Electrical Machines

Lecture 27
Three-phase induction motors
Dr. Alivelu M Parimi

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 Outline

 Effect of harmonics on performance of three phase IM- cogging and

crawling

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 Harmonics
• The torque-slip characteristics as
shown in Fig. is obtained when the
space distribution of flux wave along
the air gap periphery is sinusoidal.

• But the air gap flux is not purely

sinusoidal as it contains odd
harmonics (5th, 7th, 11th etc). Hence
at low speeds, the torque-slip
characteristic is not smooth.

• The distribution of stator winding and

variation of air gap reluctance due to
stator and rotor slots are main causes
of air gap flux harmonics.

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 Harmonics
• Analysis of stator m.m.f. with the help of Fourier series shows that
in addition to fundamental wave it contains odd harmonics m.m.f.
waves.

• The third harmonic flux waves produced by each of the three

phases neutralize each other as it differs in time phase by 120o.
Thus air gap flux does not contain third harmonics and its
multiplies.

• The fundamental [Space difference=(00 , 1200 , 2400 )] mmf wave

produces flux which rotates at synchronous speed which given as
ns = 2f1/P rps where f1 is supply frequency and P is number of
poles.

• Similarly fifth [Space difference=(00 2400 , 1200 , )] harmonic mmf

wave produces flux which rotates at 2f1/5 P = ns/5 rps and in
direction opposite to the fundamental mmf wave.

• The seven [Space difference=(00 , 1200 , 2400 ) harmonic mmf

produces flux which rotates at ns/7 rps and in the direction of
fundamental m.m.f. wave. 4
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 Harmonics
• Thus each space harmonic can be considered to produces its own
asynchronous torque.
• The torque produced by fundamental component and the harmonic are
shown in the Fig.

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 Crawling
• As fifth harmonic field rotates opposite to the rotor rotation, the torque produced
by fifth harmonic opposes fundamental torque and it acts as braking torque on
motor.

• The seventh harmonic field rotates in the direction of rotor rotation, the torque
produced by seventh harmonic aids the fundamental torque.

• There are two dips which can be seen in the resultant torque, one is near the slip=
6/5 and other near slip= 6/7. The slip near s =6/7 is more important as torque here
decreases with increase in speed.

• The load torque is shown in figure. It intersects the motor torque curve resulting in
stable operation.

• The rotor will run at ns/7 speed. Thus stable operation is obtained near sub-
synchronous speed ns/7. This is called crawling or synchronous crawling. Due to
crawling there is much higher stator current accompanied by noise and vibration.

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 Crawling
• It has been found that induction motors, particularly squirrel cage type sometimes
exhibit a tendency to run stably as low as one-seventh of their synchronous speed
Ns. The Phenomenon is known as crawling of an induction motor.

• There are harmonic fluxes developed in the gap due to the magnetics of the
motor. These harmonics create additional torque fields.

• A common problem is with the seventh harmonic where the seventh harmonic
creates a forward rotating torque field at one seventh of the synchronous speed.
There will be a maximum torque just below 1/7 Ns and if this is high enough, the
net torque can be higher than the torque due to the line frequency where at 1/7
Ns, the slip is high. This can cause the motor to crawl at just below 1/7
synchronous speed.
There is another crawl speed at 1/13 Ns.

• Crawling induction motors stop accelerating at part speed.

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 Cogging
• A special behavior is shown by squirrel cage induction motor during starting for certain
combinations of number of stator and rotor slots.

• If number of stator slots S1 are equal to number of rotor slots S2 or integral multiple of rotor
slots S2 then variation of reluctance as a function of space will have pronounced effect
producing strong forces than the accelerating torque.

• Due to this motor fails to start.

• This phenomenon is called cogging.

• Such combination of stator and rotor slots should be avoided while designing the motor.

• The cogging and crawling is not predominately in slip ring induction motor as these motors
are started with higher starting torques with external resistance in rotor circuit.

• Cogging motors do not accelerate at all.

• Induction motors that cog or crawl will not accelerate to full speed.

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 Crawling and Cogging
• When an induction motor refuses to start even if full
voltage is applied to it, this is called as cogging.
• This happens when the rotor slots and stator slots are same
in number or they are integer multiples of each other. Due
to this the opposite poles of stator and rotor are in front of
each other and get locked.
• On the other hand when an IM runs at a very low speed
(precisely speaking 1/7th of synchronous speed) even if full
rated voltage is applied to it, then it is called crawling.
• This happens due to harmonic induction torques, in which
torques due to 7th harmonic overpower the driving torque
(fundamental component torque)

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 Skewing
• To eliminate or minimize the harmonics from the voltage
waveform, the winding must be properly designed.
• Skewing : Skewing the pole face will help in eliminating the
slot harmonics.

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 Practice

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 Outline

Speed control of Induction Motor

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 Speed control of Induction Motor
• For the induction motor
• N = Ns (1 - s), Ns=120 f/p
• Similarly torque produced in case of three phase induction motor is given
by

• Speed of the induction motor can be controlled by:

• From stator side, it includes following methods :
a. Supply frequency control to control Ns, called V / f control.
b. Supply voltage control.
c. Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• From rotor side, it includes following methods :

a. Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit.
b. Injecting slip frequency voltage into the rotor circuit.

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 Supply frequency control to control Ns, called V / f
control
Changing the electrical frequency will change
• The synchronous speed is given by, the synchronous speed of the machine
• Ns = 120f / P Changing the electrical frequency would also
require an adjustment to the terminal voltage
in order to maintain the same amount of flux
level in the machine core.

• If the supply frequency f is changed, the value of air gap flux also gets affected.

• This may result into saturation of stator and rotor cores.

• Such a saturation leads to the sharp increase in the (magnetization) no load current
of the motor.

• Hence it is necessary to maintain air gap flux constant when supply frequency f is
changed.

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 Supply frequency control to control Ns, called V / f
control
• To achieve this, it can be seen from the above expression that along
with f, V also must be changed so as to keep (V/f) ratio constant.

• This ensures constant air gap flux giving speed control without
affecting the performance of the motor. Hence this method is called V
/ f control.

• Hence in this method, the supply to the induction motor required is

variable voltage variable frequency supply and can be achieved by an
electronic scheme using converter and inverter circuitry.

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 Supply voltage control.
• T α (k s E2s2 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2) α sV2 for constant R2
and for low slip region.
• Now if supply voltage is reduced below rated value, as
per above equation torque produced also decreases.

• But to supply the same load it is necessary to develop

same torque hence value of slip increases so that
torque produced remains same.

• Slip increases means motor reacts by running at lower

speed, to decrease in supply voltage. So motor
produces the required load torque at a lower speed.
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 T
V1> V2 > V3
V1
Supply voltage control. V2
V
decreasing

nr1> nr2 > nr3

V3

nr3 nr2 nr1 n ~n n

s NL

• But in this method, due to reduction in voltage, current drawn by the motor increases, for constant
torque.

• Large change in voltage for small change in speed is required is the biggest disadvantage.

• Due to increased current, the motor may get overheated.

• Additional voltage changing equipment is necessary.

• Hence this method is rarely used in practice. Motors driving fan type of loads use this method of speed
control.

• Due to reduced voltage, E2 decreases, decreasing the value of maximum torque too.

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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• In this method, it is possible to have one, two or four

speeds in steps, by the changing the number of stator
poles.

• A continuous smooth speed control is not possible by this

method.

• The stator poles can be changed by following methods :

1. Consequent poles method
2. Multiple stator winding method
3. Pole amplitude modulation method.

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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• Consequent Poles Method

• In this method, connections of the stator winding are changes

with the help of simple switching.
• Due to this, the number of stator poles get changed in the
ratio 2 : 1. Hence either of the two synchronous speed can be
selected.

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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• Consequent Poles Method

Due to this, 8 poles get formed
as shown in the Fig. So
synchronous speed possible
with this arrangement with 50
Hz frequency is Ns = 750 r.p.m.

In this case only 4 poles are

formed. So the synchronous
speed possible is 1500 r.p.m.
for 50 Hz frequency

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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• Consequent Poles Method

• The speed change is in step and smooth speed

control is not possible.

• The method can be used only for the squirrel

cage type motors as squirrel rotor adjusts
itself to same number of poles as stator which
is not the case in slip ring induction motor.
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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• Multiple stator winding method

• In this method instead of one winding, two separate stator winding are placed in
the stator core.

• The windings are placed in the stator slots only but are electrically isolated from
each other.

• Each winding is divided into coils to which, pole changing facility is provided.

• Thus giving supply to one of the two windings and using switching arrangement,
two speeds can be achieved. Same is true for other stator winding.

• So in all four different speeds can be obtained.

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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• Multiple stator winding method

• The various limitations of this method are,

1. Can be applied to only squirrel cage motor.

2. Smooth speed control is not possible. Only step changes

in speed are possible.

3. Two different stator windings are required to be wound

which increases the cost of the motor.

4. Complicated from the design point of view.

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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• Pole Amplitude Modulation Method

• The basic disadvantage of other methods which is
non-availability of smooth speed control, is
eliminated by this method.
• Consider sinusoidally distributed m.m.f. wave of
one phase of the stator as,

• where P = Number of poles

and θ = Mechanical angle
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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• Pole Amplitude Modulation Method

• This wave is modulated by another sinusoidal
m.m.f. wave having PM number of poles,
expressed as,

• The resultant m.m.f. wave after modulation is,

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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• Pole Amplitude Modulation Method

• Thus the resultant wave is equivalent to two m.m.f. waves
having two separate number of poles as,
P1 = P - PM and P2 = P + PM

• This is called suppressed carrier modulation.

• If we succeed in suppressing one of the two poles then there

exists rotating magnetic field with number of poles as P1 or
P2.

• And while suppressing, the method can be used such that the
resultant number of poles retained is as required from the
speed point of view.
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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• Pole Amplitude Modulation Method

• Since the stator is wound for P poles, the
angle between phase axes is (2π/3)r electrical
radians where r is an integer which is not
divisible by 3 then the phase axes angle for
modulated poles is given by,

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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• Pole Amplitude Modulation Method

• Now to suppress one of the two poles, the angle between its phases axes must be
multiple of 2π.

• So if r and n are selected so as to satisfy one of the above relations, then either P1 or
P2 get suppressed and field corresponding to other pole exists.

• So speeds corresponding to P poles without modulation and corresponding to either

P1 or P2 with modulation, can be achieved.

• The negative sign in equation (1), gives suppression of P1 and existence of P2 = P +

PM while positive sign in equation (1), gives suppression P2 of and existence of P1 = P
- PM poles.

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 Controlling number of stator poles to control Ns.

• Pole Amplitude Modulation Method

• This method is advantages as it reduced the size
to a great extent and hence cost of the machine.

• The limitation that it can be used only for squirrel

cage motors still continues.

• Practically the rectangular wave is used for

modulation.

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 Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit.
• T α (s E2s2 R2)/(R22 +(s X2)2)

• For low slip region (s X2)2 << R2 and can be neglected and for constant
supply voltage is also constant.

• ... T α ( s R2)/R22 α s/R2

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 Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit.

• Thus if the rotor resistance is increased, the torque produced decreases.

• But when the load on the motor is same, motor has to supply same torque as load
demands.

• So motor reacts by increasing its slip to compensate decreases in T due to R2 and

maintains the load torque constant.

• So due to additional rotor resistance R2, motor slip increases i.e. the speed of the
motor decreases.

• Thus by increasing the rotor resistance R2, speeds below normal value can be
achieved.

• Another advantage of this method is that the starting torque of the motor
increases proportional to rotor resistance.

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 Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit.
• Disadvantages :
• The large speed changes are not possible. This is because for large speed
change, large resistance is required to be introduced in rotor which causes large
rotor copper loss.

• The method can not be used for the squirrel cage induction motors.

• The speeds above the normal values can not be obtained.

• Sufficient cooling arrangements are required

T
• Due to large power losses, efficiency is low.

R1< R2< R3
nr1< nr2< nr3
R1
R2
R3
T

nr3 nr2 nr1 n ~n 32n

s NL
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 Injecting slip frequency voltage into the rotor circuit.

• In this method, a voltage is injected in the rotor circuit. The frequency of

rotor circuit is a slip frequency and hence the voltage to be injected must be
at a slip frequency.

• It is possible that the injected voltage may oppose the rotor induced e.m.f. or
may assist the rotor induced e.m.f.

• If it is in the phase opposition, effective rotor resistance increases.

• If it is in the phase of rotor induced e.m.f., effective rotor resistance

decreases.

• Thus by controlling the magnitude of the injected e.m.f., rotor resistance and
effectively speed can be controlled.
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 Injecting slip frequency voltage into the rotor circuit.

• Practically two methods are available which use this principle. These methods are,
• 1. Kramer system 2. Scherbius system

• The only disadvantage is that these methods can be used only for slip ring
induction motors.

• Very large motors above 4000 kW such as steel rolling mills use such type of speed
control. The main advantage of this method is that a smooth speed control is
possible.

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 Outline

Plugging and regeneration of Induction Motor

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 Plugging
• The slip can be quite simply increased above 1 by
reversing any two of the phase supplies while
operating the machine as a motor.
• The effect of reversing two supply phases is to
make the stator field rotate in the opposite
direction; thus at the instant of switch-over, the
rotor is rotating almost at synchronous speed in
one direction and now the stator field is rotating
at synchronous speed in the opposite direction.
• The difference is almost twice the synchronous
speed and hence the slip is almost 2.

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 Plugging
• The effect is that the rotor now attempts to
reverse its direction which, given time, it
eventually does.
• However, initially the effect is one of braking
the rotor in order to bring it to a standstill
prior to commencing rotation in the opposite
direction.
• This braking effect is known as plugging

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 Plugging
• For plug braking, we reverse two phase supplies
causing the braking.
• As soon as the machine stops, the power supply
is switched off and the machine remains at
standstill.
• However, if we were to leave the power supply
switched on, the motor would accelerate the load
up to full speed with a direction reversed from
that previously experienced.

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 Plugging
• The action of plugging is very demanding on
the supply since the current is very high, and
care has to be taken when designing the
supply system for a plugged motor that the
peak currents can be sustained.
• Also the mechanical effects on both motor
and load are severe and they have to be
sufficiently robust to withstand the effects.

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ELECTRICAL ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATION INSTRUMENTATION
 Problem

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 Solution

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 Problem: Text book

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 Single phase induction motor

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