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By: Gebremariam Fisseha

Adigrat University, Ethiopia
2009 E.C
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Chapter-3: Superconductivity
3.1 Theory of superconductivity
In 1991 the Dutch physicist,Heike Kamerlingh Onnes,discovered in his laboratory in Leiden that
the dc resistivityof mercury suddenly drops to zero whenever the sample is cooled below 4.2K -
Figure 3.1.He named the new phenomenon-superconductivity.A year latter,Onnes discovered
that a suffieiently strong magnetic field restores the resistivity in the sample;so does sufficiently
strong electric current. In the years to follow it was discovered that many other metallic elements
exhibit superconductivity at very low temperature(T<Tc)-Table 3.1

In 1933 Meissner and Ochsenfeld discovered another distnict property of the superconducting
state-perfect diamagnesim.They noticed that magnetic flux is expelled from the interior of the
sample that is cooled below the criticlal temperature in weak external magnetic fields-Figure 3.2.
Following the Meissner‟s effect,F.and H. London proposed in 1934 a simple two fluid model.It
explained the Meissner‟s effect and penetrated depth ʎ:this is a characterstics length of
penetration of the static magnetic flux into superconductor.

Figure 3.1: The resistance of mercury as a function of temperature as observed by Heike

Kamerlingh Onnes in 1911.

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Table 3.1: The critical temperature of some superconductors

Therefore superconductivity is is defined as a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance

and expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below a
characteristic critical temperature,Tc. i.e. No resistivity (ρ=0) & magnetic Induction (B=0, inside
super conductor) , for all T<Tc

Electrical resistance in metals arises because electrons propagating through the solid are
scattered due to deviations from perfect translational symmetry. These are produced either by
impurities or the phonons - lattice vibrations - in a solid. In a superconductor below its critical
temperature Tc, the “gas” of repulsive individual electrons that characterizes the normal state
transforms itself into a different type of “liquid”:a quantum fluid of highly correlated pairs of
electrons called cooper pairs. Unlike single electrons cooper pairs move in a single coherent
motion. Therefore since there is no scattering of „individual „pairs of coherent fluid which to
impede the motion of the current carriers, there is no resistivity.

The magnetic inductance becomes zero inside the super conductor when it is cooled below Tc in
a weak external magnetic field :the magnetic flux is expelled from the interior of the
superconductor. This effect is called Meissner‟s effect.

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3.2. Meissner effect

In 1933, Walter Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discovered a magnetic phenomenon that
showed that superconductors are not just perfect conductors. Figure 3.2 highlights this
difference. Imagine that both the ideal conductor and superconductor are above their critical
temperature, Tc. That is, they both are in a normal conducting state and have electrical
resistance. A magnetic field, B or Ba, is then applied. This results in the field penetrating both
materials. Both samples are then cooled so that the ideal conductor now has zero resistance. It is
found that the superconductor expels the magnetic field from inside it, while the ideal conductor
maintains its interior field. Note that energy is needed by the superconductor to expel the
magnetic field. This energy comes from the exothermic superconducting transition. Switching
off the field induces currents in the ideal conductor that prevent changes in the magnetic field
inside it – by Lenz‟s law. However, the superconductor returns to its initial state, i.e. no magnetic
field inside or outside it.

Figure 3.2:The meissner effect

3.3. Important Factors which define superconducting state

1) Critical temperature (Tc)
It corresponds to the temperature below which the material becomes superconducting.
2) critical magnetic field (Hc )
It corresponds to the maximum magnetic field that can be applied to a superconductor. Above
the critical field Hc, the material becomes a normal metal again. For instance, in mercury, this
field is 0.04 Tesla. For some superconductors, we have to define two critical fields,Hc1 and Hc2,

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because of the presence of vortices. For example, in a cuprate, Bc1 is about 0.01 Tesla, but Bc2
can be as high as 60 teslas.

3) Critical current density (Jc )

It corresponds to the maximum current that can go through a superconductor. If the current
exceeds this value, the material becomes a normal metal again and starts resisting and heating
like any other metal. More often, physicists use the term “current density” (Jc), that is the current
divided by the cross section of the electric wire. For instance, in a cuprate, the current density is
more than amperes per cm2.

4) The penetration length ( λL)

When a magnetic field is applied to a superconductor, it is expelled and can only penetrate a
short depth of the surface of the sample, measured as the penetration length. It is usually very
small, from 10 to 100 nanometers.

4) The gap
The superconductor is characterized by its wave function formed from the Cooper pairs. This
wave function has an energy called “gap”: it corresponds to the minimum energy needed to
break one of the Cooper pairs.

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3.4. Classification of Superconductor Materials

Depending upon their behavior in an external magnetic field, superconductors are divided into
two types, type-I &type-II superconductors.

Figure 3.3: Variation of magnetization (M) with applied magnetic field (H)

Note: A negative sign is introduced in the magnetization value to represent the diamagnetic
property of the superconductor.

1) Type I superconductors:
 Type I superconductors are those superconductors which loose their superconductivity
very easily or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. As you can see from
the graph- Figure 3.3a, when the Type I superconductor is placed in the magnetic field,
They produce a repulsive force up to critical field Hc. Therefore it does not allow the
magnetic field to penetrate through it. Hence the material behaves as a superconductor.
At Hc the repulsive force is zero and suddenly looses its superconductivity. Thus after Hc
the materials behave as a normal conductor and allow the magnetic flux lines to pass
through.
 They are also known as soft superconductors because of this reason they loose their
superconductivity easily.
 They perfectly obey Meissner effect.
 There is only one Hc
 Used in coils for superconducting magnets.
 Examples: Aluminum (Hc = 0.0105 Tesla), Zinc (Hc = 0.0054)

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2) Type II superconductors:
 Type II superconductors are those superconductors which loose their superconductivity
gradually but not easily or abruptly when placed in the external magnetic field. As you
can see from the graph - Figure 3.3b, when the Type II superconductor is placed in the
magnetic field, it gradually looses its superconductivity. Type II superconductors start to
loose their superconductivity at lower critical magnetic field (Hc1) and completely loose
their superconductivity at upper critical magnetic field (Hc2). In other words the
magnetic flux does not penetrate upto critical field Hc1.For fields lying between Hc1 and
Hc2 the magnetic field partially penetrates the material although it is still in the super
conducting state.It is only fro fields greater than or equal to Hc2 that the
superconductivity is destroyed and the normal state is obtained.
 The state between the lower critical magnetic field (Hc1) and upper critical magnetic
field (Hc2) is known as vortex state or intermediate state.
 Also known as hard superconductors because of the reason they loose their
superconductivity gradually but not easily.
 They obey Meissner effect but not completely
 Does not behave as a perfect diamagnetic material
 Used for strong field superconducting magnets.
 Examples: NbN (Hc = 8 x 106 Tesla), Babi3 (Hc = 59 x 103Tesla)

3.5. London equation

According to London‟s theory is assumed that there are two types of conducting electrons in a
super conductor, namely the super electrons and normal electrons. The former are responsible for
normal state and the later for superconducting state. But in a mixed state both types of charge
carriers exists. In this case the total electron density is given as, no=ns+nn , where, no=total
electron density, ns=superfluid electron density & nn=normal electron density.

At 0K, a superconductor contains only super electrons, but as temperature increase

superconductor electron decrease and normal electrons increase. In superconductors only super
electrons give response to an electric field. Thus when external electric field is applied super
electrons start to flow without encountering to resistance.

In1935 Fritz and Heinz proposed that the electrodynamics of superconducting electrons or super
electrons should be explained by two pairs of equations, London‟s 1st and 2nd equations. The first
equation shows how the super electrons accelerate under the influence of external electric field,
while the second explains the Meissner effect.

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3.5.1 Derivation of London equations

From second law of Newton:
dvs
F= ma=qE nsm =-nseE …...3.1
dt
From current density of super elecrtrons:
Js= -nsevs
dJs dvs
=-nse
dt dt
e dvs
=-nse( E) ;replace from equ.(3.1)
m dt
2
dJs ns e
= E ; London‟s 1st equation …...3.2
dt m
Now let‟s lets curl both sides of equa.(3.2):
2
dJs ns e
∇× =∇ × E
dt m

; From Faraday‟s Law we have : ∇ × E = - B

2
d ne
(∇ ×Js) = s (∇ ×E)
dt m t
B
2
ns e
=- ; Now integrate both sides of this equation
m t
2
ns e
∇ ×Js = - B ; London‟s 2nd equation …...3.3
m
Here Js is the superconducting current density, E and B are respectively the electric and magnetic fields
within the superconductor, e is the charge of an electron & proton, m is electron mass, and ns is a
phenomenological constant loosely associated with a number density of superconducting carriers.

3.5.2 London penetration depth

As discussed in the Meissner effect that one of the conditions of the superconducting state is that
the magnetic flux cannot penetrate inside of the superconductor. But experimentally it is not so
and the magnetic flux does not suddenly drop to zero inside the surface.

In fact the magnetic field does penetrate to a shallow depth (500-1000 Ao) at the surface of a
body. When it enters into the material its intensity decreases gradually and becomes zero at
certain point. That distance from the surface is called penetration depth.

∇ × B = μ0J s : Maxwell‟s equation

∇ x ∇x B= μ0∇x Js : curl of vector; ∇x∇x A=∇ (∇. A)- ∇2 A
∇ (∇. B) - ∇2 B = μ0∇x Js : ∇. B=0 (Guass law for magnetism)
∇2 B = - μ0(∇x Js) : Replace ∇xJs from equation (3.3)

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2
ns e
∇2 B = - μ0 (- )B
m
2
∇2 B = μ0 ns e B : ∇2 B = B2
m L
2
B = μ ns e B
0
L 2 m

λL= m : λL =the penetration depth

o ns e 2

Figure 3.4: Decaying of magnetic field inside a superconductor

As we can observe from figure 3.4, the magnetic field exponentially decays to zero inside a
superconductor. The London penetration depth is the distance required for the inside magnetic
field to fall to 1/e times the externally applied field Ba, as depicted in the graph.

3.6. Application of Superconductors

1) Power Transmission
A significant amount of electrical energy is wasted (10% to 15% of generated electricity) as heat
when electricity is transmitted down cables made of traditional metal conductors.
Superconductors, can transmit electrical power with zero resistance over very long distances
without any power loss or any voltage drop therefore they would be more efficient.
2) Motors / Generators
It may be possible to build very large capacity generators for power plants where structural
strength considerations place limits on conventional generators. Superconductors generators has
the benefits small size and low energy consumption than the conventional generators

3. Energy Storage (SMES)

Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) stores electricity for long periods of time in
superconductive coils. SMES will be used by electrical utilities someday.

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4. Current Limiters, Switches, and Fuses

These devices are used to control power flows, especially during short circuit conditions in the
electric power system. Superconducting versions of these devices generally rely on controlling
currents by switching the conductor from the non-resistive superconducting state to the normal
resistive state. Compared with their conventional analogs, these superconducting components
offer the advantage that they introduce no losses into the system during normal operation, and
switching times can be reduced from 1 to 2 cycles (about 20 milliseconds) to less than 1
millisecond.

5. Maglev train
Magnetic levitation or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is suspended with no
support other than magnetic fields. Magnetic force is used to counteract the effects of the
gravitational acceleration and any other accelerations. These work because a superconductor
repels a magnetic field so a magnet will float above a superconductor – this virtually eliminates
the friction between the train and the track.

Note that: Maglev is a transport method that uses magnetic levitation to move vehicles without
making contact with the ground.

6. Computers
If computers used superconducting parts they would be much more faster than the computers
today. They would much smaller because no space for heat would be required. Computers of
today need a great deal of space for cooling. Computers are being developed today that use
Josephson junctions. The Josephson effect states that electrons are able to flow across an
insulating barrier placed between two superconducting materials. Josephson junctions have a thin
layer of insulating materials squeezed between superconductive material. Josephson junctions
require little power to operate, thus creating less heat. Josephson junctions

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