Vectors and Tensors-3

1.Curvilinear coordinates:
In curvilinear coordinates, some of the axes are curved. Most commonly used coordinate
systems are cylindrical and spherical. The relation between these coordinates and the
Cartesian coordinates is shown below.
Cylindrical: x1 = r cosθ x2 = r sinθ x3 = z
Spherical: x1 = r sin θ cos φ x2 = r sin θ sin φ x3 = r cosθ

In general, we denote the coordinates in curvilinear system by qi . Thus in cylindrical

system q1 = r, q2 = θ , q3 = z and in spherical system q1 = r, q2 = θ , q3 = φ

2. Basis vectors in curvilinear coordinates:

Basis vectors are the unit vectors, which are tangent to the coordinate axes. They are
denoted by ĥi .
v
hi v ∂pv
ĥi = v where hi =
hi ∂qi

In cylindrical coordinates, basis vector are denoted by

ĥ1 = êr , ĥ2 = êθ , ĥ3 = êz
In spherical coordinates they are denoted by

ĥ1 = êr , ĥ2 = êθ , ĥ3 = êφ

For example in spherical coordinates
v ∂pv ∂x1 v ∂x2 v ∂x3 v
h1 = = e1 + e2 + e3
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂r
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Now = sin θ cos φ = sin θ sin φ = cosθ
∂r ∂r ∂r
v v v v
Hence h1 = sinθ cos φ e1 + sin θ sin φ e2 + cosθ e3
Similarly we can show that
v v
h2 = r cosθ cos φ e1 + r cosθ sin φ ê2 − r sin θ ê3
v
and h3 = −r sinθ sin φ ê1 + r sinθ cos φ ê2
From these we get

1
 v
h1 = h1 = ⎡⎣sin 2 θ cos2 φ + sin 2 θ sin 2 φ + cos2 θ ⎤⎦ = 1
12

[
h2 = h2 = r 2 cos 2 θ cos 2 φ + r 2 cos 2 θ sin 2 φ + r 2 sin 2 θ ]
12
=r

and [
h3 = h3 = r 2 sin 2 θ sin 2 φ + r 2 sin 2 θ cos 2 φ ]12
= r sin θ

We can now obtain the basis vectors as follows

v
h1
êr = ĥ1 = = sinθ cos φ ê1 + sin θ sin φ ê2 + cosθ ê3
h1
v
h2
êθ = ĥ2 = = cosθ cos φ ê1 + cosθ sin φ ê2 − sinθ ê3
h2
v
h3
êφ = ĥ3 = = −sin φ ê1 + cos φ ê2
h3
Similarly in the cylindrical coordinates
v
v h1
h1 = cosθ ê1 + sin θ ê2 , h1 = 1 and ĥ1 = êr = = cosθ ê1 + sin θ ê2
h1
v
h2 = −r sinθ ê1 + r cosθ ê2 , h2 = r and ĥ2 = êθ = −sin θ ê1 + cosθ ê2
v
h3 = ê3 , h3 = 1 and ĥ3 = êz = ê3
4. Example: Relate the basis vectors in Cartesian coordinates to those in spherical
coordinates
There are two ways to do this. We can begin with
êr = sin θ cos φ ê1 + sin θ sin ϕê2 + cos θ ê3 ,êθ = cos θ cos φ ê1 + cos θ sin φê2 − sin θ ê3 ,
êϕ = − sin φ ê1 + cos φê2

We can invert these equations to get inverse relation. Alternatively taking dot product of
every equations from the set above, we get
êr ⋅ ê1 = sinθ cos φ ,êθ ⋅ ê1 = cos θ cos φ , êφ ⋅ ê1 = − sin φ

This gives
ê1 = sin θ cos φêr + cos θ cos φêθ − sin φêφ

In the similar manner, we can get

ê2 = sin θ sin φêr + cos θ sin φêθ + cos φêφ and ê3 = cos θ êr − sin θ êθ

This is the desired inverse relation.

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5. Distance between two points:
v v
In Cartesian coordinates the distance Δs between two points P1 ( p1 ) and P2 ( p2 ) is
v v
given by p2 − p1 . Thus
v v v v
Δs 2 = ( p2 − p1 ) ⋅ ( p2 − p1 ) = ( x2i − x1i ) êi ⋅ ( x2 j − x1 j ) ê j
= ( x2i − x1i ) ( x2 j − x1 j ) δij = ( x2 j − x1 j ) ( x2 j − x1 j )

This formula is not valid in the case of curvilinear coordinates, since the basis vectors
change their direction from point to point. We can however define distance ds between
the two points, which are infinitesimally apart. In Cartesian coordinates
v v
ds 2 = dp ⋅ dp = dxi êi ⋅ dx j ê j = dx j dx j
In curvilinear coordinates
v v v v v v
ds 2 = dp ⋅ dp = dqi hi ⋅ dq j h j = dqi dq j hi ⋅ h j = ( hdq)i ( hdq) j ĥi ⋅ ĥ j

Hence ds 2 = ( hdq)i ( hdq) j (δij ) = ( hdq) j ( hdq) j = h12 dq12 + h22 dq22 + h32 dq32

In the cylindrical coordinates

q1 = r, h1 =1; q2 = θ , h2 = r; q3 = z, h3 =1
and
ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 dθ 2 + dz 2

In the spherical coordinates

q1 = r, h1 = 1; q2 = θ , h2 = r; q3 = φ, h3 = r sinθ
and
ds 2 = dr 2 + r 2 dθ 2 + r 2 sin 2 θ dφ 2
6.Gradient of a scalar field:
v ∂f
∇f = êi
∂xi
v
Multiplying both sides by h j , we obtain

v v v v
∂f ∂f ∂p ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂xk ∂f ∂xk ∂f
∇f ⋅ h j = êi ⋅ h j = êi ⋅ = êi ⋅ k êk = δ ik = =
∂xi ∂xi ∂q j ∂xi ∂q j ∂xi ∂q j ∂xk ∂q j ∂q j

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 v v
If we write ∇f = (∇f )i ĥi , then
v v v v v
[ v v
] v v
∇f ⋅ h1 = (∇f )i ĥi ⋅ h1 = (∇f )1 ĥ1 + (∇f )2 ĥ2 + (∇f )3 ĥ3 ⋅ h1 = (∇f )1 h1

From the last two equations, we get

v ∂f
(∇f ) = 1
h1 ∂q1
1

v 1 ∂f v 1 ∂f
Similarly, (∇f )2 = and (∇f )3 =
h2 ∂q2 h2 ∂q2
v v v v 1 ∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f
∇f = (∇f )1 ĥ1 + (∇f )2 ĥ2 + (∇f )3 ĥ3 = ĥ1 + ĥ1 + ĥ1
h1 ∂q1 h2 ∂q2 h3 ∂q3
In the index form we can write the equation as,
v ∂f ⎛ ĥ ⎞
∇f = ⎜ ⎟
∂q j ⎝ h ⎠ j

In cylindrical coordinates: h1 = 1, h2 = r, h3 =1
v ∂f 1 ∂f ∂f
∇f = êr + êθ + êz
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
We can now define the gradient operator in curvilinear coordinate as
v ∂(⋅) ⎛ ĥ ⎞
∇= ⎜ ⎟
∂q j ⎜⎝ h ⎟⎠ j

7. Example:
v ⎛ ĥ ⎞ v v ⎛ ĥ ⎞
Show that ∇ ^ ⎜ ⎟ = 0 and ∇ ⋅ ⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟ = 0
⎝ h ⎠k ⎝ h j hk ⎠
Proof: We note from section 4 that
v ∂q ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞
∇qk = k ⎜ ⎟ = δkj ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
∂q j ⎝ h ⎠ j ⎝ h ⎠ j ⎝ h ⎠k
v v v v
We also note that ∇ ^ ∇qk = 0 since ∇qK is the gradient of scalar field qk . Hence

v ⎛ ĥ ⎞ v
∇ ^⎜ ⎟ = 0
⎝ h ⎠k
We also see that

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 v ⎛ ĥi ⎞ v ⎛⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ v ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ v ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞
∇ ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ∇ ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ^ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜⎜ ∇ ^ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ∇ ^ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = 0
⎝ j k⎠ ⎜⎝ h ⎠ ⎝ h ⎠ ⎟ ⎝ h ⎠ ⎝ h ⎠k ⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎝ h ⎠ j ⎟⎠ ⎝ h ⎠k
j ⎝
h h ⎝ j k⎠

8. Physical components of vector field:

We can represent a vector field in terms of basis vectors in curvilinear
coordinates.
v v
v = vi hi
v
However, hi is not a unit vector. It is preferable to use unit vectors as the bases and
v
express v as
v
v = v i ĥi
v
v i are called the physical components of v is curvilinear coordinates. The representation

in cylindrical coordinates is
v
v = vr êr + vθ êθ + vz êz
and in spherical coordinates, it is
v
v = vr êr + vθ êθ + vφ êφ

9. Example: Relate the physical components of a vector field in cylindrical coordinates

to those in Cartesian coordinates.
The unit basis vectors in cylindrical coordinates are
êr = cos θ ê1 + sin θê2 , êθ = − sin θê1 + cos θê2 , êz = ê3
v
v = vr êr + vθ êθ + vz êz = vr (cos θ ê1 + sin θê2 ) + vθ (− sinθê1 + cos θê2 ) + vz ê3
The equation can be rearranges to give
v
v = (vr cos θ − vθ sin θ )ê1 + (vr sin θ + vθ cos θ )ê2 + vz ê3
v
Comparing the equation above with v = v1ê1 + v2ê2 + v3ê3 , we get

v1 = vr cos θ − vθ sin θ , v1 = vr sinθ + vθ cos θ , v3 = vz

10. Example: Relate the Cartesian components of a vector field to physical components
in spherical coordinates.
We have the following relations
ê1 = sinθ cos φêr + cos θ cos φêθ − sin ϕêφ

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 ê2 = sinθ sin φêr + cos θ sin φêθ + cos φêφ and ê3 = cos θ êr − sinθ êθ
v
Substituting them in v = v1ê1 + v2ê2 + v3ê3 , we obtain

v = v1 (sin θ cos φêr + cos θ cos φêθ − sin φêϕ ) + v2 (sin θ sin φêr + cos θ sin φêθ + cos φêφ )
v

+ v3 (cos θ êr − sin θ êθ )

= (v1 sin θ cos φ + v2 sin θ sin φ + v3 cos θ )êr + (v1 cos θ cos φ + v2 cos θ sin φ − v3 sin θ )êθ
+ (− v1 sin φ + v2 cos φ )êϕ

From the equation above, we get

vr = v1 sin θ cos φ + v2 sin θ sin φ + v3 cos θ , vθ = v1 cos θ cos φ + v2 cos θ sin φ − v3 sin θ
vφ = −v1 sin φ + v2 cos φ

11. Divergence of vector field:

v v v
( )
∇ ⋅ v = ∇ ⋅ v i ĥi

Consider any one term of the sum on the right.

v v ⎡ ĥ ⎤ v v ĥ
( ) (ĥ
∇ ⋅ v 1 ĥ1 = ∇ ⋅ ⎢h2 h3v 1 1 ⎥ = ∇h2 h3v 1 ⋅ 1 + h2 h3v 1 ∇ ⋅ 1
⎣ h2 h3 ⎦ h2 h3
)
h2 h3

The second term on the right hand side of the equation above is zero (see section 5).
Hence
v ĥ v
( )
∇ ⋅ v 1 ĥ1 = 1 ⋅ ∇ h2 h3v 1
h2 h3
( )
v ∂ (⋅) ⎛ ĥ ⎞
Now ∇ = ⎜ ⎟ . Hence
∂q j ⎝ h ⎠ j

v
( ) ĥ
∇ ⋅ v 1 ĥ1 = 1 ⋅
∂
h2 h3 ∂q j
(
h2 h3v 1 )⎛⎜⎜ hĥ ⎞⎟⎟ =
1 ∂
h2 h3 ∂q1
(
h2 h3v 1 )⎛⎜⎜ h1 ⎞⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠j ⎝ 1 ⎠

Hence
v v 1 ⎡ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
∇⋅v = ⎢
h1h2 h3 ⎣ ∂q1
(h2 h3v 1 +
∂q2
)
h3h1v 2 + (
∂q3
h1h2 v 3 ⎥
⎦
) ( )

In summation convention, we can write

v v 1 ∂ ⎛⎜ ⎛v ⎞⎞
∇⋅v = h1 2 3⎜
h h ⎜ h ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟
h1h2 h3 qi ⎜⎝ ⎝ ⎠i ⎠

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In cylindrical coordinates h1 = 1, h2 = r, h3 =1
v v 1⎡ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎤
∇ ⋅ v = ⎢ ( r vr ) + ( vθ ) + ( r vz )⎥
r ⎣ ∂r ∂θ ∂z ⎦
In spherical coordinates h1 =1, h2 = r, h3 = r sin θ
v v 1 ⎡∂ 2 ∂ ∂ ⎤
∇⋅v = ⎢ ( r sin θ vr ) + ( r sin θ vθ ) + ( r vφ )⎥
r sin θ ⎣ ∂r
2
∂θ ∂φ ⎦
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂vφ
=
r ∂r
2 ( r vr ) +
r sin θ ∂θ
(sinθ vθ ) +
r sin θ ∂φ
12. Laplacian:
v v 1 ∂ ⎛⎜ ⎛∇ ⎞⎞
∇2 = ∇ ⋅ ∇ = h1 2 3⎜
h h ⎜ h ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟
h1h2 h3 ∂qi ⎜⎝ ⎝ ⎠i ⎠
We know that (see section 4)
1 ∂
∇i =
hi ∂qi
Hence

1 ∂ ⎛ ⎛1 ∂⎞⎞
∇2 = ⎜ h1h2 h3 ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟
h1h2 h3 ∂qi ⎝ ⎝ h ∂q ⎠i ⎠
In the long form we can write

1 ⎡ ∂ ⎛ h2 h3 ∂ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ h3h1 ∂ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ h1h2 ∂ ⎞⎤
∇2 = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟⎥
h1h2 h3 ⎣ ∂q1 ⎝ h1 ∂q1 ⎠ ∂q2 ⎝ h2 ∂q2 ⎠ ∂q3 ⎝ h3 ∂q3 ⎠⎦

In cylindrical coordinates h1 = 1, h2 = r, h3 =1

1 ⎡ ∂ ⎛ ∂ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ 1 ∂ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ ⎞⎤
∇2 = ⎢ ⎜ r ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜r ⎟
r ⎣ ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ∂θ ⎝ r ∂θ ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠⎥⎦
In spherical coordinates h1 =1, h2 = r, h3 = r sin θ

1 ⎡∂ ⎛ 2 ∂ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ 1 ∂ ⎞⎤
∇2 = ⎢ ⎜ r sin θ ⎟ + ⎜ sin θ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟⎥
r sin θ
2
⎣ ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ ∂φ ⎜⎝ sin θ ∂φ ⎟⎠⎦

1 ∂⎛ 2 ∂ ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂ ⎞ 1 ∂2
= ⎜ r ⎟ + ⎜ sin θ ⎟ +
r 2 ∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r 2 sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂r ⎠ r 2 sin 2 θ ∂φ 2
8. Curl of vector Field:

7
 v v v
∇ ^ v = ∇ ^ (v i ĥi )

Consider any one term on the sum on the right hand side of the equation above.
v v ⎛ ĥ ⎞ v ⎛ ĥ ⎞ v ⎛ ĥ ⎞
( ) ( )
∇ ^ (v 1 ĥ1 ) = ∇ ^ ⎜ v 1 h1 1 ⎟ = ∇ v 1 h1 ^ ⎜ 1 ⎟+ v 1 h1 ∇ ^ ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ h1 ⎠ ⎝ h1 ⎠ ⎝ h1 ⎠
v ⎛ ĥ ⎞
But ∇ ^⎜ 1 ⎟ = 0 based on the derivation in section 5. Hence
⎝ h1 ⎠
v v ⎛ ĥ ⎞
( )
∇ ^ (v 1 ĥ1 ) = ∇ v 1 h1 ^ ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ h1 ⎠
We can now write, in index notation
v v v ⎛ ĥ ⎞
∇ ^ v = ∇(v ĥ)i ^ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ h ⎠i
v ∂ (⋅) ⎛ ĥ ⎞
Noting that ∇ = ⎜ ⎟ , we get
∂q j ⎝ h ⎠ j

v v ∂(v ĥ)i ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞
∇^v = ⎜ ⎟ ^⎜ ⎟
∂q j ⎝ h ⎠ j ⎝ h ⎠i

In the expanded form, this is

v v ∂(v ĥ)1 ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ∂(v ĥ)2 ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ∂(v ĥ)3 ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞
∇^v = ⎜ ⎟ ^⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ^⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ^⎜ ⎟
∂q j ⎝ h ⎠ j ⎝ h ⎠1 ∂q j ⎝ h ⎠ j ⎝ h ⎠2 ∂q j ⎝ h ⎠ j ⎝ h ⎠3

Further expansion gives

v v ∂(v ĥ)1 ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ∂(v ĥ)1 ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ∂(v ĥ)2 ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞

∇^v = ⎜ ⎟ ^⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ^⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ^⎜ ⎟
∂q2 ⎝ h ⎠2 ⎝ h ⎠1 ∂q3 ⎝ h ⎠3 ⎝ h ⎠1 ∂q1 ⎝ h ⎠1 ⎝ h ⎠2
∂(v ĥ)2 ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ∂(v ĥ)3 ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ∂(v ĥ)3 ⎛ ĥ ⎞ ⎛ ĥ ⎞
+ ⎜ ⎟ ^⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ^⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ ^⎜ ⎟
∂q3 ⎝ h ⎠3 ⎝ h ⎠2 ∂q1 ⎝ h ⎠1 ⎝ h ⎠3 ∂q2 ⎝ h ⎠2 ⎝ h ⎠3

Simplification yields
v v ∂(v 1 ĥ1 ) ⎛ ĥ3 ⎞ ∂(v 1 ĥ1 ) ⎛ ĥ2 ⎞ ∂(v 2 ĥ2 ) ⎛ ĥ3 ⎞
∇^v =− ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟
∂q2 ⎝ h1h2 ⎠ ∂q3 ⎝ h3h1 ⎠ ∂q1 ⎝ h1h2 ⎠
∂(v 2 ĥ2 ) ⎛ ĥ1 ⎞ ∂(v 3 ĥ3 ) ⎛ ĥ2 ⎞ ∂(v 3 ĥ3 ) ⎛ ĥ1 ⎞
− ⎜ ⎟− ⎜ ⎟+ ⎜ ⎟
∂q3 ⎝ h2 h3 ⎠ ∂q1 ⎝ h3h1 ⎠ ∂q2 ⎝ h2 h3 ⎠

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This can be written in the determinant form as

h1 ĥ1 h2 ĥ2 h3 ĥ3

v v 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇^ v =
h1 h2 h3 ∂q1 ∂q 2 ∂q3
h1v 1 h2 v 2 h3 v 3

In cylindrical coordinates: h1 = 1, h2 = r, h3 =1
Hence

êr r êθ ê2

v v 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇^v =
r ∂r ∂θ ∂z
vr r vθ vz

1 ⎡⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂v ∂v ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ( r vθ ) ∂v ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢⎜ z − r θ ⎟ êr − ⎜ z − r ⎟ r êθ + ⎜ − r ⎟ êz ⎥
r ⎣⎝ ∂θ ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂r ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂r ∂θ ⎠ ⎦

In spherical coordinates: h1 =1, h2 = r, h3 = r sin θ

êr r êθ r sinθ êφ

v v 1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇^v =
r sin θ ∂r
2
∂θ ∂φ
vr rvθ r sin θ vφ

1 ⎡⎛ ∂sin θ vφ ∂vθ ⎞ ⎛ ∂r sin θ vφ ∂vr ⎞ ⎛ ∂rv ∂v ⎞ ⎤

= ⎢⎜ − ⎟ êr − ⎜ − ⎟ êθ + ⎜ θ − r ⎟ sin θ êφ ⎥
r sin θ ⎣⎝ ∂θ ∂φ ⎠ ⎝ ∂r ∂φ ⎠ ⎝ ∂r ∂θ ⎠ ⎦