TYPES OF DISTILLATION COLUMNS

There are many types of distillation columns, each designed to perform specific types of
separations, and each design differs in terms of complexity.
Batch and Continuous Columns
One way of classifying distillation column type is to look at how they are operated. Thus we
have:
batch and

continuous columns.

Batch Columns
In batch operation, the feed to the column is introduced batch-wise. That is, the column is
charged with a 'batch' and then the distillation process is carried out. When the desired task
is achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced.
Continuous Columns
In contrast, continuous columns process a continuous feed stream. No interruptions occur
unless there is a problem with the column or surrounding process units. They are capable of
handling high throughputs and are the most common of the two types. We shall concentrate
only on this class of columns.
Types of Continuous Columns
Continuous columns can be further classified according to:

the nature of the feed that they are processing,

binary column - feed contains only two components

multi-component column - feed contains more than two components

the number of product streams they have

multi-product column - column has more than two product streams

where the extra feed exits when it is used to help with the separation,
extractive distillation - where the extra feed appears in the bottom product stream

azeotropic distillation - where the extra feed appears at the top product stream

the type of column internals

tray column - where trays of various designs are used to hold up the liquid to provide
better contact between vapour and liquid, hence better separation
packed column - where instead of trays, 'packings' are used to enhance contact
between vapour and liquid
BASIC DISTILLATION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION
Main Components of Distillation Columns
Distillation columns are made up of several components, each of which is used either to
tranfer heat energy or enhance materail transfer. A typical distillation contains several
major components:
a vertical shell where the separation of liquid components is carried out

column internals such as trays/plates and/or packings which are used to

enhance component separations
a reboiler to provide the necessary vaporisation for the distillation process

a condenser to cool and condense the vapour leaving the top of the column

a reflux drum to hold the condensed vapour from the top of the column so that
liquid (reflux) can be recycled back to the column
The vertical shell houses the column internals and together with the condenser and reboiler,
constitute a distillation column. A schematic of a typical distillation unit with a single feed
and two product streams is shown below:

Basic Operation and Terminology

The liquid mixture that is to be processed is known as the feed and this is introduced
usually somewhere near the middle of the column to a tray known as the feed tray. The
feed tray divides the column into a top (enriching or rectification) section and a bottom
(stripping) section. The feed flows down the column where it is collected at the bottom in
the reboiler.

Heat is supplied to the reboiler to generate vapour. The

source of heat input can be any suitable fluid, although in
most chemical plants this is normally steam. In refineries, the
heating source may be the output streams of other columns.
The vapour raised in the reboiler is re-introduced into the unit
at the bottom of the column. The liquid removed from the
reboiler is known as the bottoms product or
simply, bottoms.

The vapour moves up the column, and as it

exits the top of the unit, it is cooled by
a condenser. The condensed liquid is stored in
a holding vessel known as the reflux drum.
Some of this liquid is recycled back to the top
of the column and this is called the reflux. The
condensed liquid that is removed from the
system is known as the distillate or top product.

Thus, there are internal flows of vapour and liquid within the column as well as external
flows of feeds and product streams, into and out of the column.

COLUMN INTERNALS
Trays and Plates
The terms "trays" and "plates" are used interchangeably. There are many types of tray
designs, but the most common ones are :
Bubble cap trays
A bubble cap tray has riser or chimney
fitted over each hole, and a cap that
covers the riser. The cap is mounted so
that there is a space between riser and
cap to allow the passage of vapour.
Vapour rises through the chimney and is directed
downward by the cap, finally discharging through slots
in the cap, and finally bubbling through the liquid on the tray.
Valve trays
In valve trays, perforations are covered by liftable
caps. Vapour flows lifts the caps, thus self creating a
flow area for the passage of vapour. The lifting cap
directs the vapour to flow horizontally into the liquid,
thus providing better mixing than is possible in sieve
trays.
 Valve trays (photos courtesy of Paul Phillips)
Sieve trays
Sieve trays are simply metal plates with holes in them.
Vapour passes straight upward through the liquid on
the plate. The arrangement, number and size of the
holes are design parameters.

Because of their efficiency, wide operating range, ease of maintenance and cost factors,
sieve and valve trays have replaced the once highly thought of bubble cap trays in many
applications.
Liquid and Vapour Flows in a Tray Column
The next few figures show the direction of vapour and liquid flow across a tray, and across a
column.
Each tray has 2 conduits, one on each side, called ‘downcomers’.
Liquid falls through the downcomers by gravity from one tray to the
one below it. The flow across each plate is shown in the above
diagram on the right.

A weir on the tray ensures that there is always some liquid (holdup)
on the tray and is designed such that the the holdup is at a suitable
height, e.g. such that the bubble caps are covered by liquid.

Being lighter, vapour flows up the column and is forced to pass

through the liquid, via the openings on each tray. The area allowed
for the passage of vapour on each tray
is called the active tray area.

The picture on the left is a photograph

of a section of a pilot scale column
equiped with bubble capped trays. The
tops of the 4 bubble caps on the tray can just be seen. The
down- comer in this case is a pipe, and is shown on the right.
The frothing of the liquid on the active tray area is due to
both passage of vapour from the tray below as well as
boiling.

As the hotter vapour passes through the liquid on the tray

above, it transfers heat to the liquid. In doing so, some of the
vapour condenses adding to the liquid on the tray. The
condensate, however, is richer in the less volatile
components than is in the vapour. Additionally, because of
the heat input from the vapour, the liquid on the tray boils,
generating more vapour. This vapour, which moves up to the next tray in the column, is
richer in the more volatile components. This continuous contacting between vapour and
liquid occurs on each tray in the column and brings about the separation between low
boiling point components and those with higher boiling points.
Tray Designs
A tray essentially acts as a mini-column, each accomplishing a fraction of the separation
task. From this we can deduce that the more trays there are, the better the degree of
separation and that overall separation efficiency will depend significantly on the design of
the tray. Trays are designed to maximise vapour-liquid contact by considering the
liquid distribution and

vapour distribution

on the tray. This is because better vapour-liquid contact means better separation at each
tray, translating to better column performance. Less trays will be required to achieve the
same degree of separation. Attendant benefits include less energy usage and lower
construction costs.
 Liquid distributors - Gravity (left), Spray (right)
(photos courtesy of Paul Phillips)
Packings
There is a clear trend to improve separations by supplementing the use of trays by additions
of packings. Packings are passive devices that are designed to increase the interfacial area
for vapour-liquid contact. The following pictures show 3 different types of packings.

These strangely shaped pieces are supposed to impart good vapour-liquid contact when a
particular type is placed together in numbers, without causing excessive pressure-drop
across a packed section. This is important because a high pressure drop would mean that
more energy is required to drive the vapour up the distillation column.

Structured packing (photo courtesy of Paul Phillips)

Packings versus Trays
A tray column that is facing throughput problems may be de-bottlenecked by replacing a
section of trays with packings. This is because:
packings provide extra inter-facial area for liquid-vapour contact

efficiency of separation is increased for the same column height

 packed columns are shorter than trayed columns

Packed columns are called continuous-contact columns while trayed columns are
called staged-contact columns because of the manner in which vapour and liquid are
contacted.
COLUMN REBOILERS
There are a number of designs of reboilers. It is beyond the scope of this set of introductory
notes to delve into their design principles. However, they can be regarded as heat-
exchangers that are required to transfer enough energy to bring the liquid at the bottom of
the column to boiling boint. The following are examples of typical reboiler types.

Photo courtesy of Brian Kennedy

 Tube bundle Tube bundle
(photo courtesy of Paul Phillips) (photo courtesy of Paul Phillips)

Tubesheet
Fitting a Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger
(photo courtesy of Paul Phillips)
(photo courtesy of Paul Phillips)

A novel development in reboiler design is the self-

cleaning shell-and-tube heat exchangers by Klaren
International for applications where heat exchange
surfaces are prone to fouling by the process fluid.
Particles are introduced into the process stream and
these produce a scouring action on the heat exchange
surfaces. An example is shown in the diagram on the
left. [Click on it to find out more]
 DISTILLATION PRINCIPLES
Separation of components from a liquid mixture via distillation depends on the differences in
boiling points of the individual components. Also, depending on the concentrations of the
components present, the liquid mixture will have different boiling point characteristics.
Therefore, distillation processes depends on the vapour pressurecharacteristics of liquid
mixtures.
Vapour Pressure and Boiling
The vapour pressure of a liquid at a particular temperature is the equilibrium
pressureexerted by molecules leaving and entering the liquid surface. Here are some
important points regarding vapour pressure:
energy input raises vapour pressure

vapour pressure is related to boiling

a liquid is said to ‘boil’ when its vapour pressure equals the surrounding pressure

the ease with which a liquid boils depends on its volatility

liquids with high vapour pressures (volatile liquids) will boil at lower temperatures
the vapour pressure and hence the boiling point of a liquid mixture depends on the
relative amounts of the components in the mixture
distillation occurs because of the differences in the volatility of the components in the
liquid mixture
The Boiling Point Diagram
The boiling point diagram shows how the equilibrium compositions of the components in a
liquid mixture vary with temperature at a fixed pressure. Consider an example of a liquid
mixture containing 2 components (A and B) - a binary mixture. This has the following
boiling point diagram.

The boiling point of A is that at which the mole

fraction of A is 1. The boiling point of B is that
at which the mole fraction of A is 0. In this
example, A is the more volatile component and
therefore has a lower boiling point than B. The
upper curve in the diagram is called the dew-
point curve while the lower one is called
the bubble-point curve.

The dew-point is the temperature at which

the saturated vapour starts to condense.

The bubble-point is the temperature at

which the liquid starts to boil.

The region above the dew-point curve shows

the equilibrium composition of the superheated vapour while the region below the bubble-
point curve shows the equilibrium composition of the subcooled liquid.
For example, when a subcooled liquid with mole fraction of A=0.4 (point A) is heated, its
concentration remains constant until it reaches the bubble-point (point B), when it starts to
boil. The vapours evolved during the boiling has the equilibrium composition given by point
C, approximately 0.8 mole fraction A. This is approximately 50% richer in A than the
original liquid.

This difference between liquid and vapour compositions is the basis for distillation
operations.
Relative Volatility
Relative volatility is a measure of the differences in volatility between 2 components, and
hence their boiling points. It indicates how easy or difficult a particular separation will be.
The relative volatility of component ‘i’ with respect to component ‘j’ is
defined as

yi = mole fraction of component ‘i’ in the vapour

xi = mole fraction of component ‘i’ in the liquid

Thus if the relative volatility between 2 components is very close to one,

it is an indication that they have very similar vapour pressure
characteristics. This means that they have very similar boiling points and therefore, it will
be difficult to separate the two components via distillation.

Distillation columns are designed based on the boiling point properties of the components
in the mixtures being separated. Thus the sizes, particularly the height, of distillation
columns are determined by the vapour liquid equilibrium (VLE) data for the mixtures.
Vapour-Liquid-Equilibrium (VLE) Curves
Constant pressure VLE data is obtained from boiling
point diagrams. VLE data of binary mixtures is often
presented as a plot, as shown in the figure on the
right. The VLE plot expresses the bubble-point and
the dew-point of a binary mixture at constant
pressure. The curved line is called the equilibrium
line and describes the compositions of the liquid and
vapour in equilibrium at some fixed pressure.

This particular VLE plot shows a binary mixture that has a

uniform vapour-liquid equilibrium that is relatively easy to
separate. The next two VLE plots below on the other hand,
shows non-ideal systems which will present more difficult
separations. We can tell from the shapes of the curves and
this will be explained further later on.
The most intriguing VLE curves are generated by azeotropic systems. An azeotrope is a
liquid mixture which when vaporised, produces the same composition as the liquid. The
two VLE plots below, show two different azeotropic systems, one with a minimum boiling
point and one with a maximum boiling point. In both plots, the equilibrium curves cross
the diagonal lines, and this are azeotropic points where the azeotropes occur. In other
words azeotropic systems give rise to VLE plots where the equilibrium curves crosses the
diagonals.

Note the shapes of the respective equilibrium lines in relation to the diagonal lines that
bisect the VLE plots.

Both plots are however, obtained from homogenous azeotropic systems. An azeotrope that
contains one liquid phase in contact with vapour is called a homogenous azeotrope. A
homogenous azeotrope cannot be separated by conventional distillation. However, vacumn
distillation may be used as the lower pressures can shift the azeotropic point.Alternatively,
an additional substance may added to shift the azeotropic point to a more ‘favourable’
position.
 When this additional component appears in appreciable amounts at the top of the
column, the operation is called azeotropic distillation.
When the additional component appears mostly at the bottom of the column, the
operation is called extractive distillation
The VLE curve on the left is also generated by an
azeotropic system, in this case a heterogenous
azeotrope. Heterogenous azeotropes can be identified
by the ‘flat’ portion on the equilibrium diagram.

They may be separated in 2 distillation columns since

these substances usually form two liquid phases with
widely differing compositions. The phases may be
separated using settling tanks under appropriate
conditions.

Next, we will look at how VLE plots/data are used to design distillation columns.

DISTILLATION COLUMN DESIGN

As mentioned, distillation columns are designed using VLE data for the mixtures to be
separated. The vapour-liquid equilibrium characteristics (indicated by the shape of the
equilibrium curve) of the mixture will determine the number of stages, and hence the
number of trays, required for the separation. This is illustrated clearly by applying
the McCabe-Thiele method to design a binary column.
McCABE-THIELE DESIGN METHOD
The McCabe-Thiele approach is a graphical one, and uses the VLE plot to determine the
theoretical number of stages required to effect the separation of a binary mixture. It
assumes constant molar overflow and this implies that:
molal heats of vaporisation of the components are roughly the same

heat effects (heats of solution, heat losses to and from column, etc.) are negligible

for every mole of vapour condensed, 1 mole of liquid is vaporised

The design procedure is simple. Given the VLE diagram of the binary mixture, operating
lines are drawn first.
Operating lines define the mass balance relationships between the liquid and vapour
phases in the column.
There is one operating line for the bottom (stripping) section of the column, and on
for the top (rectification or enriching) section of the column.
Use of the constant molar overflow assumption also ensures the the operating lines
are straight lines.
Operating Line for the Rectification Section
The operating line for the rectification section is constructed as follows. First the
desired top product composition is located on the VLE diagram, and a vertical line
produced until it intersects the diagonal line that splits the VLE plot in half. A line with
slope R/(R+1) is then drawn from this instersection point as shown in the diagram
below.

R is the ratio of reflux flow (L) to distillate flow (D) and is called the reflux ratioand is
a measure of how much of the material going up the top of the column is returned
back to the column as reflux.
Operating Line for the Stripping Section
The operating line for the stripping section is constructed in a similar manner.
However, the starting point is the desired bottom product composition. A vertical line
is drawn from this point to the diagonal line, and a line of slope Ls/Vs is drawn as
illustrated in the diagram below.

Ls is the liquid rate down the stripping section of the column, while Vs is the vapour
rate up the stripping section of the column. Thus the slope of the operating line for
the stripping section is a ratio between the liquid and vapour flows in that part of the
column.
Equilibrium and Operating Lines
The McCabe-Thiele method assumes that the liquid on a tray and the vapour above it
are in equilibrium. How this is related to the VLE plot and the operating lines is
depicted graphically in the diagram on the right.

A magnified section of the operating line for the stripping section is shown in relation
to the corresponding n'th stage in the column. L's are the liquid flows while V's are
the vapour flows. x and y denote liquid and vapour compositions and the subscripts
denote the origin of the flows or compositions. That is 'n-1' will mean from the
stage below stage 'n' while 'n+1' will mean from the stage above stage 'n'. The
liquid in stage 'n' and the vapour above it are in equilibrium, therefore, x n and yn lie
on the equilibrium line. Since the vapour is carried to the tray above without changing
composition, this is depicted as a horizontal line on the VLE plot. Its intersection with
the operating line will give the composition of the liquid on tray 'n+1' as the
operating line defines the material balance on the trays. The composition of the
vapour above the 'n+1' tray is obtained from the intersection of the vertical line from
this point to the equilibrium line.
Number of Stages and Trays
Doing the graphical construction repeatedly will give rise to a number of 'corner'
sections, and each section will be equivalent to a stage of the distillation. This is the
basis of sizing distillation columns using the McCabe-Thiele graphical design
methodology as shown in the following example.
 Given the operating lines for both
stripping and rectification sections, the
graphical construction described above
was applied. This particular example
shows that 7 theoreticalstages are
required to achieve the desired
separation. The required number of trays
(as opposed to stages) is one less than
the number of stages since the graphical
construction includes the contribution of
the reboiler in carrying out the
separation.

The actual number of trays required is

given by the formula:

(number of theoretical trays)/(tray efficiency)

Typical values for tray efficiency ranges from 0.5 to 0.7 and depends on a number of
factors, such as the type of trays being used, and internal liquid and vapour flow
conditions. Sometimes, additional trays are added (up to 10%) to accomodate the
possibility that the column may be under-designed.
The Feed Line (q-line)
The diagram above also shows that the binary feed should be introduced at the 4'th
stage. However, if the feed composition is such that it does not coincide with the
intersection of the operating lines, this means that the feed is not a saturated liquid.
The condition of the feed can be deduced by the slope of the feed line or q-line. The
q-line is that drawn between the intersection of the operating lines, and where the
feed composition lies on the diagonal line.

Depending on the state of the feed, the

feed lines will have different slopes. For
example,

q = 0 (saturated vapour)
q = 1 (saturated liquid)
0 < q < 1 (mix of liquid and vapour)
q > 1 (subcooled liquid)
q < 0 (superheated vapour)

The q-lines for the various feed conditions

are shown in the diagram on the left.

Using Operating Lines and the Feed Line in McCabe-Thiele Design

If we have information about the condition of the feed mixture, then we can construct
 the q-line and use it in the McCabe-Thiele design. However, excluding the equilibrium
line, only two other pairs of lines can be used in the McCabe-Thiele procedure. These
are:

 feed-line and rectification section operating line

 feed-line and stripping section operating line
 stripping and rectification operating lines

This is because these pairs of lines determine the third.

[see Flash tutorial on Distillation Basics written by Jon Lee]

OVERALL COLUMN DESIGN
Determining the number of stages required for the desired degree of separation and the
location of the feed tray is merely the first steps in producing an overall distillation column
design. Other things that need to be considered are tray spacings; column diameter;
internal configurations; heating and cooling duties. All of these can lead to conflicting
design parameters. Thus, distillation column design is often an iterative procedure. If the
conflicts are not resolved at the design stage, then the column will not perform well in
practice. The next set of notes will discuss the factors that can affect distillation column
performance.

EFFECTS OF THE NUMBER OF TRAYS OR STAGES

Here we will expand on the design of columns by looking briefly at the effects of
the number of trays, and

the position of the feed tray, and

on the performances of distillation columns.

Effects of the Number of Trays
It can be deduced from the previous section on distillation column design that the
number of trays will influence the degree of separation. This is illustrated by the
following example.

Consider as a base case, a 10 stage column. The feed is a binary mixture that has a
composition of 0.5 mole fraction in terms of the more volatile component, and
introduced at stage 5. The steady-state terminal compositions of about 0.65 at the
top (stage 1) and 0.1 at the bottom (stage 10) are shown below:
 Composition Profile: 10 stages, feed at stage 5

Suppose we decrease the number of stages to 8, and keep the feed at the middle
stage, i.e. stage 4. The resulting composition profile is:

Composition Profile: 8 stages, feed at stage 4

We can see that the top composition has decreased while the bottom composition has
increased. That is, the separation is poorer.

Now, if we increase the number of stages to 12, and again introduce the feed at
mid-column, i.e. stage 6, the composition profile we get is:
 Composition Profile: 12 stages, feed at stage 6

Again, the composition has changed. This time the distillate is much richer in the
more volatile component, while the bottoms has less, indicating better separation.

Thus, increasing the number of stages will improve separation.

Effect of Feed Tray Position
Here we look at how the position of the feed tray affects separation efficiency.
Suppose we have a 20 stage column, again separating a binary mixture that has a
composition of 0.5 mole fraction in terms of the more volatile component. The
terminal compositions obtained when the feed is introduced at stages 5, 10 and 15
(at fixed reflux and reboil rates) are shown in the following plots.

Composition profile: 20 stages, feed at stage 5

 Composition profile: 20 stages, feed at stage 10

Composition profile: 20 stages, feed at stage 15

As the feed stage is moved lower down the column, the top composition becomes less
rich in the more volatile component while the bottoms contains more of the more
volatile component. However, the changes in top composition is not as marked as the
 bottoms composition.

The preceding examples illustrate what can happen if the position of the feed tray is
shifted for this particular system. They should not be used to generalise to other
distillation systems, as the effects are not straightforward.

FACTORS AFFECTING DISTILLATION COLUMN OPERATION

The performance of a distillation column is determined by many factors, for example:
feed conditions

 state of feed
 composition of feed
 trace elements that can severely affect the VLE of liquid mixtures

internal liquid and fluid flow conditions

state of trays (packings)

weather conditions
Some of these will be discussed below to give an idea of the complexity of the distillation
process.
Feed Conditions
The state of the feed mixture and feed composition affects the operating lines and
hence the number of stages required for separation. It also affects the location of feed
tray. During operation, if the deviations from design specifications are excessive, then
the column may no longer be able handle the separation task. To overcome the
problems associated with the feed, some column are designed to have multiple feed
points when the feed is expected to containing varying amounts of components.
Reflux Conditions
As the reflux ratio is increased, the
gradient of operating line for the
rectification section moves towards a
maximum value of 1. Physically, what this
means is that more and more liquid that is
rich in the more volatile components are
being recycled back into the column.
Separation then becomes better and thus
less trays are needed to achieve the same
degree of separation. Minimum trays are
required under total refluxconditions, i.e.
there is no withdrawal of distillate.

On the other hand, as reflux is decreased,

the operating line for the rectification
section moves towards the equilibrium
line. The ‘pinch’ between operating and
equilibrium lines becomes more
pronounced and more and more trays are
required. This is easy to verify using the McCabe-Thiele method.

The limiting condition occurs at minimum reflux ration, when an infinite number of
trays will be required to effect separation. Most columns are designed to operate
between 1.2 to 1.5 times the minimum reflux ratio because this is approximately the
region of minimum operating costs (more reflux means higher reboiler duty).
Vapour Flow Conditions
Adverse vapour flow conditions can cause

 foaming
 entrainment
 weeping/dumping
 flooding

Foaming
Foaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of vapour or gas.
Although it provides high interfacial liquid-vapour contact, excessive foaming
often leads to liquid buildup on trays. In some cases, foaming may be so bad
that the foam mixes with liquid on the tray above. Whether foaming will occur
depends primarily on physical properties of the liquid mixtures, but is sometimes
due to tray designs and condition. Whatever the cause, separation efficiency is
always reduced.
Entrainment
Entrainment refers to the liquid carried by vapour up to the tray above and is
again caused by high vapour flow rates. It is detrimental because tray efficiency
is reduced: lower volatile material is carried to a plate holding liquid of higher
volatility. It could also contaminate high purity distillate. Excessive entrainment
can lead to flooding.
Weeping/Dumping
This phenomenon is caused by low vapour flow. The pressure exerted by the
vapour is insufficient to hold up the liquid on the tray. Therefore, liquid starts to
leak through perforations. Excessive weeping will lead to dumping. That is the
liquid on all trays will crash (dump) through to the base of the column (via a
domino effect) and the column will have to be re-started. Weeping is indicated
by a sharp pressure drop in the column and reduced separation efficiency.
Flooding
Flooding is brought about by excessive vapour flow, causing liquid to be
entrained in the vapour up the column. The increased pressure from excessive
vapour also backs up the liquid in the downcomer, causing an increase in liquid
holdup on the plate above. Depending on the degree of flooding, the maximum
capacity of the column may be severely reduced. Flooding is detected by sharp
increases in column differential pressure and significant decrease in separation
efficiency.
Reboiler Temperature
As a reboiler slowly plugs on the tube side, the bottoms temperature goes down
and this leads to low vapor flow. Online monitoring of the heat transfer
coefficient in control system can identify this problem early on along with the
monitoring of bottoms temperature. A self cleaning heat exchanger when used
in place of a reboiler can mitigate this problem.
Reduction in Vacuum
A slight drop in vacuum causes the boiling point(s) to go up, leading to low
 vapour flow, loss of production and and off spec products.
Wet Feed
If a column is typically fed a dry hydrocarbon feed but the feed becomes
contaminated with water then at some point, when the water/ hydrocarbon
mixture enters the tower the water can vaporize so rapidly that it causes an
over pressure event. This can and will damage trays. This effects column
efficiency and product quality.
Column Diameter
Most of the above factors that affect column operation is due to vapour flow conditions:
either excessive or too low. Vapour flow velocity is dependent on column diameter.
Weeping determines the minimum vapour flow required while flooding determines the
maximum vapour flow allowed, hence column capacity. Thus, if the column diameter is
not sized properly, the column will not perform well. Not only will operational problems
occur, the desired separation duties may not be achieved.
State of Trays and Packings
Remember that the actual number of trays required for a particular separation duty is
determined by the efficiency of the plate, and the packings if packings are used. Thus,
any factors that cause a decrease in tray efficiency will also change the performance of
the column. Tray efficiencies are affected by fouling, wear and tear and corrosion, and
the rates at which these occur depends on the properties of the liquids being
processed. Thus appropriate materials should be specified for tray construction.
Weather Conditions
Most distillation columns are open to the atmosphere. Although many of the columns
are insulated, changing weather conditions can still affect column operation. Thus the
reboiler must be appropriately sized to ensure that enough vapour can be generated
during cold and windy spells and that it can be turned down sufficiently during hot
seasons. The same applies to condensers.
These are some of the more important factors that can cause poor distillation column
performance. Other factors include changing operating conditions and throughputs, brought
about by changes in upstream conditions and changes in the demand for the products. All
these factors, including the associated control system, should be considered at the design
stages because once a column is built and installed, nothing much can be done to rectify the
situation without incurring significant costs. The control of distillation columns is a field in its
own right, but that's another story. COSTELLO can provide engineering design for new
columns and support/ troubleshooting for existing columns. Our engineers have extensive
experience in column instrumentation and controls.

Types of Distillation
 Simple distillation
 Fractional distillation
 Steam distillation
 Vacuum distillation
 Air-sensitive vacuum distillation
 Short path distillation
 Zone distillation
Simple Distillation:
The vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser. Consequently, the distillate is not pure but rather its composition is identical to the
composition of the vapors at the given temperature and pressure.

Simple Distillation
Fractional Distillation:
It is used in order to separate the components by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractionating column. This
separation, by successive distillations, is also referred to as rectification.
Steam Distillation:
Steam Distillation is a method of distilling compounds which are heat-sensitive. The temperature of the steam is easier to control than the
surface of a heating element. This allows a high rate of heat transfer without heating at a very high temperature.
Vacuum Distillation:
Some compounds have very high boiling points. Sometimes its easier to lower the pressure than to reach its high boiling point. This
technique is referred to as vacuum distillation and it is commonly found in the laboratory in the form of the rotary evaporator.
Air-Sensitive Vacuum Distillation:
Some compounds have high boiling points as well as being air sensitive. For these compounds, a simple vacuum distillation system can
be used. Wherein the vacuum is replaced with an inert gas after the distillation is complete.
Short Path Distillation:
It is a distillation technique that involves the distillate traveling a short distance, often only a few centimeters. This technique is normally
done at reduced pressure allowing a lower operating temperature range.
Zone Distillation:
It is a distillation process in a long container with a special arrangement. With the partial melting of refined matter in moving liquid zone
and condensation of vapor in the solid phase at condensate pulling in cold area.
For more detailed information about Distillation and other concerned topics, download BYJU’S – The Learning App.

Simple Distillation
If water is placed in a sealed container and allowed to evaporate, it will eventually reach an equilibrium such

that the water vapor is condensing just as fast as the water is evaporating. The pressure of the vapor at this

equilibrium is called the vapor pressure. Vapor pressure is different for different substances and varies with

temperature. In a mixture of two liquids with different boiling points, the vapor will have more of the liquid that is

more volatile, i.e., evaporates more readily. In simple distillation, the liquid mixture is heated and the vapor

rises through a tube and is collected and recondensed. The recondensed liquid will have a higher concentration

of the more volatile component than the original mix. If the two liquids in the original mix have widely different

boiling points, a one-step evaporation and recondensation process is all that is necessary. This process is

called simple distillation.

Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation is similar to simple distillation, except the same process is repeated in successive cycles.

Each cycle produces a mixture richer in the more volatile compound than the mixture before it. Fractional

distillation is necessary when the boiling points of the liquids in the original mix are close enough to each other

that simple distillation is not enough to purify either compound.

Vacuum Distillation
Some liquids boil at such high temperatures that simple or fractional distillation using the process described

above would be impractical or dangerous. Vacuum distillation, however, offers another alternative. The boiling

point of a liquid falls when the pressure is reduced. The boiling point of water, for example, is lower at high

altitude than at sea level. By reducing the pressure in the container, the boiling point of the liquids in the
mixture can be reduced and the mixture distilled at a lower temperature. This technique is called vacuum

distillation.

Azeotropic Distillation
Owing to the intermolecular attractions between molecules in the mixture, mixtures may have a higher or lower

boiling point than either of their components. A mixture of this kind is called an azeotrope. When the liquids in

the azeotrope evaporate, the vapor has the same composition as the mixture, so azeotropes cannot be distilled

using the techniques described above. They can still be distilled, however, but only through one of several

other methods.

In extractive distillation, a solvent that will mix freely with one component but not the other is added to the

mixture. The new mixture can then be separated by distillation. In reactive distillation, by contrast, a chemical

that will react with one agent but not the other is added, creating a new mixture that can be separated by

distillation. Finally, adding ionic salts may alter the volatilities of the compounds in the mix in such a way that

they can be distilled. These three techniques are collectively called azeotropic distillation.