Extended IGCSE Maths Revision Notes

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Extended
(I)GCSE Maths
Revision Guide
Jan 2013
Extended IGCSE maths revision notes 1 18-Feb-13

© ASEW 2012
1. Negative Numbers
Positive and a positive is positive

Negative and a negative is positive “Signs same PLUS, Signs different MINUS“
Negative and a positive is negative
E .g . +2 + +4 = +6 +2 + −4 = −2 −2 − −4 = +2 −4 ÷ +2 = −2
+2 × +4 = +8 +2 × −4 = −8 −2 × −4 = +8 −4 ÷ −2 = +2
2. Ordering
5 > 4 Means “5 is greater than 4”

4 < 5 Means “4 is less than 5” “The arrowhead points at the smallest number”
x < y Means “x is less than y”
x ≤ y Means “ x is less than or equal to y ”
x ≠ y Means “ x is not equal to y”
To put numbers in order you need them in the same form (normally as decimals).
1 0.3, 0.32 so smallest to biggest 0.3 < 32% < 1
E .g . , 0.3, 32% = 0.3,
3 3
3. BODMAS
Calculations are done in the following order :
BODMAS: Brackets, Other, Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction
Other includes functions such as square root, square, powers, Sin, Cos, Tan etc.
BODMAS can also be referred to as Bidmas or Bedmas.
When evaluating a division written as a fraction, you need to add the pair of implied brackets
3 + 5 ( 3 + 5) 8
Examples: = = =2
2 × 2 ( 2 × 2) 4
6 2 − 52 36 − 25 11
= = = 3.317 ÷ 7 = 0.474
7 7 7
4 + 5 ÷ 2 = 4 + 2.5 = 6.5
4. Types of Number
Even numbers can be divided exactly by 2. They all end in 0, 2, 4, 6, 8
Odd numbers cannot be divided exactly by 2. They all end in 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
A prime number has two different factors: itself and 1. Note 1 is NOT a prime number.
Square numbers: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 …

(Square numbers have an odd number of different factors)
Rational Numbers: A rational number is any number which can be expressed as a fraction.
E.g. the following numbers are rational:
1 2 8 173 1
0.1 = 0.4 = 8 = 1.73 = 0.3 =
10 5 1 100 3

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Irrational Numbers: An irrational number cannot be expressed as a fraction. For example the
following numbers are irrational: 2, 3, 5, 7 − 3, π
Integer: a whole number (no decimal point) e.g. 87
The SUM of a set of numbers is the ADDITION of all the numbers.
The DIFFERENCE a set of numbers is the biggest number MINUS the smallest number
The PRODUCT of a set of numbers is the MULTIPLICATION of all the numbers.
The RECIPROCAL of a number is one divided by the number:

1 3 5
e.g. Reciprocal of 5 is , Reciprocal of is
5 5 3
The FACTORs of a number are all the numbers that divide exactly into it:
e.g. the factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
To find the factors of a number divide by 1, then 2, then 3 etc. until an answer repeats.
The PRIME FACTORS of a number are the factors which are prime.
68
To find the prime factors of a number use a factor tree. 2 34
The prime factors of 68 are 2 and 17
2 17
All numbers can be written as the product of their prime factors.
68 = 22 × 17
The Highest Common Factor (HCF) of two numbers is the largest factor of both numbers.
E.g. Factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.

Factors of 18 are 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18
The HCF is 6
For larger numbers it is easier first to write them as a product of their prime factors first:
E.g. Find the HCF of 48 and 60

4
48 = 2 x 3
2
60 = 2 x 3 x 5
Then pick the prime factors that are present in both numbers. Eg. 2 × 2 × 3 = 12
The Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of two numbers is the smallest number that is divisible
by both of the two numbers.
Method 1: Write out the times table for both numbers until you find a common answer:
1 x 48 = 48 1 x 60 = 60
2 x 48 = 96 2 x 60 = 120
3 x 48 = 144 3 x 60 = 180
4 x 48 = 192 4 x 60 = 240
5 x 48 = 240 240 is the LCM of 48 and 60
Method 2: Write the two numbers as a product of their prime factors:

4
48 = 2 x 3
2
60 = 2 x 3 x 5
Choose each prime factor (here 2, 3, 5) and the largest power (index) of each:
4
LCM = 2 x 3 x 5 = 240

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4a. Divisibility
Number a is divisible by number b if b is a factor of a . You can check this with a

calculator by dividing a by b and seeing if you get a whole number:
e.g. 17 ÷ 3 = 5.666... 17 is not divisible by 3

345 ÷ 5 = 69 345 is divisible by 5
There are some patterns that allow you to see if one number divides into another number:
Divisible by 2: Any number that ends in 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 is divisible by 2. (It is an even number)
Divisible by 3: Add up all the digits in the number and if it is a multiple of 3 then the number
is divisible by 3.
Divisible by 4: If it is even, divide by 2. If the answer is still even then it is divisible by 4.
Divisible by 5: Any number that ends in 0 or 5 is divisible by 5.
Divisible by 6: Using the rules above, if it is divisible by 2 and divisible by 3 then it is divisible
by 6.
5. Fractions
1 2 3 4 5
Equivalent fractions. Multiply top and bottom by the same number: = = = =
3 6 9 12 15
Fractions are normally written in their simplest form i.e. when the number on the bottom is
1
smallest. E.g. in the example above the simplest form is .
3
Improper (or vulgar) fractions have the top number bigger than the bottom number
13
e.g .
8
7
Mixed numbers have an integer followed by a fraction. e.g . 3
8
1 6 × 2 + 1 13
To convert a mixed number to an improper fraction: = 6=
2 2 2
13 1
To convert an improper fraction to a mixed number: =6
2 2
For fractions to be added (or subtracted) the denominators (number on the bottom)
2 1 8 3 11
need to be the same: + = + =
3 4 12 12 12
2 1 2 ×1 2 1
Multiplication× = = =
3 4 3 × 4 12 6
2 1 2 4 2× 4 8 2 1
Division ÷ = × = = =2 3 ÷ 5 = 3×
3 4 3 1 3 ×1 3 3 5

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Mixed numbers: To multiply or divide mixed numbers, first convert to improper fractions:
2 1 5 9 5 4 20
1 ÷2 = ÷ = × =
3 4 3 4 3 9 27
To add or subtract mixed numbers you can either convert to improper fractions or treat the
integer and the fraction part separately.
2 1 2 1 8 3 11
Method 1: 1 + 2 = 1 + 2 + + = 3 + + = 3
3 4 3 4 12 12 12
2 1 5 9 20 27 47 11
Method 2: 1 + 2 = + = + = =3
3 4 3 4 12 12 12 12
Using a calculator makes fractions simple e.g.
60 60
Simplify → Type then enter 60 and 90 to get then press "="
90 90
2 1 2
1 + 2 → Type SHIFT then enter 1, 2 and 3 to get 1 then "+" then
3 4 3
1
type SHIFT then enter 2, 1 and 4 to get 2 then press "="
4
3 7 3
× → Type then enter 3 and 4 to get then press " × "
4 19 4
7
Type then enter 7 and 19 to get then press "="
19
Fraction Calculations
4 4
of £100= × 100 = £80
5 5
30 3
£30 as a fraction of £200= =
200 20
6. Fraction, Decimals and Percentages conversions
3
Fraction to Decimal. Do the division. E.g . = 3 ÷ 4 = 0.75
4
Fraction to percentage. Convert to decimal and then to percentage.

3
E .g . = 3 ÷ 4 = 0.75 = 0.75 × 100% = 75%
4
Decimal to percentage. Multiply by 100%. 0.67 = 0.67 × 100% = 67%
Percentage to decimal. Divide by 100. Eg. 65% = 65 ÷ 100 = 0.65

65 13
Percentage to fraction. Write as fraction over 100 and simplify: 65% = =
100 20

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(Terminating) Decimal to fraction. Look at the place values. E.g. 2.456 is 2 and 456/1000.
566 283
Then simplify the fraction: 3.566 = 3 =3
1000 500
Recurring Decimal to fraction.
0.23
0.1234
0.23 × 10 − 0.23 = 2.3 − 0.23 × 10000 − 0.1234
0.1234 = 1234.1234
− 0.1234

⇒ 0.23 × 9 = 2.1 ⇒ 0.1234
× 9999 = 1234
2.1 21 7 = 1234
⇒ 0.23 = = = ⇒ 0.1234
9 90 30 9999
7. Powers and Roots
Squares and Cubes
The square of a number is the number times itself: 5 squared = 52 = 5 X 5 = 25

NB the square of a negative number is positive. (–5)2 = -5 X -5 = 25
The square root of a number is the number which when multiplied by itself gives the
number. It has a positive and a negative result:
16 = 4 or − 4 because −4 × −4 = 16 and 4 × 4 = 16
The cube of a number is the number times itself 3 times: 5 cubed = 53 = 5 X 5 X 5

= 125
Most calculators have buttons for square and square root. Some also have buttons
for cubes and cubed roots.
Indices (or powers)
25 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32
1. When multiplying you add the indices. E.g. 55 × 54 = 59
2. When dividing, you subtract the indices. E.g. 56 ÷ 54 = 52

2 3
3. When raising one index to the power of another, you multiply them. E.g. (7 ) = 76
4. Anything to the power of 1 is itself. E.g. 21 = 2, 61 = 6, 71 = 7
5. Anything to the power of 0 is 1. E.g. 20 = 1, x 0 = 1, 7.50 = 1
6. 1 to any power is still 1. E.g. 11 = 1, 15 = 1, 1−8 = 1

2
3 32 9
7. Fractions: Apply the same index to both top and bottom. E.g.   = 2 =
7 7 49

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8. Negative indices turn the number upside down. I.e. find the reciprocal, before
using the index. E.g.
1
−3
F 3I = F 4 I
3 3
4 64
5−2 =
52 H 4 K H 3K = =
33 27
9. Fractional powers are the roots of a number.
1 1 1
E.g.
252 = 25 = ±5 83 = 3 8 = 2 814 = 4 81 = 3
8. Surds
Surds are expressions containing for example 3 + 6 3 . Expressions like this can
be manipulated into different forms.
E.g . Express in the form a 2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1
= × = = = 2
8 8 2 16 4 2
18 + 3 2 = 2 ( )
9 + 3 = 2 ( 3 + 3) = 6 2
E.g . Express in the form a + b 2

2
(3 + 5 2 ) = (3 + 5 2 ) × (3 + 5 2 ) = 9 + 25 × 2 + 30 2 = 59 + 30 2
E.g. Rationalise the denominator

4+8 3 4+8 3 2 4 2 +8 6
= × = =2 2+4 6
2 2 2 2
9. Sets
• A set is a collection of objects, described by a list or a rule.

A = {1,3,5} B = {cats}
P = { x : 0 ≤ x ≤ 8}
• Each object is an element or a member of the set.

1∈ A, 2 ∉ A
• Sets are equal if they have the same elements.
B = {5,3,1} , B = A
• The number of elements of set A is given by n ( A ) . n ( A) = 3
• The empty set is the set with no members. { } or ∅
• The universal set contains all the
elements being discussed in a
particular problem. E E

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• B is a subset of A if every member A

of B is a member of A B⊂ A B
E
• The complement of set A is the set of

all elements not in A. A′ A
• The intersection of A and B is the set of elements A B

that are in both A and B A∩ B
E
• The union of A and B is the set of elements that are

A B
in A or B or both. A∪ B
E
10. Percentages
“Percent” means out of 100
To calculate a percentage divide the two numbers and multiply by 100%.
15 out of 20 in a test = 15 ÷ 20 x 100% = 75%
To calculate a percentage of a quantity, convert the percentage to a decimal and

multiply by the quantity
30% of 90 = 0.3 x 90 = 27
On a calculator type “30%x90=”
To calculate a percentage increase (or decrease) of a quantity: Convert the

percentage to a decimal and multiply by the quantity.
90 increased by 10% = 90 + 90 x 0.1 = 99 (or 90 x 1.1 = 99)
90 decreased by 10% = 90 – 90 x 0.1 = 81 (or 90 x 0.9 = 81)

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Reverse percentages: What is the value of P if 40% of P is 180?
40/100 x P=180
=> P = 180 x 100 / 40 = 450
11. Ratio
3 sisters win $1 000 000 on the lottery. They divide the winnings in proportion to their
ages: 25, 35, 40. How much does each sister get?
25 + 35 + 40 = 100 parts
$1 000 000 ÷ 100 = $10 000 per part
The money is shared 25 × $10 000, 35 × $10 000, 40 × $10 000
= $250 000, $350 000, $400 000
Example : Express 21: 7 in its simplest form.

Both 21 and 7 are divisible by 7 so 21: 7 = 3 :1
(Could use ABC button on calculator)
Example : Express 3 : 4 in the form 1: n

3 : 4 = 3 ÷ 3 : 4 ÷ 3 =1:1.3
Proportion
Calculating Wages
If a worker is paid £10 an hour, how much does he earn per week if he works 40
hours per week?
Wages = £10 x 40 = £400

Direct proportion example 1:
A bottling machine fills 500 bottles in 15 minutes. How many bottles will it fill in 90 minutes?
1 1
1. Unitary method: 500/15 bottles in 1 minute = 33 /3 in 1 minute => 90 x 33 /3 in 90 mins => 3000
bottles X6
2. Ratio method: (90 x 500) ÷ 15 = 3000 bottles

Minutes 15 90
3. Table method: 90 is 6 times 15, so 6 times 500 is 3000 bottles Bottles 500 3000
X6
Direct proportion example 2:
Divide 20m in the ratio 3:2
There are 5 parts (3+2), so the result is 3/5x20 : 2/5 x 20 = 12m and 8m

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Inverse proportion example:
A cyclist averages a speed of 27 km/h for 4 hours. At what average speed would she
need to cycle to cover the same distance in 3 hours?
Method 1: Completing in 1 hour would require cycling at 27 x 4 km/h = 108 km/h.

Completing in 3 hours requires cycling at 108 ÷ 3 = 36 km/h
Table method: 3 hours is 3/4 times 4, so 27 divided by 3/4 is 36 km/h

÷ 3/4
Speed km/h 27 36
Time h 4 3
X 3/4
Algebraic proportion
Direct proportion.
• y is directly proportional to x
• y∝x
it is written
• This means y = kx , for some fixed value, k .
Example: The extension, y cm, of a spring is directly proportional to the mass x kg hanging from
it. If y =24cm when x =3kg. Find the formula for y in terms of x .
y = kx
⇒ 24 = 3k
⇒k =8
⇒ y = 8x
Inverse proportion.
• y is inversely proportional to x
1
• it is written y ∝
x
k
• This means y = , for some fixed value, k .
x
Non linear proportion
• If the relationship between x and y is not a straight line their relationship is
nonlinear
• Examples y = 2 x 2 , y = 4 x 3 , y = 5 x , y 2 = 7 x3
Example: The distance fallen by a parachutist, y m, is directly proportional to the square of

the time taken, t seconds. If 40m are fallen in 8s, find the formula expressing y in terms of t .
y = kt 2
⇒ 40 = k × 82
⇒ k = 0.625
⇒ y = 0.625t 2

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12. Estimation and Rounding

Remember to round up the number if the discarded number is a 5 or more.
28617 people rounded to the nearest 100 is 28 600

0.0864 to 1 decimal place (d.p.) is 0.1

0.0864 to 2 decimal places (d.p.) is 0.09
0.0864 to 1 significant figure (s.f.) is 0.09

0.0864 to significant figure (s.f.) is 0.0864
7.864 to 1 decimal place (d.p.) is 7.9


43.25 to 1 significant figure (s.f.) is 40

43.25 to 2 significant figures (s.f.) is 43
43.25 to 3 significant figures (s.f.) is 43.3
43.25 to 4 significant figures (s.f.) is 43.25
Estimation: Unless told otherwise it is easiest to round the numbers to 1 s.f. before
calculating:
Example 1:
57 × 246 ≈ 60 × 200
60 × 200 = 12000
Example 2:
6386 ÷ 27 ≈ 6000 ÷ 30
6000 ÷ 30 = 200
12a Value
Each digit in a number has a value based on its position: Consider the number
1234.567
5
The 1 has a value of 1000. The 5 has a value of .
10
6
The 2 has a value of 200 The 6 has a value of .
100
7
The 3 has a value of 30. The 7 has a value of .
1000
The 4 has a value of 4.

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13. Accuracy
If a measurement is rounded, then the actual measurement will be between the

smallest possible number (LOWER BOUND) and the biggest possible number
(UPPER BOUND).
E.g. The length of a rope is 7500cm to the nearest 100cm.

Therefore 7450 <= actual length < 7550.
If the actual length were just less than 7450 it would round down to 7400.
If the actual length were 7550 it would round up to 7600
E.g. A rectangle is 5cm by 7cm measured to the nearest cm. What is the smallest
and largest its area can be:
Smallest = 4.5 × 6.5 = 29.25cm 2
Largest = 5.49 × 7.49 = 41.25cm 2
14. Standard Form
Standard form is a useful way of writing very big or very small numbers. Any number
can be written in standard form.
A × 10n A positive integer for
numbers greater than 1.
Always bigger than (or equal A negative integer for
to) 1 and less than 10 numbers smaller than 1.
E . g. 32000 = 3.2 × 104 0.056 = 5.6 × 10−2
Converting numbers bigger than 10 into standard form.

• Keep dividing by 10 until you get a number smaller than 10, this is A
• n is the number of times you divided by 10
Converting numbers smaller than 1 into standard form.

• Keep multiplying by 10 until you get a number bigger than 1, this is A
• - n is the number of times you multiplied by 10
Calculations using standard form
6 × 108 108
5
= 2 × 5
= 2 × 103 = 2000
3 × 10 10
or with a calculator 6 ×10 x 8 ÷ 3 ×10 x 5 =

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15. Algebra
Letters can be used to represent numbers in equations or variables in formulae. All

the usual rules of arithmetic apply including powers:
p5q3 1
2
= p3q 2 x −5 =
pq x5
When letters are next to each other they are being MULTIPLIED
i.e. ab means a × b
Substitution
Evaluate the expression 2 p + 3q if p = 4 and q = −2
2 p + 3q = 2 × 4 + 3 × ( −2) = 8 − 6 = 2
Collecting Like terms (simplifying!)

2 x + 5 y − 3x + 2 y = 3 y − x
Expanding Brackets
( x + 1)( x + 2) = x 2 + x + 2 x + 2 = x 2 + 3x + 2
( x + 2)( x − 4) = x 2 + 2 x − 4 x − 8 = x 2 − 2 x − 8
Difference of two squares ( a + b )( a − b ) = a 2 − b2

Factorising (the opposite of expanding brackets)
8 x 2 y − 4 xy 2 = 4 xy (2 x − y )
Rearranging formulae
Rearrange the formula to make p the subject:
2r + p = q
⇒ p = q − 2r
The basic rule for rearranging formulae or equations is to “do the same thing to
both sides”. I.e.:
• Add the same thing to both sides
• Subtract the same thing from both sides
• Multiply both sides by the same thing
• Divide both sides by the same thing
• Apply a function to both sides (e.g. square or square root)

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Algebraic Fractions
Algebraic fractions follow all the normal rules of fractions. I.e. you can manipulate
them in exactly the same way:
a c ad + bc
+ ≡
b d bd
a c ad − bc
− ≡
b d bd
a c ac
× ≡
b d bd
a c ad
÷ ≡
b d bc
Examples:
1 y 3x + y 2
+ =
y 3x 3 xy
2 4 2 y − 4x
− =
x y xy
2 4 8
× =
x y xy
2 4 y
÷ =
x y 2x

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16. Equations
Solving linear equations
3 x = 2 x − 4 ⇒ 3 x − 2 x = −4 ⇒ x = −4
Check
b g
3 × −4 = −12
2 × b−4g − 4 ⇒ −8 − 4 = −12 OK
Solving Linear and Quadratic Simultaneous Equations:
Solve y = 4 x2
y = 6 − 5x
Combine the two equations to make a quadratic in either x or y and then solve
y = 4 x2
y = 6 − 5x
⇒ 4 x2 = 6 − 5 x
⇒ 4 x2 + 5 x − 6 = 0
⇒ ( 4 x − 3 )( x + 2 ) = 0
3
⇒ x = −2 or
4
9
y = 4 x 2 = 16 or
4
If the quadratic doesn't factorise, use the formula.

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Solving Simultaneous Equations
Elimination Method 3x + y = 9 (1)

5x − y = 7 (2)
Add equations (1) and (2)
⇒ 8 x = 16 ⇒ x = 2
Sustitute x = 2 into equation (2)
⇒ 10 − y = 7 ⇒ y = 3
Check (1) 3 × 2 + 3 = 9 OK
Substitution Method
3x + y = 9 (1)
5x − y = 7 (2)
Rearrange equations (2)
⇒ y = 5x − 7
Substitute y = 5x − 7 into equation (1)
⇒ 3x + 5x − 7 = 9 ⇒ 8 x = 16 ⇒ x = 2
Substitute x = 2 into y = 5x − 7
⇒ y = 5× 2 − 7 = 3
Check (2) 5 × 2 − 3 = 7 OK
Solving Quadratic Equations by Factorising – Examples
1. x 2 + 7 x = 0 ⇒ x ( x + 7) = 0 ⇒ x = 0,−7
1
2. 3x 2 − x = 0 ⇒ x (3x − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = 0,
3
3. x 2 − 49 = 0 ⇒ x = 49 = ±7
4 2
4. 9 x 2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ 9 x 2 = 4 ⇒ x 2 = ⇒ x = ±
9 3
3
5. 6a − 9a = 0 ⇒ 3a (2a − 3) = 0 ⇒ a = 0,
2
2
1 1
6. 16 x 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 16 x 2 = 1 ⇒ x 2 = ⇒ x = ±
16 4
5
7. 56 x 2 − 35x = 0 ⇒ 7 x (8 x − 5) = 0 ⇒ x = 0,
8
8. x 2 = 6 x ⇒ x = 0, x = 6
3 3
9. 2 x 2 = 3x ⇒ x 2 = x ⇒ x = 0,
2 2
10. 4 x = x 2 ⇒ x = 0,4
Solving Quadratic Equations using the formula. This is only done if the equation
cannot be factorised.
Example: 2 x 2 − 3x − 4 = 0
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 In this case a = 2, b = −3, c = −4
2 − ( −3) ± ( −3) 2 − (4 × 2 × −4)

−b ± b − 4ac x=
2×2
x=
2a 3 ± 9 + 32 3 ± 41 3 ± 6.403
x= = =
4 4 4
x = 2.35 or − 0.85 (to 2 d.p.)

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17. Inequalities
Linear Inequalities: You can solve inequalities in the same way as equations
by doing the same thing to both sides. Except when you multiply (or divide) by
a negative number, the inequality sign is reversed.
Example: Solve the following inequality, showing the result on the number
line
2 ( x − 1) ≤ 5 ( x − 2 )
Method 1: Method 2:
2 ( x − 1) ≤ 5 ( x − 2 ) 2 ( x − 1) ≤ 5 ( x − 2 )
2 x − 2 ≤ 5 x − 10 2 x − 2 ≤ 5 x − 10 2
2
−2 ≤ 3 x − 10 −3 x − 2 ≤ −10 3
8 ≤ 3x −3 x ≤ −8
2 −8
2 ≤x x≥
3 −3
2
x≥2
3
Note: On the number line a solid circle means ≤ or ≥ . An open circle means
< or >.
If there are two inequalities (e.g. 3 < 2 x + 1 ≤ 7 ) then divide the inequality
into two parts (e.g. 3 < 2 x + 1 and 2 x + 1 ≤ 7 ):
3 < 2 x + 1 ⇒ 2 < 2 x ⇒ 1 < x and 2 x + 1 ≤ 7 ⇒ 2 x ≤ 6 ⇒ x ≤ 3

So the solution is 1 < x ≤ 3
Quadratic Inequalities (advanced): Sketch the graph of the quadratic

function to find the critical values. If one part of the number line is required,
the answer is one inequality. If two parts are required, the answer is two
inequalities.
Example: Solve x 2 + x − 2 ≤ 0
y
10
x2 + x − 2 ≤ 0
8
( x + 2 )( x − 1) ≤ 0
6
⇒ curve crosses x axis at − 2 and + 1
⇒ −2 ≤ x ≤ 1 4
– 4– 3– 2– 1 1 2 3 4 x
– 2
Extended IGCSE maths revision notes 17 2 18-Feb-13

y = x + x – 2
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Simultaneous Inequalities:
Inequalities can be shown graphically by shading regions to identify solutions

in unshaded regions.
• A solid line means solutions can lie on the line

• A dotted line means solutions cannot lie on the line
Example: Solve the following inequalities by drawing suitable lines and

shading unwanted regions.
x ≥ 1, y ≥ 2 and x + y < 4
y
5
4.5
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
– 6 – 4 – 2 2 4 6 x

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18. Sequences
A sequence is an ordered set of numbers. Each number in the sequence is known as a term.
The terms of some sequences form a pattern.
For example the sequence of numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 has a difference of +2 between

successive terms. The rule to find the next term is therefore +2.
In order to find the pattern you can look to see if the difference between each term is the
same. If this is not true, then take the second differences. E.g.:
3 6 13 28 55
st
1 differences 3 7 15 27
nd
2 differences 4 8 12
th
To find the n term in a sequence you again need to recognise the pattern. This allows you
to calculate the value of a term without having to work out the whole sequence.
It is sometimes easier to use a table:
Position 1 2 3 4 5 n
Term 3 6 9 12 15 ?
th
The n term can be seen to be 3n.
Firstly find the term-to-term rule
12 16 20 24
st
1 differences +4 +4 +4
So the term-to-term rule is: +4 to the previous term
This number is put next to n to give a first guess of +4n
st
Now calculate the 1 term when n=1. Here +4x1=4
But the first term should be 12 so we need to add 8:
So nth term = 4n+8
Sometimes you need to spot similarities between two sequences. For example the sequence
th
below is the same as the one above but with 1 subtracted each time. The n term is therefore
3n-1.
Position 1 2 3 4 5 n
Term 2 5 8 11 14 ?
The sequence below is quite common. It is the Fibonnaci sequence. It can start off with any
two numbers. The next term is found by adding together the previous two terms.
3, 7, 10, 17, 27, 44 …

© ASEW 2012
distance
19. Speed Speed =
time
Example 1: A car travels 120km in 2 hours. What is its average speed in km/h?
distance 120
Speed = ⇒ Speed = = 60km / h
time 2
Example 2: A car travels for 40 minutes at a speed of 20m/s. How far does it travel?
distance s
Speed = ⇒ 20 =
time 40 × 60
⇒ s = 20 × 40 × 60 = 48000m = 48km
Example 3: A journey is 40 km long. If you travel at 60km/h, how long will the
journey take?
distance 40
Speed = ⇒ 60 =
time t
40
⇒t = = 0.6hours = 40 minutes
60
20. Calculator
Practice using your calculator. Read the manual to make sure you can use it
properly. As a minimum you should be able to use the following buttons if your
calculator has them:
square root ( ), square ( x 2 ), cube ( x 3 ), cubed root ( 3 )

Sine (sin), Cosine (cos), Tangent (tan)
Inverse sine (sin -1 ), inverse cosine (cos-1 ), inverse tangent (tan -1 )
y to the power of x ( y x ), x th root of y ( x y)
Fraction (A B C), π , change sign (+ / -)
reciprocal (1 x ), standard form (Expx ), ×,÷ ,+,-,=
×10
In addition if your calculator has different modes, make sure you know how to change
them. In particular for trigonometry you need to be in “degrees” mode, this is the
default, but if you accidentally end up in the wrong mode you will be in trouble!
21. Units
Length: mm, cm, m, km
2 2 2 2
Area: mm , cm , m , km
3 3 3
Volume: mm , cm , m
Conversion between units
1km = 1000m 1m=100cm 1cm=10mm

2 2 2 2 2 2
1km = 1000000m 1m =10000cm 1cm =100mm
3 3 3 3 3
1litre = 1000 cm 1m =1000000cm 1cm =1000mm

© ASEW 2012
22. Time
The 24 hour clock starts from 0000 at midnight and goes to 2359 at 1 minute to midnight. Midday is
1200. 6am is 0600.
If you need to calculate the length of time between two times, you need to remember that the first two
digits are in hours and the last two digits are in minutes. Eg.
A train leaves at 0715, the journey lasts 55 minutes. When does it arrive?
15 minutes + 55 minutes = 70 minutes = 1 hour and 10 minutes
7 + 1 hours and 10 minutes = 0810
23. Money
The conversion rate is £1=140/-
Example 1: If I convert £20 into Ksh, how many Ksh do I get?
20 × 140 = 2800 / −
Example 2: If I convert 112 000/- to pounds. How many pounds do I get?
112000 ÷ 140 = £800

24. Profit
Profit: I buy an item for 40/-, I sell it for 60/-.

Profit = Sell price - Buy price = 60 - 40 = 20 / -
Profit 20
% Profit = × 100% = × 100% = 50%
Buy price 40
If profit < 0 it is a loss. I.e. a profit of -$4 is a loss of $4.
25. Interest
Simple interest = amount invested x interest rate x time
Example 1: $500 invested for 4 years at a simple interest of 5% per year:

Simple interest = $500 x 0.05 x 4 = $100
Example 2: I borrow $1000 for 5 years at an interest rate of 6%. How much interest
do I pay?
Interest = $1000 x 0.06 x 5 = $300
Interest rates are normally stated in % per year. E.g. 5% per year. The same thing
can be written 5%pa.
Compound interest
With compound interest you earn interest on the money you put in and also
on the interest received previously. Calculations are best done using a
multiplier. E.g. If you invest £200 at 12% interest pa compound after 4 years
you will have: 200 × 1.124 = £314.70

© ASEW 2012
26. Graphs
Distance – Time graphs
Distance (m)
60
at rest
50
40 Constant velocity
30
20
10 accelerating
0 20 40 60 80 10
Time (s)
The velocity is the slope (gradient) of the distance time graph. Negative gradients show the object is
coming back to where it came from.
Example:
Distance (m)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 20 40 60 80 10
Time (s)
What is the speed of the object?
At t=10, distance = 60. Gradient = speed = 60/10=6m/s
NB: Questions often show different phases of a journey. E.g. acceleration then constant speed, then
deceleration, then rest. You need to interpret each part of the journey separately.

© ASEW 2012
Conversion Graphs
Shillings
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Pounds
Using the graph above you can see that £3.50=500/- and 900/- = £6.40
27. Graphs of functions
Coordinates
Coordinates are written (x,y). E.g. (2, 3) means the point 2 along the x axis (to the
right) and 3 up the y axis.
y
5
3 (2,3)
-2 - 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
-
-2

© ASEW 2012
Drawing accurate graphs
Example 1: Draw the graph of y = 2x – 3 for values of x from –2 to +4

y = 2x -3
a) Draw up a table of values 5
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 4
3
2x -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 2
-3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 -3 1
y -7 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1-1 1 2 3 4 5
-2
b) Draw and label the axes using suitable scales -3
c) Plot the points and draw a line through them. -4
Label the line with its equation. -5
The above technique can be used on all types of curves as well as straight lines.
Example 2: Draw the graph of 3x + 4y = 12.
a) Find out where the graph crosses the x axis. Put 5
y=0 => 3x=12 => x=4 4

3x + 4y = 12
3
So one point is (4,0) 2
b) Find out where the graph crosses the y axis. Put 1
x=0 => 4y=12 => y=3 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1-1 1 2 3 4 5
So another point is (0,3) -2
c) Plot the points, join them with a line and label the -3
line. -4
-5
Example 3: 3
7. y = 3( x − 2) for − 3 ≤ x ≤ 3
-3 3
x = 3, y = 3 × 1 = 3 -6
x = −3, y = 3 × −5 = −15
-15
1 5.5
8. y = x + 4 for − 3 ≤ x ≤ 3
2
2.5
x = 3, y = 15
. + 4 = 55
.
x = −3, y = −15. + 4 = 2.5 -3 3
Gradients
B(6,5)
5
difference y coordinates 4
gradient = 3
difference x coordinates 2 C(6,2)
1 A(1,2)
5− 2 3
gradient = = -5 -4 -3 -2 -1-1 1 2 3 4 5
6−1 5 -2
-3
-4
-5

© ASEW 2012
Midpoint of a line segment
The half way point on a line is called its midpoint. The midpoint of line AB with
 x1 + x2 y1 + y2 
coordinates A = ( x1 , y1 ) and B = ( x2 , y2 ) is  , 
 2 2 
Example: Find the midpoint of PQ when P = (1, 2 ) and Q = ( 5, 6 ) .

 1+ 5 2 + 6 
 ,  = ( 3, 4 )
 2 2 
Generalised Equation of a Straight Line
The general equation for a straight line is y = mx + c where m is the gradient

and c is where the line crosses the y axis.
e.g. y = 3x + 2 has a gradient of 3 and crosses the y axis at 2
When two lines are parallel they have the same gradient
e.g. y = 7 x + 2 is parallel to y = 7 x − 2
When two lines cross at a right angle they are perpendicular. Their gradients are the
negative reciprocal of the other.
1
e.g. y = 7x + 2 y = − x+9
is perpendicular to
7
1
because 7 is the negative reciprocal of −
7

© ASEW 2012
Solving Equations with graphs
You can solve simultaneous equations by plotting them on a graph and finding where
they cross:
Example: Solve y = 3x + 2, y = -x + 7. Draw the two lines (as explained before).

From the graph you can see that they meet at (1.2,5.8). Therefore x=1.2 and y=5.8
y
y = 3x + 2
2 y= −x+7
- 0 2 4 6 x

© ASEW 2012
Plotting Quadratic Graphs and others (e.g. reciprocal or exponential)
For GCSE these are usually done by filling in a table of values and then plotting the
curve.
Example:
a. Complete the table of values for y = x 2 − 5

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 4 -1 -4 -5 -4 -1 4
b. Draw the graph of y = x 2 − 5 5

y
for x = −3 to x = 3 . 4
3
2
1
– 3 – 2 – 1 1 2 3 x
– 1
– 2
– 3
– 4
– 5
2
y = x – 5
c. Write down the equation of the line of symmetry of your graph.

The line of symmetry is x = 0
d. Write down the coordinates of the minimum point.

The minimum is (0, -5).
Key Points on a Quadratic Graph

line of symmetry The roots are the x values
y where the graph crosses the x
axis.
The y intercept is the y value

where the graph crosses the y
y intercept axis.
roots
The vertex is the
x
lowest (minimum) or
highest (maximum)
point of the graph.
vertex

© ASEW 2012
28. Angles
Acute: Angle is smaller than 90 degrees

Obtuse: Angle is greater than 90 and smaller than 180 degrees
Reflex: Angle is greater than 180 and smaller than 360 degrees
Right angle: Angle is equal to 90 degrees
If two lines are perpendicular they meet at right angles.
If two lines are parallel, they never meet and are always the same distance apart.

© ASEW 2012
29. Congruence and Similarity
Two polygons are said to be similar if the following are both true:
a) their angles are the same
b) their corresponding sides are in proportion
The scale factor is the ratio of the lengths of the sides

The area factor is the scale factor squared
The volume factor is the scale factor cubed
Two polygons are congruent if their angles and corresponding sides are the same.
30. Constructions 2 3
Constructing a triangle
with sides 5,6,7 cm:
1. Draw a line 6cm long with a ruler 5cm 7cm

2. Set compasses to 5cm and draw an arc
3. Set compasses to 7cm and draw an arc
4. Draw line 4 5
5. Draw line
6c
m
Bisecting an angle:
1. Set your compasses to any length

2. Put point in the corner of the angle and draw two arcs, one on
one line and one on the other
3. Move the point of the compasses to where the arc crosses the
first line. Draw another arc.
4. Repeat for the other line/arc
5. Draw a line from the corner of the angle to where the two arcs
meet.
6. This line bisects the angle (cuts it in half)
Perpendicular Bisector of a line:
1. Set your compasses to any length longer than half the length of
the line.
2. Put point in one end of the line and draw one arc above the line
and one below.
3. Repeat for the other end of the line
4. Draw a line between where each pair of arcs crosses
5. This line bisects the first line (cuts it in half) at right angles

© ASEW 2012
To do scale drawings:
1. Work out the scale. I.e if 1cm represents 1m then the scale is 1:100. Each length
on the drawing represents 100 times its length in the real world.
2. Scale drawings must be constructed accurately using geometrical instruments to
be as exact as possible.
3. Lengths should be accurate to 1mm and angles to the nearest degree.
Constructing Angles
1. Right angle: construct the perpendicular bisector.

2. 60 degrees: construct an equilateral triangle.
3. Other angles can be made by bisecting or combining 90 and 60 degrees.
31. Symmetry
Isosceles Right angled Equilateral Scalene

Triangle Triangle Triangle Triangle
A line of symmetry divides a two-dimensional shape into two identical (congruent)

shapes
A two-dimensional shape has rotational symmetry if, when rotated about its central
point, it fits its outline. The number of times it fits its outline during a complete
revolution is called the order of rotational symmetry.
E.g.
Rotational symmetry of Rotational symmetry of

order 2 order 4

© ASEW 2012
32. Quadrilaterals
Quadrilaterals are shapes which have 4 straight sides. Some common quadrilaterals
have special names:
Name Shape Properties

Parallelogram • 2 pairs of parallel sides
• Opposite angles equal
• Opposite sides equal
Rectangle • All angles 900
• Opposite sides equal and
parallel
• Diagonals equal
Square • All angles 900
• All sides equal
• Opposite sides parallel
• Diagonals equal and cross at
900
Rhombus • 2 pairs of parallel sides
• Opposite angles equal
• All sides equal
• Diagonals cross at 900
Kite • 2 pairs of equal adjacent
sides
• 1 pair of opposite angles
equal
• Diagonals cross at 900
Trapezium • 1 pair of parallel sides
33. Angle properties
1. Angles in a triangle add up to 180 degrees. a + b + c = 1800
b c
2. Adjacent angles on a straight line add up to 180 degrees. a + b + c = 1800
b
a c
3. Alternate angles are equal.

© ASEW 2012
4. Corresponding angles are equal.

b
a
b
b
5. Vertically opposite angles are equal.
7. Supplementary angles add
up to 1800. a + b = 1800
a a
6. Angles at a point add up to 360 degrees. a + b + c + d = 3600
d b
34. Polygon Properties
Regular polygon: all sides are equal and all angles are equal.
Sum of interior angles in a polygon (180x(n-2)). This is basically the number of

triangles that make up the polygon x 180 degrees.
Exterior angle is 360 degrees / n.
Interior angle = 1800 – Exterior angle
Polygon names:
Sides Name
3 Triangle
4 Quadrilateral
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
8 Octagon
9 Nonagon
10 Decagon

© ASEW 2012
35. Angle in circle properties

a
a
[ADVANCED] Angles in the same segment

0
The angle in a semicircle is always 90 . are equal
a
b
a
c
a + d = 180
0 O
0
d c + b = 180 2a
[ADVANCED] Opposite angles in a

cyclical quadrilateral add up to [ADVANCED] The angle at the centre
0
180 . is double that at the edge, made from
the same two points
O
A radius bisects a chord at 90o
36. Tangent to circle properties
a
a

© ASEW 2012
37. Locus (see Construction)

Draw loci which are:
• A fixed distance from a point: Set your compasses to the distance and draw a
circle around the point.
• Equidistant from two points: Imagine there is a line joining the two points.
Bisect the line as explained before in section 30. This new line is equidistant from
the two points.
• Equidistant from two intersecting lines: Bisect the angle where they meet.
This line is equidistant from both lines.
• A fixed distance from a line (advanced). Use a set square (or pair of
compasses) to construct a perpendicular line at each end of the line. Measure the
fixed distance along this line and mark it. Join the two marks together with a ruler.
You have constructed a line parallel to and a fixed distance from the original line.
38. Perimeter, Area and Volume

Perimeter is the distance all the way round the outside of a shape.
Circle Diameter = 2r Radius = r

r
Area = π r 2
Circumference = 2π r
Rectangle
Width Area = Length x Width
Perimeter = 2 x (Length + width)

Length
Square
side Area = side x side
Perimeter = 4 x side
side
Parallelogram
Vertical Area = length x vertical height
height
length
Trapezium
a
Vertical Area = ½ (a+b) x vertical height

height
b
Triangle
Vertical Area = ½ base x vertical height

height
base
Kite
Diagonal b Area = ½ diagonal a x diagonal b
Diagonal a
© ASEW 2012
To calculate complex areas: divide them into simple shapes, calculate the area of
the simple shapes and then add the answers together.
To calculate the area of a shape with a hole in it: Calculate the area of the hole
and the main shape, subtract the area of the hole from the area of the main shape.
Volume and Surface Area
Cuboid
Volume = length × width × height = lwh

Surface Area = 2 × (lw + wh + lh)
h
l w
Prism
Volume = Cross Sectional Area × length
Cylinder
Volume = πr 2 l
Surface Area = 2πr 2 + 2πrl
r l
l
Pyramid h
Cone
1
Volume = base area × height h r
3 1
Volume = π r 2 h
3
Area Curved Surface Area = π rl l = slant height
Sphere
4 r
V = π r 3 SA = 4π r 2
3

© ASEW 2012
39. Bearings
Angles and bearings
Bearings are always measured in a clockwise direction from North. They are usually
written using three figures.
N
N The bearing of B from A is 0620. The bearing of A
from B is 2420; this is the reciprocal bearing of B
from A.
1180 B
62 0
2420
A
40. Trigonometry
ADVANCED TRIGONOMETRY
When triangles ARE NOT RIGHT ANGLED the Sine or Cosine Rule must be used.
Sine Rule
a b c
= =
SinA SinB SinC
or
SinA SinB SinC
= =
a b c
Cosine Rule
b
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A g
b 2 = c2 + a 2 − b2ac cos B g
c2 = a 2 + b2 − b2ab cos C g
B
Area of a triangle
c a
Area = ½ ab sin C
A C
b

© ASEW 2012
Basic Trigonometry for Right Angled Triangles only
Pythagoras
Use to find the 3rd side, if you already know two sides
Pythagoras Theorem a
b
a 2 = b2 + c2
c
Example 1: Find the length of the missing side.
10 102 = 52 + x 2
5
⇒ 100 = 25 + x 2
x ⇒ x = 75 = 8.66 (3 sf )
Example 2: Find the length of the missing side.
x x 2 = 52 + 122
5
⇒ x 2 = 25 + 144
12 ⇒ x = 169 = 13
Length of a Line Segment
The length AB is:
22 + 32 = 4 + 9 = 13

© ASEW 2012
Labelling a right angled triangle
1. The Hypotenuse is the longest side, it is always opposite the

right angle. H
2. The Adjacent side is the side which is not the hypotenuse, O
touching the given angle. θ
3. The Opposite is the remaining side (opposite the given A
angle).
Examples:
O
H
O
A
30 60 H
A

© ASEW 2012
SOH, CAH, TOA Finding missing sides

The following identities can be used for ALL RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLES.
Opposite Adjacent Opposite ON

Sinθ = Cosθ = Tanθ = FORMULA
Hypotenuse Hypotenuse Adjacent SHEET
Using these identities to find a side:
1. Label the triangle

2. Choose which identity to use by choosing the one which contains the side you
know and the side you need to find.
3. Use the formula
4. If you need to find the last side of a right angled triangle use Pythagoras
Example 1: Find the length of x .

O x
Sin20 = =
H 15
x H 15
⇒ x = 15 × Sin20 = 5.13
O
20 Calc : 1 5 × Sin 2 0 =
A
Example 2: Find the length of x .

A x
Cos 20 = =
H 15
H 15
⇒ x = 15 × Cos 20 = 14.1
O
20 Calc : 1 5 × Cos 2 0 =
A x
Example 3: Find the length of x . O x

Tan30 = =
A 18
x H ⇒ x = 18 × Tan30 = 10.4
O
Calc : 1 8 × Tan 3 0 =
30
A 18
Example 4: Find the length of x . O 15

Tan20 = =
A x
15 H ⇒ xTan20 = 15
O
15
20 ⇒x= = 41.2
Tan20
x A
Calc : 1 5 ÷ Tan 2 0 =

© ASEW 2012
SOH, CAH, TOA finding an angle:

1. Label the triangle
2. Choose which identity to use by choosing the one which contains the two side
you know.
3. Use the formula.
4. Remember to use the inverse of sin/cos/tan as a final step.
5. If you need to find the last angle in a triangle do not use SOH, CAH, TOA,
instead take away the two angles you know from 180 degrees.
Example 1: Find the angle θ .

A 17
Cosθ = = = 0.85
H 20
H 20
O ⇒ θ = Cos −10.85 = 31.8
θ Calc : shift Cos 0 . 8 5 =
A 17

O 18
Tanθ = = = 0.72
A 25
H
⇒ θ = Tan −10.72 = 35.8
18 O
θ Calc : shift Tan 0 . 7 2 =
A 25

24
Sinθ = = 0.6857
35
H 35
⇒ θ = Sin −10.6857 = 43.3
24 O
θ Calc : shift Sin 0 . 6 8 5 7 =
A

© ASEW 2012
41. Statistics
Bar Charts are used to display discrete data (i.e. data you can count). The height of
each bar indicates the frequency. The bars are separate, they do not touch each
other.
Pie Charts
A sector of a circle
represents the number of
packets of crisps that are sold. The total number of packets sold is 120. This is
represented by the angle at the centre of the circle, 3600. So 1 packet is represented
by 3600 ÷ 120 = 30 and the sector angle for Plain Crisps = 42 x 30 = 1260
The other angles are:
Sale of Crisps
Smoky Bacon = 28 x 30 = 840
Cheese and Onion = 20 x 30 = 600
Salt and Vinegar = 16 x 30 = 480 Roast Chicken
Roast Beef = 4 x 30 = 120 Roast Beef
Roast Chicken = 10 x 30 = 300 Salt and Vinegar Plain
In order to double check your calculations you should add Cheese and
up all the calculated angles (126 + 84 + 60 + 48 + 12 + Onion
30) to check they add up to 3600. Smoky Bacon
To draw the pie chart: Mark the centre. Draw a circle using a pair of compasses.
Mark one radius. Measure and mark the first angle from the radius. Draw in the line.
Repeat for the next angle, using the line you have just drawn as the measuring point.
Statistics
• Mode is the commonest number
• Mean means add up all the numbers and divide by how many numbers you have.
• Median is the middle number when all the numbers are put in ascending order.
• Range is the biggest number minus the smallest number.
Example 1: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7,7
Mode = 7
Mean = (1+2+3+4+5+7+7)/7 = 29/7 = 4.1 (to 1d.p.)
Median = 4
Range = 7-1 = 6

© ASEW 2012
Example 2: 36 people were asked how many books they had read the previous year.
The results are shown in the frequency table. Calculate the mean number of books
read per person.
Number of books read (x) 0 1 2 3 4

Frequency (f) 5 5 6 9 11
fx 0 5 12 27 44
The sum of all the fx = 0 + 5 + 12 + 27 + 44 = 88

Mean = Sum of fx / n = 88 / 36 = 2.4 (to 1 d.p.)
[ADVANCED] Example 3: Each of the 36 potatoes in a bag was weighed to the

nearest gram and the following table drawn up. Calculate the estimated mean
weight of a potato.
Mass 50-99 100-149 150-199 200-249 250-299

Number of potatoes (f) 5 5 6 9 11
Middle value (x) 75 125 175 225 275
fx 375 625 1050 2025 3025
The sum of all the fx = 375 + 625 + 1050 + 2025 + 3025 = 7100
Estimated Mean = Sum of fx / n = 7100 / 36 = 197.2 (to 1 d.p.)
The modal group (or modal class) is the one with the largest frequency
Discrete data is data you can count. Continuous data is data you can
measure
Line Graphs
Line graphs are usually used in statistics to show how data changes over a period of
time. One use is to indicate trends.

© ASEW 2012
42. Probability
• If something is certain to happen its probability is 1.

• If it is impossible for something to happen its probability is 0.
• Probability of an event = number of favourable outcomes / total number of
equally likely outcomes
• Probability of an event not happening is 1 minus the probability of the event
happening.
• If you draw up a diagram listing everything that could happen, this is known
as a sample space diagram.
e.g. The results for tossing two coins are: HH, TT, HT, TH
• Some probability questions can be solved by a probability table or a

probability tree
E.g. Possible results in throwing two coins:
½ H P(HH) = ½ x ½ = ¼
½ H ½
T P(HT) = ½ x ½ = ¼
½ ½
H P(TH) = ½ x ½ = ¼
T
½
T P(TT) = ½ x ½ = ¼
For tree diagrams Multiply going across (AND), Add going down (OR)
• Events are mutually exclusive if they cannot occur at the same time.
• Events are independent if the occurrence of one event is unaffected by the
occurrence of the other.
• The OR rule P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
• E.g. Tossing a coin and throwing a dice. P (Head OR 3) = P(Head) + P(3) =
½ + 1/6 = 4/6 = 2/3
• The AND rule P(A and B) = P(A) x P(B)
• E.g. Tossing a coin and throwing a dice. P (Head AND 3) = P(Head) X P(3) =
½ X 1/6 = 1/12
Relative Frequency
If you do an experiment to measure probability it is called Relative Frequency.
Number of successful trials

Relative Frequency =
Total number of trials
You can work out what you expect to happen by multiplying the relative
frequency by the number of trials.
Example: if the relative frequency of rain is 0.2. How many times do you
expect it to rain in 10 days? 0.2 ×10 = 2 times

© ASEW 2012
43. Vectors
Add vectors and multiply vectors by a number
Vectors have BOTH magnitude AND direction. They are commonly used to
represent Forces, velocities and displacements.
Addition
b
a
a a+b
b
The ‘tail’ of vector b is joined to the ‘nose’ of vector a or vice versa
Multiplication by a scalar.
A scalar quantity has magnitude (size), but no direction (e.g. mass, volume,
temperature). Ordinary numbers are scalars.
When vector x is multiplied by 2 the result is 2x
x 2x
When vector x is multiplied by –3 the result is –3x.

x -3x
Note a negative sign reverses the direction of the vector.
Column Vectors
C
The vectors can be written as column vectors
2 FG IJ 5FG IJ D
CD =
−3 H K AB =
2 HK B
A
we can then add or subtract them
FG IJ FG IJ FG IJ
2 5 7
CD + AB =
H K HK H K
−3
+
2
=
−1
F 5I F 2 I F 3I
AB − CD = G J − G J = G J
H 2K H −3K H 5K
or multiply by a scalar
5 10FG IJ FG IJ
2 × AB = 2
2
=
4 HK H K

© ASEW 2012
Vectors are parallel if they have the same direction. Both components of one vector
must be in the same ratio to the corresponding components of the parallel vector.
FG 3 IJ is parallel to FG 6 IJ
e.g.
H −5K H −10K
because G
F 6 IJ may be written as 2FG 3 IJ
H −10K H −5K
F aI F aI
In general the vector k G J is parallel to G J
H bK H bK
Modulus of a vector
The modulus of a vector a is written a and represents the magnitude (length) of the vector.
5 FG IJ
AB =
2 HK B
A
By Pythagoras' Theorem, AB = 52 + 2 2 = 29
FG mIJ , x = m2 + n 2
In general if x =
H nK
44. Transformations
Tracing paper is very useful. You can always ask for it in an exam.
If an object is reflected it undergoes a ‘flip’ movement about a dashed line known as

the mirror line. A point on the object and its equivalent point on the image are the
same perpendicular distance from the mirror line. It is necessary to define the mirror
line.
If an object is rotated it undergoes a ‘turning’ movement about a specific point known

as the centre of rotation. It is necessary to define the angle of rotation and the
direction of the turn and the centre of rotation.
If an object is translated, it undergoes a ‘sliding’ movement. It is necessary to define

a translation vector.
If an object is enlarged, the result is an image which is similar, but of a different size.
The image may either be smaller or larger than the original. It is necessary to define
the position of the centre of enlargement and the scale factor of the enlargement.
If the scale factor of enlargement is negative the image is on the other side of the
centre of enlargement.

© ASEW 2012
45. 3D Trigonometry – Worked examples
E
A F
X
D
B
C
ABF is a triangle on the diagonal plane of a cuboid. AB=3m, BC=5m, CD=8m. F, the
apex of the triangle is the midpoint of ED. X is the midpoint of AB.
F 1) What is the height FX triangle AFB?
FX = DB = BC 2 + CD 2 = 52 + 82
FX = 89 = 9.43m
2) What is the area of triangle AFB?
1 1
θ Area = base × height = × 3 × 9.43 = 14.145m2
A B 2 2
X
3) Find the angle θ
Opposite 9.43
Sinθ = = = 0.9874
Hypotenuse 9.55
⇒ Sinθ = 81

© ASEW 2012
46. Cumulative Frequency
The table gives information about the ages, in years, of the 90 members of a sports
club.
Age Frequency
( t years)
0 < t ≤ 10 6
10 < t ≤ 20 32
20 < t ≤ 30 24
30 < t ≤ 40 18
40 < t ≤ 50 10
Cumulative frequency table.

(use the frequency information. Cumulative frequency is frequency so far)
Age Frequency Cumulative

( t years) Frequency
0 < t ≤ 10 6 6
10 < t ≤ 20 32 32+6=38
20 < t ≤ 30 24 24+38=62
30 < t ≤ 40 18 18+62=80
40 < t ≤ 50 10 10+80=90
Plot the Cumulative frequency curve y

by using the ENDs of the intervals. 100
E.g. here the coordinates are: (0,0) 90

X
(10,6) (20,38) (30,62) (40,80) (50,90).
Join the points with a smooth curve. It Cumulative
80
X
70
is normally “S” shaped. Frequency
60 X
You can estimate the median by going 50
half way to the max cumulative 40
frequency and reading off the value X

30
from the x axis. 20
10
Similarly you can find the upper X
quartile by going three quarters to the 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 x
max cumulative frequency and reading Age

off the value from the x axis.
Similarly you can find the lower quartile by going one quarter to the max cumulative
frequency and reading off the value from the x axis.
The interquartile range is the upper quartile minus the lower quartile. In the
example here it is 32-15=17 years.

© ASEW 2012
47. Histograms
Differences between histograms and bar charts
Bar Chart Histogram

Frequency Represented by bar height Represented by area
Vertical axis Frequency Frequency Density
Column widths Always the same Can be different
Frequency
Frequency Density =
width of group
Example:
Time, t (min) Number of
children, f
A survey revealed these results for the time 0 ≤ t < 30 6
spent on homework for a Wednesday night
30 ≤ t < 60 12
by a group of 60 children. Calculate the
60 ≤ t < 80 18
frequency density for each group and
80 ≤ t < 100 12
construct a histogram to display the results.
100 ≤ t < 120 9
120 ≤ t < 180 3
Time, t (min) Number of children, f Group Width Frequency Density

0 ≤ t < 30 6 30 0.2
30 ≤ t < 60 12 30 0.4
60 ≤ t < 80 18 20 0.9
80 ≤ t < 100 12 20 0.6
100 ≤ t < 120 9 20 0.45
120 ≤ t < 180 3 60 0.05
Frequency Homework Histogram

Density
1
0.5
0 30 60 80 100 120 180

Time (min)

© ASEW 2012
48. Functions
An expression such as 5 x − 2 , in which the variable x , is called a function of x . We can

write this as f ( x) = 5 x − 2 or f : x → 5 x − 2 .
This can also be shown as a flow diagram:
x X5 -2 f ( x)
Example 1: If f ( x) = 5 x − 2 , evaluate f (0) and f (3)
f (0) = 5 × 0 − 2 = 0 − 2 = −2
f (3) = 5 × 3 − 2 = 15 − 2 = 13
3x + 4 1
Example 2: For the function f : x → , evaluate f   and f (−2)
2 3
1
3× + 4
1 3 1+ 4
f  = = = 2.5
 
3 2 2
3 × ( −2 ) + 4 −6 + 4 −2
f ( −2 ) = = = = −1
2 2 2
Composite Functions: If you apply function g ( x ) followed by function f ( x ) this is

written fg ( x ) .
Example 3: If f ( x ) = x + 4 and g ( x ) = x − 6 , find fg ( x ) and evaluate fg ( 3)
fg ( x ) = f ( x − 6 ) = x − 6 + 4 = x − 2
fg ( 3) = 3 − 2 = 1
x
Example 4: If f ( x ) = 6 x + 4 and g ( x ) = , find fg ( x ) and evaluate fg ( 4 )
2
 x  6x
fg ( x ) = f   = + 4 = 3x + 4
2 2
fg ( 4 ) = 3 × 4 + 4 = 16

© ASEW 2012
The inverse of a function is its reverse. The inverse of the function f ( x ) is written as
f −1 ( x ) . There are two ways to find the inverse of a function. For example to find f −1 ( x )
when f ( x) = 5 x − 2
Method 1: Draw the flow diagram for the function and then work out the opposite of each
step.
x X5 -2 f ( x)
f −1 ( x ) ÷5 +2 x
x+2
f −1 ( x ) =
5
Method 2: Algebra. Write the function. Change f ( x ) for y . Rearrange to make x the
subject. Change x to f −1 ( x ) and change y to x .
f ( x) = 5 x − 2
y = 5x − 2
⇒ y + 2 = 5x
y+2 x+2
⇒x= ⇒ f −1 ( x ) =
5 5
Example 5: If f ( x ) = 3x 2 + 1 find f −1 ( x )
y = 3x 2 + 1
⇒ y − 1 = 3x 2
y −1
⇒ x2 =
3
y −1
⇒x=
3
x −1
⇒ f −1 ( x ) =
3
• The domain is all the values of x to which the function may be applied. You may be
1
asked to name a value that cannot be in the domain. For example if f ( x ) = then
x
x cannot be zero.
• The range is all values of f ( x )
Domain Range

© ASEW 2012
49. Differentiation
Differentiation gives you the rate of change (gradient) of a function. There is

dy
a rule to work it out: if y = kx n then = knx n −1
dx
dy
is the “rate of change” of y with respect to x , it can also be called the
dx
“first derivative” or the “differential” or the “gradient”.
Example 1: What is the derivative of y = x 4 ?
dy
= 4 x3
dx
dy
Example 2: Calculate when y = 6 x5 .
dx
dy
= 6 × 5 x 4 = 30 x 4
dx
dy 1
Example 3: Calculate when y = 3 .
dx x
1
y= ⇒ y = x −3
x3
dy 3
⇒ = −3x −4 = − 4
dx x
It is usually best to multiply out any brackets before differentiating:
Example 4: Differentiate with respect to t s = 6(t + 1)(t + 2) .
s = 6(t + 1)(t + 2)
s = 6 ( t 2 + 3t + 2 )
s = 6t 2 + 18t + 12
ds
= 12t + 18
dt
dy
Note the differential of a number is zero. i.e. if y = 7 then =0.
dx
If the function is a polynomial, then you differentiate each term separately:
da
i.e. if a = 7t 3 + 3t 2 − 2t + 9 then = 21t 2 + 6t − 2
dt

© ASEW 2012
Turning Points
dy
A curve has a turning point when = 0 . This could be a maximum, minimum (or
dx
a point of inflexion.)
For a general quadratic equation in the form: y = ax 2 + bx + c

• there is a maximum if a < 0 (sad curve ∩ )
• there is a minimum if a > 0 (happy curve ∪ )
To find out whether a turning point is a maximum or a minimum:

• If it is a quadratic use the rule above
• Otherwise draw (or sketch) the curve and see
• Other techniques are available at A level
Kinematics (Motion)
Where s is distance, t is time, v is velocity and a is acceleration:
ds dv
v= a=
dt dt
Example 5: If s = t 2 − 2t + 3 . What is the formula for velocity? What is the formula for
acceleration?
s = t 2 − 2t + 3
ds
v= ⇒ v = 2t − 2
dt
dv
a= ⇒a=2
dt
Partial Circles
If you only have part of a circle then you only have a fraction of its perimeter and
area. The portion of the circle is called a sector and the portion on the circumference
is called an arc:
20 10π
l= × 2 × π ×10 = = 3.49cm
10cm 360 9
200
20 50π
A= × π ×102 = = 17.5cm 2
360 9

Extended IGCSE Maths Revision Notes

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© ASEW 2012

Extended IGCSE maths revision notes 1 18-Feb-13

Positive and a positive is positive

5 > 4 Means “5 is greater than 4”

Calculations are done in the following order :

BODMAS: Brackets, Other, Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction

BODMAS can also be referred to as Bidmas or Bedmas.

Even numbers can be divided exactly by 2. They all end in 0, 2, 4, 6, 8

Odd numbers cannot be divided exactly by 2. They all end in 1, 3, 5, 7, 9

Square numbers: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 …

Extended IGCSE maths revision notes 2 18-Feb-13

Integer: a whole number (no decimal point) e.g. 87

The SUM of a set of numbers is the ADDITION of all the numbers.

The PRODUCT of a set of numbers is the MULTIPLICATION of all the numbers.

The RECIPROCAL of a number is one divided by the number:

e.g. the factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12

E.g. Factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.

E.g. Find the HCF of 48 and 60

Method 2: Write the two numbers as a product of their prime factors:

Extended IGCSE maths revision notes 3 18-Feb-13

Number a is divisible by number b if b is a factor of a . You can check this with a

e.g. 17 ÷ 3 = 5.666... 17 is not divisible by 3

Divisible by 2: Any number that ends in 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 is divisible by 2. (It is an even number)

Divisible by 4: If it is even, divide by 2. If the answer is still even then it is divisible by 4.

Divisible by 5: Any number that ends in 0 or 5 is divisible by 5.

Extended IGCSE maths revision notes 4 18-Feb-13

Using a calculator makes fractions simple e.g.

Fraction to percentage. Convert to decimal and then to percentage.

Percentage to decimal. Divide by 100. Eg. 65% = 65 ÷ 100 = 0.65

Extended IGCSE maths revision notes 5 18-Feb-13

7. Powers and Roots

Squares and Cubes

The square of a number is the number times itself: 5 squared = 52 = 5 X 5 = 25

The cube of a number is the number times itself 3 times: 5 cubed = 53 = 5 X 5 X 5

Indices (or powers)

1. When multiplying you add the indices. E.g. 55 × 54 = 59

2. When dividing, you subtract the indices. E.g. 56 ÷ 54 = 52

4. Anything to the power of 1 is itself. E.g. 21 = 2, 61 = 6, 71 = 7

5. Anything to the power of 0 is 1. E.g. 20 = 1, x 0 = 1, 7.50 = 1

6. 1 to any power is still 1. E.g. 11 = 1, 15 = 1, 1−8 = 1

Extended IGCSE maths revision notes 6 18-Feb-13

E.g . Express in the form a 2

E.g . Express in the form a + b 2

E.g. Rationalise the denominator

• A set is a collection of objects, described by a list or a rule.

• Each object is an element or a member of the set.

Extended IGCSE maths revision notes 7 18-Feb-13

• B is a subset of A if every member A

• The complement of set A is the set of

• The intersection of A and B is the set of elements A B

• The union of A and B is the set of elements that are

“Percent” means out of 100

To calculate a percentage divide the two numbers and multiply by 100%.

15 out of 20 in a test = 15 ÷ 20 x 100% = 75%

To calculate a percentage of a quantity, convert the percentage to a decimal and

To calculate a percentage increase (or decrease) of a quantity: Convert the

90 increased by 10% = 90 + 90 x 0.1 = 99 (or 90 x 1.1 = 99)

90 decreased by 10% = 90 – 90 x 0.1 = 81 (or 90 x 0.9 = 81)

Extended IGCSE maths revision notes 8 18-Feb-13

Reverse percentages: What is the value of P if 40% of P is 180?