ECE 522 

Power Systems Analysis II

3.3 ‐ Voltage Stability

Spring 2018
Instructor: Kai Sun

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Content
• Basic concepts
– Voltage collapse, Saddle‐node bifurcation, P‐V curve and V‐Q curve
• Voltage Stability Analysis (VSA)
– Dynamic and Static Analyses, Modal analysis and Continuation powerflow
• Causes and prevention of voltage instability

• References:
1. Chapter 14 of Kundur’s book
2. “Survey of the voltage collapse phenomenon”, NERC Interconnection Dynamics Task 
Force Report, Aug. 1991
3. EPRI Tutorial’s Chapter 6
4. Carson W. Taylor, “Power System Voltage Stability” McGraw Hil, 1994
5. “Voltage Stability Assessment: Concepts, Practices and Tools”, IEEE‐PES Power 
Systems Stability Subcommittee Special Publication, Aug. 2002
6. V. Ajjarapu, C. Christy, “The continuation power flow: a tool for steady state voltage 
stability analysis”, IEEE Trans Power Syst., vol. 7, no. 1, Feb, 1992
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Voltage Stability
•Voltage stability is concerned with the ability of a power system 
to maintain acceptable voltages at all buses in the system under 
normal conditions and after being subjected to a disturbance.
•An extreme type of voltage instability is voltage collapse, in 
which a significant part of the system experiences a progressive 
and uncontrollable decline in voltage until power outages.
•Heavily loaded/stressed areas are more prone to voltage 
instability. 
•The main factor causing voltage instability in a power system is 
the inability to meet the demand for reactive power

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Factors Influencing Reactive Power Transfer

• Reactive power flows from the high voltage side to the low voltage side.
• However, reactive power cannot be transmitted over long distances because
– It would require a large voltage gradient to do so.
– An increase in reactive power transfer causes an increase in Qloss and Ploss 4
Voltage Stability vs. Rotor Angle stability

• Rotor angle stability is basically stability with generators while voltage stability is 
basically stability with loads
– Rotor angle stability is often concerned with remote power plants connected to a large 
system over long transmission lines.
– Voltage stability is concerned with load areas and load characteristics. In a large 
interconnected system, voltage collapse of a load area is possible without loss of 
synchronism of any generators.
• Transient voltage stability is usually closely associated with transient rotor angle 
stability. If voltage collapses at a point (e.g. the center of oscillation) in a 
transmission system remote from loads, it is, in nature, angle instability.
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A radial system
• How does VR change when PR increases?

VR  Z LD I PR  VR I cos 
E S
I | I |
Z LN  Z LD
ES ZLD decreases (with constant ZLN)

(ZLN cos  ZLD cos)  (ZLN sin  ZLD sin)
2 2

1 ES E
I  I SC  S where
F Z LN Z LN
2
Z  Z 
F  1   LD   2  LD  cos(   )
 Z LN   Z LN 
1 Z LD
VR  Z LD I  ES  ES
F Z LN
2
Z LD  ES 
PR  VR I cos     cos 
F  Z LN 
ES2 cos  def
  PRMAX
2 Z LN 1  cos(   )
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How does voltage instability happen?
• Voltage stability depends on the
dynamics or controls with loads
• Under normal conditions, ZLD>> ZLN
and an increase in active load PR usually
comes with a decrease in ZLD
• However, when ZLD<ZLN (heavily Load increases (ZLD decreases)
loaded), a decrease in ZLD reduces PR, so
any load control that maintains the load
by decreasing ZLD becomes unstable.
– For instance, consider a load supplied
through an ULTC transformer. When the
tap-changer tries to raise the load voltage
(absorbing more Mvar from the primary
side of the transformer), it has the effect
of reducing the effective ZLD and in turn
further lowers VR seen from the primary
side. That may lead to a progressive
reduction of voltage if the primary side
is weak in terms of reactive power.

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P‐V Curve

ZLD decreases (assume constant ZLN)

Constant P
PR=P
General load

Constant Z
PR=aVR2

• The voltage collapse at the critical point (also called the “nose” or “knee” point) is
referred to as “saddle-point bifurcation”
• Does voltage collapse necessarily occur at the critical point?
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 p+jq

Saddle‐node bifurcation

• A saddle-node bifurcation is the disappearance of a system’s

equilibrium as parameters change slowly (system dynamics
can be ignored).
• This is an inherently nonlinear phenomenon and cannot
occur in a linear model.
Two equilibriums

P-V curve
Stable node
Saddle-node bifurcation at pmax

Saddle point

P- curve

pmax
Equilibria disappear
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Normalized P‐V curves (various power factors)
• Normally, only the operating points above the critical points represent
satisfactory operating conditions

Increase in QR
(decrease of )

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 V‐Q Curve =VR0o

• If QI is injected by a var source at the

load bus:
E S =ES QI
ZLN  jXLN
*
 
 E  VR 
PR  j (QR  QI )  VR I *  VR  S 
 jX LN 
PR X LN
PR=ESVRsin/XLN sin   Eliminate  by
ESVR
cos2+sin2=1
ESVR cos   VR2 (QR  QI ) X LN  V2

QR  Q I  cos   R

X LN ESVR

VR2 ES2VR2
QI  QR   2
 PR
2

X LN X LN
QI PR increases
2 2 2
V EV
QI  PR tan    R
 PR2 S R
2
X LN X LN

V-Q characteristic for one specific

loading condition (constant PR and  ) VR
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 Normalized V‐Q curves (PR varies)
• Each V-Q curve shows sensitivity and
variation of a bus voltage with respect to
Q injected at the bus. It indicates the QI
required in order to maintain the bus QI /PRMAX
voltage at desired value VR

• A V-Q curve is generated by applying a

fictitious var source, e.g. synchronous
condenser, at the test bus, i.e. converting
the bus to a PV bus with open var limits,
so it can be used to examine needs for var
compensation

• Voltage is stable only when dQI/dVR>0

since all var control devices are designed
to operate by assuming an increase in Q to
cause an increase in V

Voltage stability limit is reached when dQI/dVR=0

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An example on Kundur’s Pages 963‐966 A

PAera 1 - V530
Uniformly scale up the area load
with constant 
• Probable remedial actions before C is reached
Strategy 1: Inject Q at Bus 530 to increase V
Strategy 2: Reduce load near Bus 530 13
Influence of Generation Characteristics
• Actions of generator AVRs provide the
primary sources of voltage support
• Under normal conditions, generator terminal
voltages are maintained constant
• During conditions of low/high voltages, the
var output of a generator may reach its limit.
Consequently, the terminal voltage is not
longer maintained constant
• Then, with constant field current, the point
of constant voltage is now Eq of the
generator behind its synchronous reactance
XSXq. That increases the network reactance
significantly to further aggravate the voltage
collapse condition
• It is important to maintain voltage control
capabilities of generators
• The degree of voltage stability cannot be
judged based only on how close the bus Voltage collapse due to the var limit or
voltage is to the normal voltage level current limit being reached is referred to
as “limit-induced bifurcation”
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 Influence of Reactive Compensator Characteristics
Kundur’s Example 14.1
• The compensator is designed to increase
compensation (Q) in order to increase
voltage (V)
• At Point A (low compensation)
– The slope Q/V of the system is greater
than that of the shunt capacitor
– With the compensation increase, A A’;
V is increased at A’, so compensation
stops increasing
– Voltage is stable
• At Point B (high compensation)
Compensation
– The slope Q/V of the system is
increases
smaller than that of the shunt capacitor
– With the compensation increase, B B’;
V is decreased at B’, so compensation
will continue to increase (nonstop)
– Voltage is unstable

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Steady‐State Voltage Stability Analysis on a General Power System
• Approach:
– Sensitivity and modal analysis on the powerflow model (read Kundur’s 14.3.3
– Generalization of the conclusion “voltage stability limit is reached when
dQI/dVR=0 at the load bus” on a radial system

• Linearize the power flow model for a specific operating condition. Elements of the
Jacobian matrix give the sensitivity between power and voltage changes.

Let P=0,

JR is the reduced Jacobian matrix of the system and represents the linearized
relationship between incremental changes in bus voltage magnitudes and bus
reactive power injections

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• Voltage stability characteristics of the system can be identified by computing
the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of JR
(note: =-1)

For a 3-bus system:

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Steady‐State Voltage Stability Criteria

• If i>0, the ith modal voltage and the ith modal reactive power variations are
along the same direction, indicating that the system is voltage stable
• If i<0, the ith modal voltage is unstable
• If i=0, the ith modal voltage collapses since any small change in that modal
reactive power causes infinite change in the modal voltage
• The magnitude of i determines the proximity to instability

• This is a generalization of the conclusion “voltage stability limit is reached

when dQI/dVR=0 at the load bus” on a radial system

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Bus Participation Factors

• The relative participation of bus k in mode i is given by

• Pki determines the contribution of i to the V-Q sensitivity at bus k

• Bus participation factors determine the critical buses and areas associated with
each mode
• The size of bus participation in a given mode indicates the effectiveness of
remedial actions applied at that bus in stabilizing the mode
• Localized modes: very few buses with large participations
• Not localized modes: many buses have small but similar degree of participations.
• In practice, it is seldom necessary to compute more than 5-10 of the smallest
eigenvalues to identify all critical modes.
• Also see participation factors of branches and generators in Kundur’s 14.3.3
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Continuation Powerflow (CPF) Analysis
• Conventional powerflow algorithms are prone to divergence problems at 
operating conditions near the stability limit because the powerflow Jacobian 
matrix becomes singular at the voltage stability limit (nose point)

• The continuation powerflow (CPF) method based on the work by Ajjarapu and 

Christy in 1992 [6] overcomes this problem by reformulating the powerflow
equations so that they remain well‐conditioned at all possible loading 
conditions
– Able to solve power flows for stable as well as unstable equilibrium points
– Locally‐parameterized continuation method, which belongs to a general 
class of methods for solving nonlinear algebraic equations known as path‐
following methods

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CPF algorithm
3. The voltages for a further increase in
load are then predicted based on a
new tangent predictor
4. If the new estimated load D is now
beyond the maximum load on the
exact solution, a corrector step with
loads fixed would not converge;
therefore, a corrector step with a
fixed voltage at the monitored bus is
applied to find the exact solution E
5. As the voltage stability limit is
reached, to determine the exact
maximum load, the size of load
1. From an initial solution A, a tangent increase has to be reduced gradually
predictor is used to estimate B for a during the successive predictor step
specified pattern of load increase.
2. Then, a corrector step determines the See mathematical formulation in
exact solution C using a conventional Kundur’s 14.3.5
powreflow analysis with the system load
assumed to be fixed.
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Complementary use of conventional and continuation powerflow
methods

• Continuation methods are robust and flexible and ideally suited for solving 
powerflow problem with convergence difficulties; however, it is very slow and 
time‐consuming

• The best overall approach for computing powerflow solutions up to and beyond 
the critical point is to use the two methods in a complementary manner
– Usually the conventional methods (N‐R or Fast Decoupled)  can be sued to 
provide solutions right up to the critical point
– The continuation methods become necessary only if solutions exactly at and 
past the critical point are required

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Voltage Stability Analysis by Time‐Domain Simulation
Kundur’s Example 14.2

• Models:
– 6 transformers (1 ULTC)
– 3 shunt capacitor (buses 7, 8 & 9)
– Detailed G2 and G3 with thyristor exciters
– 1 over‐excitation limiter (OXL) with G3
– Load 11: 50% Impedance + 50% Current
– Load 8: a) constant P&Q; b) induction motor; c) constant Q + thermostatic P
• Load levels: 
1. 6655MW+1986Mvar
2. 6755MW+2016Mvar
3. 6805MW+2031Mvar 

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Constant P&Q load at bus 8

• Load level 1:
– The ULTC of T6 restores bus 11 voltage at about 40s
• Load level 2:
– While the ULTC of T6 tries to restore bus 11 voltage, the field current limit of  G3 
is met and the OXL ramps the field current down starting around 180s.
• Load level 3:
– The field current of G3 reaches its limit at about 50s
– Bus 11 voltage drops with each tap movement of the ULTC of  T6
– The voltage settles when the ULTC  reaches its limit and stops 24
Induction motor load at bus 8
• The motor stalls at about 65s, draws rapidly increased reactive power and leads to 
voltage collapse.

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Thermostatically controlled load at bus 8
• The load controller increases the conductance to restore the load and results in a 
lower bus 11 voltage

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Causes of voltage instability
• A typical scenario on the principal driving force for voltage instability:
– In response to a disturbance, power consumed by loads tends to be restored by 
motor slip adjustment, distribution voltage regulators and thermostats
– Restored loads increase stress on the high‐voltage network causing further 
voltage reduction
– Voltage instability occurs when load dynamics attempt to restore power 
consumption beyond the capability of the transmission network
• Principal causes
– The load on transmission lines is too high
– The voltage sources are too far from load centers
– The source voltages are too low
– There is insufficient load reactive compensation
• Contributing factors
– Generator reactive power and voltage control limitations
– Load Characteristics
– Distribution system voltage regulators and transformer tap‐changer actions
– Reactive power compensating device characteristics
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A Typical Scenario of Short‐Term Voltage Instability
•The power system is operating in a stressed condition during 
hot weather with a high level of air conditioning load
•The triggering event is a multi‐phase fault near a load center
– Causes voltage dips at distribution buses
– Air conditioner compressor motors decelerate, drawing high 
current
•Following fault clearing with transmission/distribution line 
tripping motors draw very high current while attempting to 
reaccelerate. Motors stall if the power system is weak.
•Under‐voltage load rejection may not be fast enough to be 
effective
•Loss of much of the area load and voltage collapse

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 Tripped by
4 Zone 3 relay 7

Faulty zone 3
relay
1GW generation
9 tripped by SPS
3
2
1

5
Tree
6 8 contact
and
Loss of key relay
hydro units mis-opt.

10

7
1 4 5 6 9
2 8

Example of Voltage Collapse:

July 2nd, 1996 Western
Cascading Event

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•On July 3rd, 1996, i.e. the following day, 
– A similar chain of events happened to cause voltages in Boise area to 
decline. 
– Different from the previous day, Idaho Power Company system 
operators noted  the declining voltages and immediately took the only 
option available: shedding of Boise area load
– Then, the system returned to normal within 1 hour

•Lessons learned:
– The July 2nd and 3rd events in Boise, Idaho area emphasize the need for 
effective and sufficient, rapidly responsive dynamic Mvar reserve.
– The July 3rd events illustrate the importance of system operators’ 
situational awareness and rapid responses.

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 Prevention of Voltage Collapse
Read Kundur’s Chapter 14.4
• Application of var compensating devices
– Ensure adequate stability margin (MW & Mvar distances to instability) by 
proper selection of schemes
– Selection of sizes, ratings and locations of the devices (especially for 
dynamic reactive reserves, e.g. synchronous condensers, STATCOM and 
SVCs) based on a detailed study
– Design criteria based on maximum allowable voltage drop following a 
contingency are often not satisfactory from voltage stability viewpoint
– Important to recognize voltage control areas and weak boundaries (buses 
with high participation factors associated with a voltage instability mode).
• Control of transformer tap changers
– Can be controlled either locally or centrally
– Where tap changing is detrimental, a simple method is to block tap 
changing when the source side sags and unblock when voltage recovers
– Use the knowledge of load characteristics to improve the control 
schemes
– Microprocessor‐based ULTC controls
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Prevention of Voltage Collapse
• Control of network voltage and generator reactive output
– Improvement on AVRs, e.g. adding load (or line drop) compensation
– Secondary coordinated outer loop voltage control (e.g. the hierarchical, 
automatic 2‐3 layers voltage control)
• Coordination of protections/controls
– Ensure adequate coordination based on dynamic simulation studies
– Tripping of equipment to protect from overloaded conditions should be 
the last resort. The overloaded conditions could be relieved by adequate 
control measures before isolating the equipment.
• Under‐voltage load shedding (UVLS)
– To cater for unplanned or extreme situations; analogous to UFLS
– Provide a low‐cost means of preventing widespread system collapse
– Particularly attractive if conditions leading to voltage instability are of low 
probability but consequences are high
– Characteristics and locations of the loads to be shed are more important 
for voltage problems than for frequency problems
– Should be designed to distinguish between faults, transient voltage dips, 
and low voltage conditions leading to voltage collapse
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