Design and Evaluation of Active Low-Pass Filters L3411.

By
Name: Majed Sultan Al-Kawari

Student No. 601166

Max mark Mark

Presentation 10
Simulation of three 30
filter designs as
described in the
Laboratory Guide
Construction and 30
Testing of three filter
designs as described in
the Laboratory Guide
Discussions of results 20
obtained and
Conclusions
Daybook 10
Total

Report feedback

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Abstract

The point of the lab is to configuration, test and assess dynamic low-pass channels with a cut-off
recurrence of 1kHz. A few renditions of circuit will be structured and tried in stages. A circuit
examination program, LTSpice ,will be utilized as a plan apparatus to evaluate the possibility of each
circuit arrange and foresee the conduct of the general structure.

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Contents
Report feedback ............................................................................................................................................ 1
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Report : Title ................................................................................................................................................. 4
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Procedures ................................................................................................................................................ 6
Results ........................................................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Discussion................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
References .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Appendices. If needed .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix for Investigation 1 .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Appendix for Investigation 2 .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
ETC... ...................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Report : Design and Evaluation of Active Low-Pass Filters

Introduction
Electronic filters allow signals with certain required frequencies to pass whilst stopping signals with
unwanted frequencies. The range of frequencies passed by a filter is termed the passband while the
range stopped is the stopband. There are four basic classes of filter

As their name implies, Active Filters contain active components such as operational amplifiers,
transistors or FET’s within their circuit design. They draw their power from an external power source and
use it to boost or amplify the output signal. Filter amplification can also be used to either shape or alter
the frequency response of the filter circuit by producing a more selective output response, making the
output bandwidth of the filter more narrower or even wider. Then the main difference between a
“passive filter” and an “active filter” is amplification. An active filter generally uses an operational
amplifier (op-amp) within its design.There are four main classes of filter:
A) Low-pass: this class is allows frequencies to pass from 0 Hz (dc) up to a cut off frequencies (fc),
and stops frequencies above this.
B) Band-pass: this class allows between lower (fc L) and upper (fc U) cut-off frequencies signals to
pass.
C) Band-stop: this class stops between lower (fc L) and upper (fc U) cut-off frequencies signals from
pass.
D) High-pass: this class is stops frequencies from passing between 0 Hz (dc) up to a cut off
frequencies (fc), and then pass all frequencies above this.

If X() is the input signal to the filter of angular frequency  ( = 2f), then the output signal, Y() from
the filter also has the frequency  and is given by:

Y() = H()X()

Where H() is the transfer function of the filter, also frequency dependent. For an ideal filter, H() = 1
over the passband and H()=0 over the stopband as illustrated in figure 1.

Figure 1 Ideal frequency responses

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 Figure 2 Non-ideal frequency response

Perfect channels are difficult to acknowledge practically speaking. Functional channels don't have a level
reaction in the pass-band, no zero or level reaction in the stop-band, or a vast move off. How close a
reasonable filter can go to the perfect relies upon circuit multifaceted nature and in this way there is a
cost. The central point is the filter’s structure, the higher the request, the closer to perfect. Non-ideal
filters additionally don't have a genuine reaction yet a perplexing one. It is consequently common to
delineate graphically the size of the reaction and for a non-ideal filter will be like figure 2 above.

Filters have different types based on the characteristics of the ripples and roll-off; these are:

a) Butterworth: This has the flattest passband reaction, accomplished by having every one of the
tops (aside from the 0Hz peak) at a similar frequency. The peak is likewise kept as little as could
be allowed and near the cut-off frequency. Notwithstanding, the roll-off isn't as steep as other
filter types.
b) Chebyshev: The roll-off is expanded by permitting swells. All waves have equivalent extent so
they are almost firmly controlled – the size of the waves can be picked however littler tipples
give a less steep roll-off.
c) Elliptic (Cauer): this channel has a few waves in the stop-band too to given a significantly more
extreme roll-off

Low pass Filters

The most common and easily understood active filter is the Active Low Pass Filter. Its principle of
operation and frequency response is exactly the same as those for the previously seen passive filter,
the only difference this time is that it uses an op-amp for amplification and gain control. The
simplest form of a low pass active filter is to connect an inverting or non-inverting amplifier. The
operation of lowpass filter could be easily understood with the help of following figure

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 Figure 3 Active low pass filter operation

Procedures
Topology Used for low pass Filter
We have used the sallen-key filter topology in our design procedure The Sallen-Key Filter design is a
second-order active filter topology which we can use as the basic building blocks for implementing
higher order filter circuits, such as low-pass (LPF), high-pass (HPF) and band-pass (BPF) filter circuits.
Figure 4 shows the basic circuit diagram for the sallen-key 2nd order Filter

Figure 4 SallenKey Filter Topology

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Mathematical Equation and Design Parameters
The basic second order section is an equal component-value Sallen-Key filter and is shown in figure 4. All
capacitors and resistors in each section have the same values with the exception of the feedback
resistor, which is scaled by (1-K). The component values are found from the design cut-off frequency by:
1
𝑅𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝑓 (2)
𝑐 𝑛

Where 𝑓𝑛 is a frequency normalisation factor. K and fn are in general different for each individual filter
section. Values of K and 𝑓𝑛 for some filters are given in table 1.

Table 1 Parameters for Sallen-Key Filters

Second Order Chebyshev Low-pass filter with fc =1kHz

Using the first row of table 1 for Chebyshev: 𝑓𝑛 = 0.907 and K = 2.114

Using equation (2) with substituted values gives RC as

1
𝑅𝐶 = ≅ 12𝑘
2𝜋(1𝑘)(.907)

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R and C are chosen to fit this equation but must also no break physical circuit components. For example,
the resulting output current expected from each op amp in the circuit must be within the component’s
design limits. Here the component values chosen were R= 12kΩ and C =18nF. The resulting circuit
simulated in LT Spice is shown in figure 5 below.

Figure 5 Schematic View Of 2nd order Chebyshev Low Pass Filter

A typical frequency response can be seen as the Bode plot output for Vout1 in figure 6.

Figure 6 Frequency Response for 2nd order Chebyshev Filter

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4th Order Chebyshev Low-pass filter with fc =1kHz
Using the second row of table 1 for Chebyshev:

𝑓𝑛 = 0.471 and K = 1.924 for the first stage whereas 𝑓𝑛 = 0.964 and K = 2.782 for the second stage.
Using equation (2) with substituted values gives RC as

1
𝑅𝐶 = ≅ 33𝑒 −4
2𝜋(1)(.471)

R and C are chosen to fit this equation but must also no break physical circuit components. For example,
the resulting output current expected from each op amp in the circuit must be within the component’s
design limits. component values chosen for stage 1 are as R= 10kΩ and C =33nF. Similarly, for second
stage R=18kΩ and C=1.5 nF. The resulting circuit simulated in LT Spice is shown in figure 7 below.

Figure 7 Schematic View of 4th order Chebyshev low pass filter

A typical frequency response can be seen as the Bode plot output for Vout1 and Vout2 in figure 8

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 Figure 8 Frequency Response of 4th order Chebyshev Low pass Filter

References
1. Analysis and design of integrated electronic circuits: Volume 3, Analog Electronics, P.M. Chirlian,
Harper & Row.

2. Electronic devices and circuit theory, R. Boylestad, L. Nashelsky, Prentice-Hall

3. Integrated electronics: Analog and Digital Circuits and Systems, J. Millman, C.C. Halkias, McGraw-Hill.

4. LT SPICE [4] from Linear Technology, http://www.linear.com/designtools/software/switchercad.jsp

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