certain radioactive elements, such as cesium and iodine, cannot leak into surrounding
waterways.

Biological Hazards
Apart from toxic chemicals, other threats to human health come from disease
outbreaks caused by organisms. Diseases, such as Ebola, West Nile virus, Hantavirus,
and mad cow disease were unheard of centuries ago, but have ravaged various parts of
the world in recent times. Other diseases caused by organisms include malaria,
hookworm, tuberculosis, and yellow fever, which are now killing more people than
they did 50 years ago. The prevalence of these diseases is attributable to the alteration
of our environment, which has encouraged the spread of these diseases.

The consumption of bushmeat has often been linked to infectious diseases.

The Environment's Role in Disease
Diseases, specifically infectious diseases, are caused by pathogens, organisms that
cause disease. Other diseases are caused by a secondary host in which a pathogen
lives all or most of its life. The mosquito is a type of secondary host that spreads
malaria.

Waterborne Disease
Close to 75 percent of infectious diseases are transmitted through water, especially in
developing countries where the people use local bodies of water for their basic needs.
This water, often untreated, is a breeding ground for pathogens that are transferred to
human beings when they consume the water. Within these bodies of water
are vectors, organisms that transfer diseases to humans, such as mosquitoes, which
breed in water. For example, the Three Gorges Dam in China provides an ample
breeding ground for snails, which are vectors for schistosomiasis. As a result, this
incurable disease has become widespread in the area.

Cholera
Pathogens that cause cholera and dysentery are responsible for most infant deaths,
especially in developing countries. These are waterborne diseases caused by
consumption of water polluted by human feces through which these pathogens enter
the water.

Mosquito–borne malaria causes hundreds

of thousands of deaths each year.

Malaria
Once a leading cause of death worldwide, malaria is caused by parasitic protists and
transmitted to humans by bites from female mosquitoes. The mosquito breeds in
stagnant freshwater where they lay their eggs and develop into a larva. Malaria can be
avoided by preventive measures, such as sleeping under a treated net.

Environmental Change and Disease

Our alteration of the environment makes it possible for many pathogens to survive
and reproduce. For example, soil pollution can lead to water pollution when these
soils are eroded. Various parasites can also survive and reproduce in soils
contaminated with feces. An example is hookworm, which causes acute exhaustion.

Antibiotic Resistance
Human actions can also cause pathogens to evolve resistance to various antibiotics.
An example is the feeding of livestock with large quantities of antibiotics, which
caused Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and other bacteria to develop resistance to the
antibiotics. Consequently, many Americans have become sick after consuming this
meat, which is undercooked or inadequately refrigerated. Excessive use of antibiotics
to treat human illnesses has also enhanced pathogens resistance to antibiotics as in the
case of Tuberculosis (TB). By 1989, 44 percent of TB strains had evolved resistance
to antibiotics, a 38 percent increase from 1979. As such, the spread of TB in recent
years has been attributed to antibiotic resistance by the bacterium that causes TB.

Mosquitoes have evolved resistance to most malaria pesticides.

Malaria on the March

Just like TB, mosquitoes have evolved resistance to the pesticides used to eradicate
them. Modern, preventive methods that are being considered include growth
regulators to prevent mosquito larvae from maturing into adults or sterilization of
female mosquitoes.
Emerging Viruses
Treatment of viral diseases is complicated because each viral disease must be treated
by a specific drug. Although vaccinations have helped defend the body against certain
viral diseases, they have not been effective when new strains of viral pathogens
emerge.

Cross-Species Transfers
According to scientists, pathogens that cause HIV and West Nile Virus have made a
cross-species transfer from animals to human beings. They have existed in certain
wild animals for centuries with little damage to these organisms but have caused
serious diseases when they are transferred to human beings. These changes or
transfers are being blamed on the way humans have altered their environments.

A virulent infectious disease outbreak in an urban population could be catastrophic.

Examples of Cross-Species Transfers

An example of a cross-species transfer occurred in Argentina when agricultural
workers were infected by hemorrhagic fevers transmitted by rodents that had attacked
a particular plant on a farm. The main symptom of the hemorrhagic fevers included
internal bleeding. Influenza (flu) is another example of a cross-species transfer of
diseases from humans to animals and back to humans. Epidemiologists are also
concerned of the possibility of an outbreak of a new virulent strain of flu that can
rapidly spread within a crowded place.
Economics and International
Cooperation
Although education standards and lifespan have generally improved in the last 50
years, more work still needs to be done to enhance sustainability of the Earth's
resources. Sustainability is a condition in which the present generation uses the
Earth's resources prudently to enable future generations to benefit from the same
resources. This is important considering that certain resources, such as energy and
freshwater are becoming scarce by the day.

A view across a reverse osmosis desalination

plant. Photo by James Grellier

International Development and Cooperation

Globalization has ensured that economic and environmental conditions in different
countries are related and linked. This has prompted various world leaders to
collaborate in developing common goals for addressing these interlinked
environmental problems.

Sustainable Development
The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil was the most prominent meeting
that brought together various global stakeholders to address sustainable development.
One product from this summit was Agenda 21, which was general plan for addressing
various environmental concerns while improving economic development.

The Earth Summit of 1992 in Rio de Janeiro‚ Brazil.

Climate and Atmosphere
Various international agreements emerging from these meetings have experienced
mixed fortunes as far as addressing environmental concerns is concerned. The
Montreal Protocol is an example of an international treaty that was successful in
reducing the amount of ozone-destroying chemicals in the environment. However, the
Kyoto Protocol, which seeks to reduce greenhouse gases emission and global
warming, has not been as successful due to opposition from certain countries. The
U.S. is the most notable critic of the protocol and argues that it is unfair towards
developed countries and favors developing countries. Its argument is that
implementation of the protocol is costly considering that it may not even reduce
global warming. Critics also argue that developing countries will continue to use
fossil fuels while preventing the developed countries from doing so. Nonetheless, U.S.
companies operating in countries that have signed the treaty may have to abide by the
conditions.

Other Agreements
MARPOL, known as marine pollution, is an example of an international agreement
that has produced results. It prevents large ships from dumping garbage close to
shores as well as oil tankers from washing out their tanks. These regulations have
resulted in the fining of various cruise lines, which has reduced the rate of tar
pollution along beaches. Also, the 2016 Paris Climate Accord was held to discuss on
how to minimize global warming. The United States pulled out of this agreement in
2017.

Lagos, Nigeria is exempt from Kyoto Protocol requirements.

Photo by Stefan Magdalinski cc-by-2.0
Economics and the Environment
Within the traditional model of economics, the study of choices people make when
utilizing and distributing resources - markets are considered self-contained system
where money and products flow in cycles. Within this model, a successful economic
system is equated with economic growth in which flow of money and products
increase within the system. However, these arguments do not consider the
environmental cost or ramifications of the use of these products.

As an external factor, environmental failures are perceived as market failures, in

which case, the affected product does not reflect its true cost. In this context, gasoline
can be said to not reflect its true cost because it does not consider its environmental
effects, such as emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. However, pricing
the environmental costs of a product is a challenging undertaking.

Regulation and Economic Incentives

Governments exercise control over economic systems through regulations,
punishment, or economic incentives to people who engage in actions that benefit the
environment. These incentives may be in the form of monetary rewards or other
rewards, such as rebates that are usually given to people who purchase energy-saving
appliances. Nonetheless, certain regulations may encounter opposition especially
when they are costly to implement.

The Nature Conservancy’s main objective is to preserve ecosystems.

Private Efforts
Businesses and private organizations may also boost environmental conservation
efforts by donating land for preserves or parks as well as money to various
environmental initiatives. These organizations may also cooperate with government
agencies in researching or creating strategies for environmental management. Other
manufacturers may adopt environmentally friendly practices, such as recycling of
waste products. The Nature Conservancy is an example of a nonprofit organization
that has worked hard on environmental management by creating preserves all over the
U.S., as well as 28 other countries worldwide by collecting donations of land and
money. These funds have helped the organization to buy land, which it then converts
into preserves.

Environmental Policies in the

United States
Environmental issues have been featured prominently in both local and national
elections in the United States. Millions of dollars have also been pumped into various
environmental initiatives by individuals, businesses, and private organizations. These
contributions have complemented the billions of federal tax dollars that the
government has set aside for implementing environmental policies and managing
resources.

Many national forests and parks, and agencies to manage them, were established around
the early 1900s.

History of U.S. Environmental Policy

Following the reckless and rapid use of natural resources in the 1800s, the 1900s was
a period during which the United States realized the need to protect and prudently
manage its national resources. It was during this time that many environmental
agencies were established as well as parks and forests.
Environmental Agencies and Laws
Many soil conservation policies were adopted in the 1900s, around that same time,
many people started to demand better waste disposal methods. The same year the first
Earth Day was celebrated in 1970, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was
established with the mandate of enforcing the Clean Water Act and the Clean Air Act.
The EPA uses regulations and economic incentives to encourage people to abide by
the provisions of these Acts.

Glen Canyon Dam in Arizona.

Environmental Impact Statements

Regulations require that government agencies file an Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS) for any project or policy that would significantly affect the
environment. These projects may be highways, airports, dams, as well as other
projects that are controlled or funded by federal government. Contents of an EIS
include the rationale for the project, its environmental impact, and strategies for
minimizing its negative impact. EISs are often subject to public comments although
these comments are rarely sufficient to warrant cancellation of the project. However,
these opinions or suggestions can enable the authorities alter the project or policy. An
example of an EIS conducted was in the 1980s when federal agencies were exploring
alternative ways of releasing water from the Grand Canyon Dam.

Unfunded Mandates and Economic Impacts

In 1995, Congress passed a law barring unfunded mandates, which prevent federal
agencies from developing regulations without funding for state or local governments
to implement these regulations. Because laws, such as the Clean Water Act require
more than $50 million to implement, Congress is barred from passing such laws. Even
when laws like this are passed, the federal government must provide funding for their
implementation. Federal agencies are also expected to assess the environmental and
economic ramifications of their policies.

Public use greenways are appearing along the Hudson River.

Influencing Environmental Policy

At an individual level, you can influence environmental policies in your area by
reaching out to your local representatives. You can contact them individually or as
part of a lobby group including business organizations, media, and nonprofit
organizations.

Local Governments
Local governments are influential in determining environmental policies in local
communities. They bring together locals to discuss environmental issues in town hall
meetings. Local governments are also responsible for urban planning, including plans
for waste disposal facilities as well as recycling. To be successful, this local
environmental planning should be coordinated among many groups to ensure that all
stakeholders are working towards the same goal.

State Governments
While the federal government passes minimum standards related to specific
environmental issues, individual state governments may set higher standards for these
environmental issues. An example are the standards set by California for vehicle
emissions within the state. State governments are also free to decide how to
implement laws set at the national level and manage public resources.

Lobbying
Lobbying is the organized efforts to influence lawmakers' votes or viewpoints on
particular environmental issues. As an individual, you can become part of this
organized attempt to influence your lawmakers. Lobby groups may include industry
and environmental groups advocating for a specific cause.

Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska.

The Media and Sources of Information

Various media, such as radio, TV, and newspapers provide information on the current
environmental issues affecting you, such as Congress's debate on the oil drilling in the
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. However, these media may not provide you with the
full information needed to make an informed decision. You can find more information
on the Internet where you can read through numerous environmental reports and
magazines on various environmental issues. While searching the Internet for
information, you should be wary of biased and inaccurate information.

The Importance of the Individual

As an individual, increased awareness of environmental problems and their solutions
will enable you to make responsible decisions on how you use your environment.

Henry D. Thoreau and John Muir were two of the earliest notable naturalists.

Influential Individuals
The following are some people whose actions have increased attention to
environmental issues throughout history:

Henry D. Thoreau (1817-1862): A conservationist and writer who is renowned for

his memoirs about his stay in a cabin at Walden Pond in Massachusetts.
John Muir (1838-1914): A Scottish naturalist and writer who established the Sierra
Club, explored the American West, and fervently advocated for the preservation of the
western lands as wilderness.

Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt (1858-1919): First American president to strongly

advocate for environmental conservation and established the Forest Service while
expanding national forests by 400 percent. He also pioneered the establishment of the
first National Monuments.

Jane Goodall (1934-): Her study and subsequent book on chimpanzees in Gombe
Stream National Park, Tanzania raised awareness on the plight of endangered species.
She also prompted new thinking about primate behavior.

Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997): A renowned French oceanographer whose various

books, programs, and films documented over 40 years of his undersea expeditions.

Rachel Carson, author of Silent Spring.

The 1960s Decade

During the 1960s, biologists, such as Garrett Hardin, Paul Ehrlich, Barry Commoner,
and Rachel Carson brought public attention to environmental issues, such as rapid
population growth, resource depletion, and pollution. Rachel Carson, in particular,
authored a book in which she argued that most public lands and resources were
inadequately protected. Her book partially influenced the writing of the Wilderness
Act of 1994, which required that certain federal lands were to be used as wilderness
areas for human activities that were restricted to low-impact recreation, such as
camping and hiking.
Rising Awareness
The 1960s were also marked with many environmental disasters, including increased
air pollution in New York, that caused 300 deaths, as well as the endangerment of the
bald eagle as a result of widespread use of DDT. These incidents, coupled with the
excessive pollution of Lake Erie and massive oil spill near Santa Barbara, led to the
first Earth Day in 1970. This was a demonstration of the increasing public awareness
and concern for environmental issues.

Many community groups engage in nature cleanup efforts.

Applying Your Knowledge

Your knowledge of environmental science will be critical in making individual
decisions on how to use the resources in your environment.

Voting
You can decide how the resources in your environment are to be managed by voting
for candidates who value environmental conservation as part of their agenda. By
seeking out information from voter organizations, the Internet, and the media, you can
make an informed decision on the candidate that best represents your environmental
issues or concerns. You can also join groups with similar interests as yours, such as
lobby groups or volunteer groups, some of which participate in environmental clean-
up activities.

Weighing the Evidence

We should be conscious of how our different actions impact the environment around
us. Thus, we should be guided by the environmental slogan, "think globally, act
locally".
 Preserving our environment is the greatest gift to pass on to future generations.

Consumer Choices
Our consumer choices should be influenced by the phrase, "reduce, reuse, recycle".
We should purchase products that are manufactured sustainably and cause minimal
damage to the environment. We should also avoid disposing of products or materials
that could still be useful for other activities. Instead, we can recycle or reuse them.

As you learn more about Environmental Science, hopefully you make decisions that
only positively impact your environment and preserve it for future generations to
come.