DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING

TERM PAPER REPORT

TITLE
BASIC THEORY OF NANOTECHNOLOGY AND IT’S FUTURE
PROSPECTIVE
Submitted By:
AMITAJ SAINI

Roll No:
ROE208A18

Registration No:
10802207

Submitted To:

MR. VINOD KUMAR

DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

 Acknowledgeme
nt
I sincerely feel that the credit of this term paper could not be narrowed to only one individual as
the whole work is outcome of integrated efforts of all those concerned with it through whose
cooperation and effective guidance I could achieve its completion.

I wish to place my profound indebtness and deep sense of obligation to Mr. VINOD KUMAR,
Senior lecturer Lovely Professional University for providing me with the opportunity to work on
such an interesting topic. I also want to pay my gratitude and sincere thanks to my esteemed Sir
for being supportive and lenient during the entire tenure of this term paper.

When emotions are involved words fail to mean. My heart full sincere gratitude to my parents,
who have supported, encouraged and helped me throughout my life and academic career.

AMITAJ SAINI
TABLE OF CONTENS:

Introduction

Origins

Fundamental Concepts

Current research

Future prospective of nanotechnology

Value and scope in India

Applications

Refrences
INTRODUCTION

Nanotechnology, shortened to "nanotech", is the study of manipulating matter on

an atomic and molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology deals with structures sized between 1
to 100 nanometer in at least one dimension, and involves developing materials or devices within
that size. Quantum mechanical effects are very important at this scale.

Nanotechnology is very diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to

completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new
materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to investigating whether we can directly control
matter on the atomic scale.

There is much debate on the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology may be

able to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as
in medicine, electronics, biomaterials and energy production. On the other hand, nanotechnology
raises many of the same issues as with any introduction of new technology, including concerns
about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on
global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns
have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of
nanotechnology is warranted.

ORIGINS

The first use of the concepts found in 'nano-technology' was in "There's Plenty of Room at the
Bottom", a talk given by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting
at Caltech on December 29, 1959. Feynman described a process by which the ability to
manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to
build and operate another proportionally smaller set, and so on down to the needed scale. In the
course of this, he noted, scaling issues would arise from the changing magnitude of various
physical phenomena: gravity would become less important, surface tension and van der Waals
attraction would become increasingly more significant, etc. This basic idea appeared plausible,
and exponential assembly enhances it with parallelism to produce a useful quantity of end
products. The term "nanotechnology" was defined by Tokyo Science University Professor Norio
Taniguchi in a 1974 paper as follows:

"'Nano-technology' mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and

deformation of materials by one atom or by one molecule." In the 1980s the basic idea of this
definition was explored in much more depth by Dr. K. Eric Drexler, who promoted the
technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices through speeches and the
books Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology (1986) and Nanosystems:
Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation, and so the term acquired its current
sense. Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology is considered the first book on
the topic of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology and nanoscience got started in the early 1980s with
two major developments; the birth of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling
microscope (STM). This development led to the discovery of fullerenes in 1985 and carbon
nanotubes a few years later. In another development, the synthesis and properties of
semiconductor nanocrystals was studied; this led to a fast increasing number of metal and metal
oxide nanoparticles and quantum dots. The atomic force microscope (AFM or SFM) was
invented six years after the STM was invented. In 2000, the United States National
Nanotechnology Initiative was founded to coordinate Federal nanotechnology research and
development and is evaluated by the President's Council of Advisors on Science and
Technology.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10−9, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-
carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.12–
0.15 nm, and aDNA double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the
smallest cellular life-forms, the bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length.

To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same
as that of a marble to the size of the earth.Or another way of putting it: a nanometer is the
amount an average man's beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his face.
Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and
devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by
principles of molecular recognition. In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed
from larger entities without atomic-level control.

Areas of physics such as nanoelectronics, nanomechanics, nanophotonics and nanoionics have

evolved during the last few decades to provide a basic scientific foundation of nanotechnology.

Larger to smaller: A materials prospective:

A number of physical phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These
include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the
“quantum size effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions
in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions.
However, quantum effects become dominant when the nanometer size range is reached, typically
at distances of 100 nanometers or less, the so called quantum realm. Additionally, a number of
physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic
systems. One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal
and catalytic properties of materials. Diffusion and reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures
materials and nanodevices with fast ion transport are generally referred
to nanoionics. Mechanical properties of nanosystems are of interest in
the nanomechanics research. The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in
their interaction with biomaterials.

Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties compared to what they exhibit
on a macroscale, enabling unique applications. For instance, opaque substances become
transparent (copper); stable materials turn combustible (aluminum); insoluble materials become
soluble (gold). A material such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a
potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales. Much of the fascination with nanotechnology stems from
these quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale.
Simple to complex: a molecular perspective:

Modern synthetic chemistry has reached the point where it is possible to prepare
small molecules to almost any structure. These methods are used today to manufacture a wide
variety of useful chemicals such as pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers. This ability raises
the question of extending this kind of control to the next-larger level, seeking methods to
assemble these single molecules into supramolecular assemblies consisting of many molecules
arranged in a well defined manner.

These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or supramolecular

chemistry to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a bottom-
up approach. The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be
designed so that a specific configuration or arrangement is favored due to non-
covalent intermolecular forces. The Watson–Crick base pairing rules are a direct result of this, as
is the specificity of an enzyme being targeted to a single substrate, or the specific folding of the
protein itself. Thus, two or more components can be designed to be complementary and mutually
attractive so that they make a more complex and useful whole.

Such bottom-up approaches should be capable of producing devices in parallel and be much
cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and
complexity of the desired assembly increases. Most useful structures require complex and
thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms. Nevertheless, there are many examples of
self-assembly based on molecular recognition in biology, most notably Watson–Crick base
pairing and enzyme-substrate interactions. The challenge for nanotechnology is whether these
principles can be used to engineer new constructs in addition to natural ones.

Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view:

Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing, describes engineered

nanosystems (nanoscale machines) operating on the molecular scale. Molecular nanotechnology
is especially associated with the molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired
structure or device atom-by-atom using the principles of mechanosynthesis. Manufacturing in the
context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the
conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and
nanoparticles.

When the term "nanotechnology" was independently coined and popularized by Eric
Drexler (who at the time was unaware of an earlier usage by Norio Taniguchi) it referred to a
future manufacturing technology based on molecular machine systems. The premise was that
molecular scale biological analogies of traditional machine components demonstrated molecular
machines were possible: by the countless examples found in biology, it is known that
sophisticated, stochastically optimised biological machines can be produced.

It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some
other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles. However, Drexler and other researchers have
proposed that advanced nanotechnology, although perhaps initially implemented by biomimetic
means, ultimately could be based on mechanical engineering principles, namely, a manufacturing
technology based on the mechanical functionality of these components (such as gears, bearings,
motors, and structural members) that would enable programmable, positional assembly to atomic
specification. The physics and engineering performance of exemplar designs were analyzed in
Drexler's book Nanosystems.

In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as all one has to position
atoms on other atoms of comparable size and stickiness. Another view, put forth by Carlo
Montemagno, is that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological
molecular machines. Yet another view, put forward by the late Richard Smalley, is that
mechanosynthesis is impossible due to the difficulties in mechanically manipulating individual
molecules.

This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in
2003. Though biology clearly demonstrates that molecular machine systems are possible, non-
biological molecular machines are today only in their infancy. Leaders in research on non-
biological molecular machines are Dr. Alex Zettl and his colleagues at Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratories and UC Berkeley. They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices
whose motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a
molecular actuator, and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator.
An experiment indicating that positional molecular assembly is possible was performed by Ho
and Lee at Cornell University in 1999. They used a scanning tunneling microscope to move an
individual carbon monoxide molecule (CO) to an individual iron atom (Fe) sitting on a flat silver
crystal, and chemically bound the CO to the Fe by applying a voltage.

CURRENT RESEARCH

Nanomaterials:

The nanomaterials field includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique
properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions.

 Interface and colloid science has given rise to many materials which may be useful in
nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other fullerenes, and
various nanoparticles and nanorods. Nanomaterials with fast ion transport are related also
to nanoionics and nanoelectronics.
 Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most present commercial
applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor.
 Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications;
see Nanomedicine.
 Nanoscale materials are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of
traditional Silicon solar cells
 Development of applications incorporating semiconductor nanoparticles to be used in the
next generation of products, such as display technology, lighting, solar cells and biological
imaging; see quantum dots.
Bottom-up approaches:

These seek to arrange smaller components into more complex assemblies.

 DNA nanotechnology utilizes the specificity of Watson–Crick base pairing to construct

well-defined structures out of DNA and other nucleic acids.
 Approaches from the field of "classical" chemical synthesis also aim at designing
molecules with well-defined shape (e.g. bis-peptides).
 More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of supramolecular
chemistry, and molecular recognition in particular, to cause single-molecule components to
automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation.
 DNA BIO CHIP BY ELABRATED
BOTTOM UP APPROACH

Top-down approaches:

These seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their assembly.

 Many technologies that descended from conventional solid-state silicon methods for
fabricating microprocessors are now capable of creating features smaller than 100 nm, falling
under the definition of nanotechnology. Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already
on the market fit this description, as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques. Peter
Grünberg and Albert Fert received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2007 for their discovery of
Giant magnetoresistance and contributions to the field of spintronics.

 Solid-state techniques can also be used to create devices known

as nanoelectromechanical systems or NEMS, which are related tomicroelectromechanical
systems or MEMS.
 Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a
chemical upon a surface in a desired pattern in a process called dip pen nanolithography. This
fits into the larger subfield of nanolithography.
 Focused ion beams can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable
pre-cursor gasses are applied at the same time. For example, this technique is used routinely
to create sub-100 nm sections of material for analysis in Transmission electron microscopy.
This device transfers energy from nano-thin layers of quantum wells to nanocrystals above them, causing the nanocrystals to
emit visible light

Functional approaches:

These seek to develop components of a desired functionality without regard to how they might
be assembled.

 Molecular electronics seeks to develop molecules with useful electronic properties. These
could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device. For an
example see rotaxane.
 Synthetic chemical methods can also be used to create synthetic molecular motors, such
as in a so-called nanocar.

Biomimetic approaches:

 Bionics or biomimicry seeks to apply biological methods and systems found in nature, to
the study and design of engineering systems and modern technology. Biomineralization is
one example of the systems studied.

 Bionanotechnology the use of biomolecules for applications in nanotechnology, including

use of viruses.

Future prospective of nanotechnology

“Nanotechnology Holds Promises for Consumers, But They Must Beware”

As far as Canadian scientist Dr Nils Petersen is concerned, when talking about nanotechnology,
one has to bear in mind that it is not just a question of working on a microscopic scale, it
is also about exploiting all the unique properties that exist on that scale.
Unusual properties may emerge in matter at such a tiny scale, says Dr Petersen. "There are two
major things we can learn about this: properties of matter change when we move from
one size to the next, and the challenge is for us to understand and exploit these changes,"
Dr Petersen says.

Dr Petersen is the executive director of the Edmonton-based National Institute of

Nanotechnology in the province of Alberta, Canada.

Nanotechnology is the science of manipulating particles measuring between 1 and 100

nanometres. A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. To put it in context, a human hair
measures about 80,000 nanometres, while a page of a book measures 100,000 nanometres
thick. The term "nanotechnology" is believed to have first been used by the late Professor
Norio Taniguchi of the Tokyo Science University in 1974.

The groundwork for nanotechnology was laid 50 years ago, when Nobel-prizewinner physicist
Richard Feynman talked about "the problem of manipulating and controlling things on a
small scale". He said he was inspired by biology, which showed that nature had mastered
the art of compressing massive amounts of information in tiny molecules called DNA.
However, it is only in the last 25 years that scientists have begun to develop the tools to
facilitate a better understanding, Dr Petersen points out. And the costs can be prohibitive.
For example, the Institute has invested more than CAD $45 million for various tools and
facilities. "If we were to look across Canada, over the last several years, we would have
easily invested CAD $250million. It is a very expensive game to get into."

Presently nanotechnology and its associated research discipline of nonoscience together

constitute the complete spectrum of activities towards the promised next industrial
revolution.The span of the whole spectrum of the physical, chemical , biological and
mathamaticall sciences need to develop the purposeful capabilities of nano manipulations , nano
structural modifications, miniaturization and bottom up technology originally proposed by
Richard Feynman in his well known 1959 lecture.The emerging fields of nano science and
nanotechnology are also creating the necessary experimental and computational tools for design
and fabrication of nano-dimension electronic, photonic ,biological and energy transfer
components, such as quantum dots, atomic wires, operating and nanoscopic length scales, etc
 Nanotechnology should have major impacts on several key scientific and techonological
activities in a not too distant future. Expansions on these subjects will have a lot to do on the
technological advances in instruments and tools of fabrication and manipulation in nano scale.
Such instruments and tools are for the means for live visualation and manupalation in nano-
world.THEY ARE PRESENTLY EXPENSIVE AND as a result not available to many
investigators. Techonological advances are always fallowed with reduction of prices as has been
the caes with the electronic and communication industry products in recent decades

The decisive and important leading role of molecular based techniques for the study of
matter in fields of nanotechnology are well understood. Any development in this field will have a
great deal to do with advances in these techniques Advances in molecular based study of matter
in nonoscale will help to understand, stimulate, predict and formulate new materials utilising the
fields of quantum and statistical mechanics, intermolecular attrication, molecular stumilation and
molecular modelling. We may then be able to understand how to design new molecular building
blocks which could allow self assembly or self replication to advance the bottom up approach of
producing the necessary materials for the advancement of nanotechnology. The past trend of
contributions of molecular based study of matter in macroscopic technologies is indicative of the
fact that its future influence into nanotechnology is quite promising.

The Future Uses of Nanotechnology:

Nanotechnology is already found in minute particles used in everyday products such as

sunscreens. Many sunscreens today contain zinc oxide or titanium oxide nanoparticles
that allow the creams to be absorbed into the skin, leaving no whitish residue behind.
Nanoparticles are also used in scratch-resistant glass, wrinkle-resistant clothes, and
stronger but lighter tennis rackets

However, Dr. Petersen said these are “pedestrian applications” of a very powerful science. It is in
the medical arena that the really interesting work is happening. For example, nanoscale
magnets might be used to improve the contrast between healthy and diseased tissue in
medical resonance imaging. Clinical trials in the U.S. testing to see if nanoparticles can
be used to kill cancerous cells in humans have shown promising results, Dr Petersen said.
The next five to 10 years will see a lot of interesting work being done in the medical area, Dr
Petersen says. It is in the next 10-15 years that we will see truly "transformational
changes". For example, materials that might detect toxins in clothes is a strong
possibility.

Value and scope of nanotechnology in India:

Nanotechnology is derived from the combination of two words Nano and Technology. Nano
means very small or “miniature”. So, Nanotechnology is the technology in miniature
form. It is the combination of Bio- technology, Chemistry, Physics and Bio-informatics,
etc.

Nanotechnology originated in India around 16 years back. It is in its early development phase
and therefore the industry keeps a keen watch over the students who pursue M. Tech. in
nanotechnology. There are several career opportunities for such students in domestic as
well as international markets.

This new sphere of scientific innovation has a broader scope. Several Indian institutes have
introduced degree courses in Nanotechnology at both the UG and PG levels. The areas
covered in the Nanotech are Food and Beverage, Bio- Technology, Forensic Sciences,
Genetics, Space Research, Environment industry, Medicine, Agriculture and Teaching.

The three chief divisions of Nanotech are Nanoelectronics, Nanomaterials, and Nano-
Biotechnology. The implications of Nanotechnology in India can be found in the field of
telecommunications, computing, aerospace, solar energy, and environment. However,
Nanotech’s major contribution can be seen in the computing, communication and,
medical field.

Nanomedicine is the most important field of Nanotechnology. The nano level gadgets and
materials are used for diagnosing and treatment of diseases. Nano-Pharmacology has
generated a specific category of smart drugs that affect negligible side effects. The use of
Nanotech has also helped in the detection of narcotics and fingerprints of the suspected
criminals.
The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, also known as CSIR has set up 38 laboratories
in India dedicated to research in Nanotechnology. This technology will be used in
diagnostic kits, improved water filters and sensors and drug delivery. The research is
being conducted on using it to reduce pollution emitted by the vehicles.

Looking at the progressive prospects of Nanotechnology in India, Nanobiosym Inc., a US-based

leading nanotechnology firm is planning to set up India’s first integrated nanotechnology
and biomedicine technology park in Himachal Pradesh. Nanotechnology has certainly
acquired an essential position in the Indian Economy and Scientific Research Department
and it is expected to reach the pinnacle of Development thereby making India a role
model for the countries of the world.

APPLICATIONS

Nanotechonolgy is used in the following fields:

Medicine:

The biological and medical research communities have exploited the unique properties of
nanomaterials for various applications (e.g., contrast agents for cell imaging and
therapeutics for treating cancer). Terms such as biomedical nanotechnology,
nanobiotechnology, and nanomedicine are used to describe this hybrid field.
Functionalities can be added to nanomaterials by interfacing them with biological
molecules or structures. The size of nanomaterials is similar to that of most biological
molecules and structures; therefore, nanomaterials can be useful for both in vivo and in
vitro biomedical research and applications. Thus far, the integration of nanomaterials
with biology has led to the development of diagnostic devices, contrast agents, analytical
tools, physical therapy applications, and drug delivery vehicles.

Diagnostics:

Nanotechnology-on-a-chip is one more dimension of lab-on-a-chip technology. Magnetic

nanoparticles, bound to a suitable antibody, are used to label specific molecules,
 structures or microorganisms. Gold nanoparticles tagged with short segments of DNA
can be used for detection of genetic sequence in a sample. Multicolor optical coding for
biological assays has been achieved by embedding different-sized quantum dots into
polymeric microbeads. Nanopore technology for analysis of nucleic acids converts
strings of nucleotides directly into electronic signatures.

Tissue Engineering:

Nanotechnology can help to reproduce or to repair damaged tissue. “Tissue engineering” makes
use of artificially stimulated cell proliferation by using suitable nanomaterial-based
scaffolds and growth factors. Tissue engineering might replace today’s conventional
treatments like organ transplants or artificial implants. Advanced forms of tissue
engineering may lead to life extension.

For patients with end-state organ failure, there may not be enough healthy cells for expansion
and transplantation into the ECM (extracellular matrix). In this case, pluripotent stem
cells are needed. One potential source for these cells is iPS (induced Pluripotent Stem
cells); these are ordinary cells from the patients own body that are reprogrammed into a
pluripotent state, and has the advantage of avoiding rejection (and the potentially life-
threatening complications associated with immunosuppressive treatments). Another
potential source of pluripotent cells is from embryos, but this has two disadvantages: 1) It
requires that we solve the problem of cloning, which is technically very difficult
(especially preventing abnormalities). 2) It requires the harvesting of embryos. Given that
each one of us was once an embryo, this source is claimed by some to be ethically
problematic.it is also use for anti aging medicine.

Recycling of batteries:

Because of the relatively low energy density of batteries the operating time is limited and a
replacement or recharging is needed. The huge number of spent batteries and
accumulators represent a disposal problem. The use of batteries with higher energy
content or the use of rechargeable batteries or supercapacitors with higher rate of
recharging using nanomaterials could be helpful for the battery disposal problem.
Memory Storage:

Electronic memory designs in the past have largely relied on the formation of transistors.
However, research into crossbar switch based electronics have offered an alternative
using reconfigurable interconnections between vertical and horizontal wiring arrays to
create ultra high density memories. Two leaders in this area are Nantero which has
developed a carbon nanotube based crossbar memory called Nano-RAM and Hewlett-
Packard which has proposed the use of memristor material as a future replacement of
Flash memory.

Novel semiconductor devices:

An example of such novel devices is based on spintronics.The dependence of the resistance of a

material (due to the spin of the electrons) on an external field is called magnetoresistance.
This effect can be significantly amplified (GMR - Giant Magneto-Resistance) for
nanosized objects, for example when two ferromagnetic layers are separated by a
nonmagnetic layer, which is several nanometers thick (e.g. Co-Cu-Co). The GMR effect
has led to a strong increase in the data storage density of hard disks and made the
gigabyte range possible. The so called tunneling.

magnetoresistance (TMR) is very similar to GMR and based on the spin dependent tunneling of
electrons through adjacent ferromagnetic layers. Both GMR and TMR effects can be used
to create a non-volatile main memory for computers, such as the so called magnetic
random access memory or MRAM.

In 1999, the ultimate CMOS transistor developed at the Laboratory for Electronics and
Information Technology in Grenoble, France, tested the limits of the principles of the
MOSFET transistor with a diameter of 18 nm (approximately 70 atoms placed side by
side). This was almost one tenth the size of the smallest industrial transistor in 2003 (130
nm in 2003, 90 nm in 2004, 65 nm in 2005 and 45 nm in 2007). It enabled the theoretical
integration of seven billion junctions on a €1 coin. However, the CMOS transistor, which
was created in 1999, was not a simple research experiment to study how CMOS
technology functions, but rather a demonstration of how this technology functions now
 that we ourselves are getting ever closer to working on a molecular scale. Today it would
be impossible to master the coordinated assembly of a large number of these transistors
on a circuit and it would also be impossible to create this on an industrial level.

Nanotechnology has also a great impact on aerospace, quantum computers, refining and various
other purposes.

Refrences

Regan, B. C.; Aloni, S.; Jensen, K.; Zettl, A. (2005). "Surface-tension-driven

nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator". Applied Physics Letters 86: 123119.
doi:10.1063/1.1887827.

N. Taniguchi (1974). On the Basic Concept of 'Nano-Technology. Proc. Intl. Conf. Prod.
London, Part II British Society of Precision Engineering.

Akhlesh Lakhtakia (ed) (2004). The Handbook of Nanotechnology. Nanometer

Structures: Theory, Modeling, and Simulation. SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA, USA. ISBN
0-8194-5186-X

entrance-exam.net/nanotechnology-value-and-scope-of-nanotechnology-in-india/

www.nanomagzine.co.uk

www.discovernano.northwestern.edu

Abraham, Sathya Achia (20). "Researchers Develop Buckyballs to Fight Allergy". Virginia
Commonwealth University Communications and Public Relations. Retrieved 4
November 2010