WATER CONDITIONING PROCESSES

1. Distillation
Distillation is probably the oldest method of water purification. Water is first heated
to boiling. Then the water vapor rises to a condenser where cooling water lowers the
temperature so the vapor is condensed, collected and stored. Most contaminants stay
behind in the liquid phase vessel. However there can sometimes be what is called carry-
overs found in the distilled water. Organics such as herbicides and pesticides, with
boiling points lower than 100°C, cannot be removed efficiently and can actually become
concentrated in the product water. Another disadvantage of distillation is cost. Distillation
requires large amounts of energy and water and is very slow to produce clean water.

Distilled water can also be very acidic (low pH), thus it should be contained in glass.
Since there is not much left after distillation, distilled water is often called "hungry"
water. It lacks oxygen and minerals and has a flat taste, which is why it is mostly used in
industrial processes.

(Source: Different Water Filtration Methods Explained (n.d.). Retrieved: December 11,
2016 from APEC Water: http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-education/quality-
water-filtration-method.html)

2. Ion Exchange
The ion exchange process percolates water through bead-like spherical resin
materials (ion-exchange resins). Ions in the water are exchanged for other ions fixed to
the beads. The two most common ion-exchange methods are softening and deionization.

Softening is used primarily as a pretreatment method to reduce water hardness prior

to reverse osmosis (RO) processing. The softeners contain beads that exchange two
sodium ions for every calcium or magnesium ion removed from the "softened" water.

Deionization (DI) beads exchange either hydrogen ions for cations or hydroxyl ions
for anions. The cation exchange resins, made of styrene and divinylbenzene containing
sulfonic acid groups, will exchange a hydrogen ion for any cations they encounter (e.g.,
Na+, Ca++, Al+++). Similarly, the anion exchange resins, made of styrene and containing
quaternary ammonium groups, will exchange a hydroxyl ion for any anions (e.g., Cl-).
The hydrogen ion from the cation exchanger unites with the hydroxyl ion of the anion
exchanger to form pure water.

These resins may be packaged in separate bed exchangers with separate units for the
cation and anion exchange beds. Or, they may be packed in mixed bed exchangers
containing a mixture of both types of resins. In either case, the resin must be
"regenerated" once it has exchanged all its hydrogen and/or hydroxyl ions for charged
contaminants in the water. This regeneration reverses the purification process, replacing
the contaminants bound to the DI resins with hydrogen and hydroxyl ions.
 Deionization can be an important component of a total water purification system
when used in combination with other methods discussed in this primer such as RO
filtration and carbon adsorption. DI systems effectively remove ions, but they do not
effectively remove most organics or microorganisms. Microorganisms can attach to the
resins, providing a culture media for rapid bacterial growth and subsequent pyrogen
generation.

(Source: Different Water Filtration Methods Explained (n.d.). Retrieved: December 11,
2016 from APEC Water: http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-education/quality-
water-filtration-method.html)

3. Reverse Osmosis (RO)

It is the most economical method of removing 90% to 99% of all contaminants. The
pore structure of RO membranes is much tighter than UF membranes. RO membranes are
capable of rejecting practically all particles, bacteria and organics >300 daltons molecular
weight (including pyrogens). In fact, reverse osmosis technology is used by most leading
water bottling plants. Natural osmosis occurs when solutions with two different
concentrations are separated by a semi-permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure drives
water through the membrane; the water dilutes the more concentrated solution; and the
end result is an equilibrium.

In water purification systems, hydraulic pressure is applied to the concentrated

solution to counteract the osmotic pressure. Pure water is driven from the concentrated
solution and collected downstream of the membrane. Because RO membranes are very
restrictive, they yield slow flow rates. Storage tanks are required to produce an adequate
volume in a reasonable amount of time. RO also involves an ionic exclusion process.
Only solvent is allowed to pass through the semi-permeable RO membrane, while
virtually all ions and dissolved molecules are retained (including salts and sugars). The
semi-permeable membrane rejects salts (ions) by a charge phenomena action: the greater
the charge, the greater the rejection. Therefore, the membrane rejects nearly all (>99%)
strongly ionized polyvalent ions but only 95% of the weakly ionized monovalent ions like
sodium.

(Source: Water Purification Technologies - Reverse Osmosis (n.d.). Retrieved: December

11, 2016 from APEC Water: http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-education/quality-
water-filtration-method-reverse-osmosis.htm)

4. Flocculation
Flocculation follows coagulation (and is often regarded as part of one process:
coagulation-flocculation). The objective of flocculation is to cause the individual
destabilised colloidal particles to collide with one another and with the precipitate formed
by the coagulant in order to form aggregates that could easily be removed by means of
sedimentation or flotation. Flocculation involves the stirring of water to which a
coagulant has been added at a slow rate, causing the individual particles to “collide”.
Flocculation is considered to be part of coagulation, although some handbooks treat it as
a separate process.

Flocculation can take place in different types of equipment. A simple mechanical

stirrer can be used for flocculation or a specially designed channel with baffles to create
the desired flow conditions can also be used to flocculate the particles in water. The basis
of the design of a flocculation channel is that the flow velocity of the water has to be
reduced from a high initial value to a much lower value to enable large, strong aggregates
to form. If the flow velocity is too high the aggregates may break up again, causing
settling of the broken flocs to be incomplete.

Flocculation is controlled through the introduction of energy into the water (through
paddles or by means of baffles in the flocculation channel) to produce the right conditions
(required velocity gradient) for flocs to grow to the optimum size and strength. The
velocity gradient (or G-value) is an extremely important factor that determines the
probability of particles to collide and form flocs. If G values are too low, the probability
of collisions is low and poor floc formation results. If too high, shear forces become large
and this may result in break-up of aggregates. Aggregates and flocs are removed from
water by means of separation processes, i.e. sedimentation and sand filtration; or flotation
and sand filtration.

(Source: Schutte, Frik (2006) Handbook For The Operation Of Water Treatment Works ,
The Water Research Commission The Water Institute of Southern Africa)

5. Flotation
It is an effective process for removal of relatively light types of flocs. Flotation
involves the formation of small air bubbles in water that has to be flocculated. The
bubbles attach to the flocs causing them to rise to the surface where they are collected as
a froth that is removed from the top of the flotation unit.

Air is dissolved under pressure in a small amount of water in a device called a

saturator. This water that is saturated with dissolved air is added to the main stream of
water that is to be treated. When the pressure is released after the saturated water is mixed
with the water to be treated, the dissolved air comes out of solution in the form of very
fine bubbles.

Both sedimentation and flotation remove the bulk of the flocs from the water.
However, most of the time a small amount of (broken) flocs or non-flocculated colloidal
material remains in the water. This material has to be removed to ensure a low enough
turbidity in the water. A sufficiently low turbidity level is required for effective
disinfection of the water and to remove all traces of murkiness from the water. Removal
of turbidity to low levels is achieved by means of sand filtration.
(Source: Schutte, Frik (2006) Handbook For The Operation Of Water Treatment Works ,
The Water Research Commission The Water Institute of Southern Africa)

6. Disinfection
A large fraction of bacteria and larger micro-organisms are removed during
clarification processes, especially by sand filtration. However, many bacteria and viruses
still remain in clarified water even at low turbidity levels. It is therefore, essential to
disinfect water to prevent the possibility that water-borne diseases are spread by
pathogens (disease-causing micro-organisms) in water.

Disinfection of water entails the addition of the required amount of a chemical agent
(disinfectant) to the water and allowing contact between the water and disinfectant for a
pre-determined period of time (under specified conditions of pH and temperature).
Physical methods of disinfection of water include irradiation with ultra-violet light and
boiling. The most commonly used disinfectant is chlorine gas, Cl2 that is dissolved in the
water at a certain concentration for a certain minimum contact time.

Other disinfectants include ozone, chlorine dioxide and other chlorine compounds
such as calcium hypochlorite (HTH), sodium hypochlorite (bleach) and monochloramine.
Chlorine is a strong oxidising agent and it reacts and oxidises some of the essential
systems of micro-organisms thereby inactivating or destroying them. The different forms
in which chlorine is used for disinfection, have different oxidising powers and this must
be taken into account to ensure effective disinfection.

(Source: Schutte, Frik (2006) Handbook For The Operation Of Water Treatment Works ,
The Water Research Commission The Water Institute of Southern Africa)

7. Stabilisation
Stabilisation of water refers to the chemical stability (specifically with respect to
CaCO3) of water. Chemical stability affects the tendency of water to be corrosive or to
form chemical scale in pipes and fixtures. Stabilisation of water involves the addition of
chemicals to the water to adjust its chemical properties in order to prevent corrosion or
scale formation.

Water that is not chemically stable may be:

a) corrosive towards metal pipes and fittings causing leaks in distribution systems
with substantial cost implications.
b) Scale-forming, causing a layer of chemical scale to form in pipes and on heating
elements. This also has substantial cost implications because the carrying
capacity of pipes is reduced and the heat transfer in kettles and geysers is
impaired. From a cost point of view, it is very important to ensure that water for
domestic use is chemically stable.
Stabilisation of water involves the addition of chemicals to the water to produce
water with a calcium carbonate precipitation potential (CCPP) of about 4 mg/l. This
means that the water should be slightly supersaturated with calcium carbonate. The effect
of this is that a very thin layer of calcium carbonate will form on surfaces protecting it
against corrosion. At the low super-saturation value excessive scale formation is avoided.

(Source: Schutte, Frik (2006) Handbook For The Operation Of Water Treatment Works ,
The Water Research Commission The Water Institute of Southern Africa)

8. Nanofiltration (NF)
It is also a desalination process since it separates dissolved salts from solution.
However, NF membranes contain very small pores and therefore allow substances to pass
that are retained by RO membranes. Monovalent ions such as Na+ and Cl- readily
permeate the NF membrane, while divalent ions such as Ca2+ and SO4 2- are rejected to
a larger degree by NF membranes. It is therefore effective to soften water (remove Ca,
Mg and other hardness causing ions). The types of membranes and modules are similar to
those used in RO.

9. Ultrafiltration (UF)
The membranes used are porous. This means that separation is due to a sieve
mechanism and dissolved ions and dissolved organics are therefore not removed.
However, particulates and macromolecules are rejected. This means that bacteria and
viruses are removed as well as larger organic substances such as the socalled precursors
for chlorinated compounds including THM’s. This characteristic has resulted in the
application of UF in drinking water treatment as an alternative for conventional
coagulation-filtration-disinfection processes. Pore sizes in UF membranes range from 10-
50 nm with operating pressures in the range 200-800 kPa

10. Microfiltration (MF)

It is very similar to UF with the main difference being pore size, operating pressure
and permeate quality. Pore sizes are larger than 50 nm and operating pressures around
100 kpa. Only particulate matter is removed by MF.

11. Electrodialysis
It is a membrane separation process in which the driving force is an electrical
potential across the membrane. In contrast to pressure-driven processes where water is
separated from the feed solution, in electrodialysis charged ions are separated from the
feed water. This means that the product water contains less 24 dissolved salts but that all
non-charged compounds such as organic molecules and all particulates including bacteria
and viruses will remain in the product water. This is a disadvantage of ED compared to
RO but the process has certain other advantages which makes it competitive with RO in
many applications.

12. Oxidation and removal of iron and manganese

Some inorganic compounds in water must first be oxidised to the chemical form that
can readily be removed from water. Examples are iron and manganese that occur in some
ground waters and some polluted surface water sources in relatively high concentrations.
These substances are soluble and invisible and are not removed by conventional
treatment processes. However, during water treatment and in the distribution system, iron
and manganese may be oxidised and cause problems in the distribution systems and in
the home. The iron and manganese products precipitate and settle in the systems and may
cause discolouration of water and staining of clothes. It is therefore necessary to remove
iron and manganese by means of specialised processes in the treatment plant.

Dissolved iron and manganese occur in reduced form in some waters (Fe2+and
Mn2+). The first step in the removal process therefore involves oxidation of the iron and
manganese to forms that can subsequently be precipitated and removed during filtration.
Oxidation can be achieved by means of oxidants such as chlorine, ozone, potassium
permanganate, oxygen or air. The iron is normally precipitated as ferric hydroxide,
Fe(OH)3 , while manganese is precipitated as the oxide MnO2.

Dissolved iron occurs as Fe2+ and is readily oxidised to Fe3+ which can be
precipitated as Fe(OH)3 and be removed during sedimentation and sand filtration. Iron
can be oxidised by aeration of the water, but sometimes a stronger oxidant such as
chlorine may be necessary when the iron occurs in the complexed form.

Manganese is not readily oxidised by air and stronger oxidants are required.
Potassium permanganate is an effective oxidant for the oxidation of Mn2+ to Mn4+ that
precipitates as MnO2. The sand in a sand filter that is used for the removal of iron and
manganese gets coated with a layer of manganese dioxide and this coated sand (green
sand) assists in the removal of iron and manganese.