OPERATING SYSTEM

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 Operating System
An operating system (OS), in its most general sense, is a software that allows
a user to run other applications on a computing device. While it is possible for a
software application to interface directly with hardware, the vast majority of
applications are written for an OS, which allows them to take advantage of common
libraries and not worry about specific hardware details.

The operating system manages a computer's hardware resources, including:

• Input devices such as a keyboard and mouse
• Output devices such as display monitors, printers and scanners
• Network devices such as modems, routers and network connections
• Storage devices such as internal and external drive

The OS also provides services to facilitate the efficient execution and

management of, and memory allocations for, any additional installed software
application programs.

Some operating systems were developed in the 1950s, when computers

could only execute one program at a time. Later in the decade, computers included
many software programs, sometimes called libraries, which were linked together to
create the beginning of today's operating systems.

The OS consists of many components and features, which features are

defined as parts of the OS may vary with each OS. However, the three most easily
defined components are:

 Kernel: This provides basic-level control over all of the computer hardware
devices. Main roles include reading data from memory and writing data to
memory, processing execution orders, determining how data is received and
sent by devices such as the monitor, keyboard and mouse, and determining
how to interpret data received from networks.
 User Interface: This component allows interaction with the user, which may
occur through graphical icons and a desktop or through a command line.
 Application Programming Interfaces: This component allows application
developers to write modular code.
 History of Operating System

The First Generation (1940's to early 1950's)

When electronic computers where first introduced in the 1940's they were
created without any operating systems. All programming was done in absolute
machine language, often by wiring up plug boards to control the machine's basic
functions. During this generation computers were generally used to solve simple
math calculations, often entered one bit at time on rows of mechanical switches
(plug boards).

The Second Generation (1950-1960)

By the early 1950's, the routine had improved somewhat with the
introduction of punch cards. The General Motors Research Laboratories
implemented the first operating systems in early 1950's. The system of the 50's
generally ran one job at a time. These were called single-stream batch processing
systems because programs and data were submitted in groups or batches. These
new machines were called mainframes, and they were used by professional
operators in large computer rooms. Since there was such as high price tag on these
machines, only government agencies or large corporations were able to afford them.

The Third Generation (1960-1980)

The systems of the 1960's were also batch-processing systems, but they were
able to take better advantage of the computer's resources by running several jobs at
once. So operating systems designers developed the concept of multiprogramming
in which several jobs are in main memory at once; a processor is switched from job
to job as needed to keep several jobs advancing while keeping the peripheral
devices in use. The introduction of multiprogramming was a major part in the
development of operating systems because it allowed a CPU to be busy nearly 100
percent of the time that it was in operation.

Another major feature in third-generation operating system was the

technique called spooling (simultaneous peripheral operations on line). In spooling,
a high-speed device like a disk interposed between a running program and a low-
speed device involved with the program in input/output. Instead of writing directly
to a printer, for example, outputs are written to the disk. Programs can run to
completion faster, and other programs can be initiated sooner when the printer
becomes available, the outputs may be printed. Note that spooling technique is
much like thread being spun to a spool so that it may be later be unwound as
needed.

Another feature present in this generation was time-sharing technique, a

variant of multiprogramming technique, in which each user has an on-line (i.e.,
directly connected) terminal. Because the user is present and interacting with the
computer, the computer system must respond quickly to user requests, otherwise
user productivity could suffer. Timesharing systems were developed to
multiprogramming large number of simultaneous interactive users.

The Fourth Generation (1980-Present Day)

With the development of LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuits, chips,

operating system entered in the system entered in the personal computer and the
workstation age. Microprocessor technology evolved to the point that it becomes
possible to build desktop computers as powerful as the mainframes of the 1970s.
Two operating systems have dominated the personal computer scene: MS-DOS,
written by Microsoft, Inc. for the IBM PC and other machines using the Intel 8088
CPU and its successors, and UNIX, which is dominant on the large personal
computers using the Motorola 6899 CPU family.

Windows went on to become the largest operating system used in technology

today with releases of Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows XP (Which is currently
the most used operating system to this day), and their newest operating system
Windows 7. Along with Microsoft, Apple is the other major operating system created
in the 1980's. Steve Jobs, co founder of Apple, created the Apple Macintosh, which
was a huge success due to the fact that it was so user friendly. Windows
developments throughout the later years were influenced by the Macintosh and it
created a strong competition between the two companies. Today all of our
electronic devices run off of operating systems, from our computers and
smartphones, to ATM machines and motor vehicles. And as technology advances, so
do operating systems.
Closed vs. Open Source Operating System

Closed-source operating systems use code that is proprietary and kept secret to
prevent its use by other entities. Traditionally, they are sold for a profit.
Open-source operating systems use code that is freely distributed and available to
anyone to use, even for commercial purposes.

In terms of Cost

Open-source operating systems such as Linux or FreeBSD do not cost

anything, through some Linux companies, such as Red Hat, provide supported
versions for a fee. Closed-source operating systems can either be free or offered for
a price.

In terms of Development

With closed source operating systems, the development costs are typically
paid for by the company itself, who hires the developers and determines the
direction of the project. This offers the benefit of a professional team of developers
and guaranteed performance, which is essential for certain software packages.

In the open-source community, the direction of a project is determined either

by a board of directors, the community or individuals. Development costs are
generated through a combination of donations from companies and individuals, or
through indirect methods such as developers who are paid by corporations to work
on open-source code. For instance, IBM and Red Hat, who sell Linux systems and
Linux support, both pay employees to develop open-source Linux code, which
benefits not only their open-source Linux variants, but other Linux projects as well.
Open source-projects are free to choose their direction and are not driven by
profitability.

In terms of Source Availability

The manufacturers of closed-source operating systems, such as Windows or

OS X, will not allow their programming code to be viewed by most third parties. If
there is vulnerability in the code, it must be discovered by the company itself;
because there are a limited number of developers assigned to the project, it is
possible that the vulnerability will go unnoticed.
 In open-source operating systems, the code is viewable by anybody.
Theoretically, this means that many more people will be able to see the
programming code, offering the potential to catch any vulnerability quicker than
with closed-source operating systems. In practice, this is not always the case. Since
the developers may be volunteers who work on what they are interested in or
employees paid by a corporation to work on a specific piece of code, vulnerabilities
in other portions of the code may still go unnoticed.

Examples

• Open-source operating systems include Linux, FreeBSD and Open Solaris.

Closed-source operating systems include Microsoft Windows, Solaris UNIX and OS X.

• Older closed-source operating systems include OS/2, BeOS and the original Mac
OS, which was replaced by OS X. On mobile and tablet systems, closed-source
operating systems include Windows Phone, iOS and the Symbian OS that is used by
BlackBerry.

• Android is based on the open-source Linux OS, though it has many proprietary,
closed-source extensions. The Linux-based Firefox OS is an example of a fully open-
source mobile OS, though it has yet to gain significant popularity.
Examples of Operating System

Ubuntu is a free and open source operating system

and Linux distribution based on Debian. Ubuntu is
offered in three official editions: Ubuntu Desktop
for personal computers, Ubuntu Server for servers
and the cloud, and Ubuntu Core for Internet of
things devices and robots.

Android is a mobile operating system developed by

Google, based on a modified version of the Linux
kernel and other open source software and designed
primarily for touchscreen mobile devices such as
smartphones and tablets.

OS X Yosemite is the eleventh major release of OS X,

Apple Inc.'s desktop and server operating system for
Macintosh computers.

Windows XP is a personal computer operating

system that was produced by Microsoft as part of
the Windows NT family of operating systems.
 Bibliography
Operating System (OS). (n.d.). Retrieved from Techopedia:
https://www.techopedia.com/definition/3515/operating-system-os

Secor, D. (n.d.). Open Vs. Closed Source Operating System. Retrieved from Techwalla:
https://www.techwalla.com/articles/open-vs-closed-source-operating-system

Muhammad, R. B. (n.d.). Operating Systems. Retrieved from Personal:

http://www.personal.kent.edu/~rmuhamma/OpSystems/Myos/osHistory.htm

History of Operating Systems. (n.d.). Retrieved from Operating systems (Windows,

Linux, iOS, Android, WebOS, others):
https://sites.google.com/site/optsytms/history-of-operating-systems