Electromechanical Systems

m
Electric Machinery Fundamentals,
4th Ed., Stephen Chapman

Transformers

1
 Transformers
• A transformer is a device that changes ac electric
power at one voltage level to AC electric power at
another volt age level through the action of a
magnetic field. It consists of two or more coils of
wire wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core.
These coils are (usually) not directly connected. The
only connection between the coils is the common
magnetic flux present within the core.
 Transformers
• One of the transformer windings is connected to a
source of AC electric power, and the second (and
perhaps third) transformer winding supplies electric
power to loads. The transformer winding connected
to the power source is called the primary winding or
input winding, and the winding connected to the
loads is called the secondary winding or output
winding. If there is a third winding on the
transformer, it is called the tertiary winding.
 Transformers
• WHY TRANSFORMERS ARE IMPORTANT TO MODERN LIFE
The first power distribution system in the United States was a 120-V
DC system invented by Thomas A. Edison to supply power for
incandescent light bulbs. Edison‘s first central power station went
into operation in New York City in September 1882.

Unfortunately, his power system generated and transmitted power

at such low voltages that very large currents were necessary to
supply significant amounts of power. These high currents caused
huge voltage drops and power losses in the transmission lines,
severely restricting the service area of a generating station.

In the 1880s, central power stations were located every few city
blocks to overcome this problem. The fact that power could not be
transmitted far with low-voltage dc power systems meant that
generating stations had to be small and localized and so were
relatively inefficient.
 Transformers
• In a modern power system, electric power is
generated at voltages of 12 to 25 kV. Transformers
step up the voltage to between 110 kV and nearly
1000 kV for transmission over long distances at very
low losses. Transformers then step down the voltage
to the 12- to 34.5-kV range for local distribution and
finally permit the power to be used safely in homes,
offices, and factories at voltages as low as 120 V.
 TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION
OF TRANSFORMERS
• The principal purpose of a transformer is to convert ac
power at one voltage level to ac power of the same
frequency at another voltage level. Transformers are also
used for a variety of other purposes (e.g., voltage
sampling, current sampling, and impedance
transformation.

• Power transformers are constructed on one of two types

of cores. One type of construction consists of a simple
rectangular laminated piece of steel with the transformer
windings wrapped around two sides of the rectangle.
This type of construction is known as coreform.
 TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION
OF TRANSFORMERS
• The other type consists of a three-legged laminated
core with the windings wrapped around the center
leg. This type of construction is known as shell form.

• In either case, the core is constructed of thin

laminations electrically isolated from each other in
order to minimize eddy currents.
TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION
OF TRANSFORMERS
 TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION
OF TRANSFORMERS
• The primary and secondary windings in a physical
transformer are wrapped one on top of the other
with the low-voltage winding innermost. Such an
arrangement serves two purposes:

1. It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-

voltage winding from the core.
2. It results in much less leakage flux than would be
the case if the two windings were separated by a
distance on the core.
 TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION
OF TRANSFORMERS
• Power transformers are given a variety of different
names, depending on their use in power systems.

• A transformer connected to the output of a generator

and used to step its voltage up to transmission levels (
110+ kV) is sometimes called a unit transformer.

• The transformer at the other end of the transmission

line, which steps the voltage down from transmission
levels to distribution levels (from 2.3 to 34.5 kV), is
called a substation transformer.
 TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION
OF TRANSFORMERS
• Finally, the transformer that takes the distribution
voltage and steps it down to the final voltage at
which the power is actually used (110, 208, 220 V,
etc.) is called a distribution transformer.

• All these devices are essentially the same the only

difference among them is their intended use.
 TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION
OF TRANSFORMERS
• In addition to the various power transformers, two special-purpose
transformers are used with electric machinery and power systems.

• The first of these special transformers is a device specially designed

to sample a high voltage and produce a low secondary voltage
directly proportional to it. Such a transformer is called a potential
transformer.

• A power transformer also produces a secondary voltage directly

proportional to its primary voltage; the difference between a
potential transformer and a power transformer is that the potential
transformer is designed to handle only a very small current.

• The second type of special transformer is a device designed to

provide a secondary current much smaller than but directly
proportional to its primary current. This device is called a current
transformer.
TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION
OF TRANSFORMERS
TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION
OF TRANSFORMERS
 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• An ideal transformer is a lossless device with
an input winding and an output winding.
• The relationships between the input voltage
and the output voltage, and between the
input current and the output current , are
given by two simple equations.
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• The transformer shown has Np turns of wire on its
primary side and Ns turns of wire on its secondary
side. The relationship between the voltage vp(t)
applied to the primary side of the transformer and
the voltage vs(t) produced on the secondary side is;
 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• The relationship between the current ip(t)
flowing into the primary side of the
transformer and the current is(t) flowing out of
the secondary side of the transformer is
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• The relationship is as follows:
– If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of
the winding with respect to the undotted end, then
the secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted
end also. Voltage polarities are the same with respect
to the dots on each side of the core.

– If the primary current of the transformer flows into

the dotted end of the primary winding, the secondary
current will flow out of the dotted end of the
secondary winding.
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
 Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal
Transformers
• If a circuit contains an ideal transformer, then the
easiest way to analyze the circuit for its voltages
and currents is to replace the portion of the
circuit on one side of the transformer by an
equivalent circuit with the same terminal
characteristics.

• After the equivalent circuit has been substituted

for one side, then the new circuit (without a
transformer present) can be solved for its
voltages and currents.
 Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal
Transformers
• In the portion of the circuit that was not replaced, the
solutions obtained will be the correct values of voltage
and current for the original circuit.

• Then the turns ratio of the transformer can be used to

determine the voltages and currents on the other side
of the transformer.

• The process of replacing one side of a transformer by

its equivalent at the other side's voltage level is known
as referring the first side of the transformer to the
second side.
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal
Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal
Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal
Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal
Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal
Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal
Transformers
Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal
Transformers
 THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
• The ideal transformers can never actually be made. What
can be produced are real transformers-two or more coils of
wire physically wrapped around a ferromagnetic core. The
characteristics of a real transformer approximate the
characteristics of an ideal transformer, but only to a degree.

• To understand the operation of a real transformer, refer to

Figure 2-8 which shows a transformer consisting of two
coils of wire wrapped around a transformer core. The
primary of the transformer is connected to an AC power
source, and the secondary winding is open-circuited. The
hysteresis curve of the transformer is shown in Figure 2-9.
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
 THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
• The flux in the primary coil of the transformer can be
divided into two components: a mutual flux, which
remains in the core and links both windings, and a
small leakage flux, which passes through the primary
winding but returns through the air, bypassing the
secondary winding.
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL
SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS
The Current Ratio on a Transformer
and the Dot Convention
The Current Ratio on a Transformer
and the Dot Convention
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A
TRANSFORMER
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF
A TRANSFORMER
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a
Real Transformer
• It is possible to construct an equivalent circuit
that takes into account all the major
imperfections in real transformers. Each major
imperfection is considered in turn, and its
effect is included in the transformer model.
 The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a
Real Transformer
• The easiest effect to model is the copper
losses. Copper losses are resistive losses in the
primary and secondary windings of the
transformer core. They are modeled by
placing a resistor Rp in the primary circuit of
the transformer and a resistor Rs in the
secondary circuit.
The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a
Real Transformer
The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a
Real Transformer
The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a
Real Transformer
The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a
Real Transformer
The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a
Real Transformer
 Approximate Equivalent Circuits of a
Transformer
• The transformer models shown before are often more
complex than necessary in order to get good results in
practical engineering applications. One of the principal
complaints about them is that the excitation branch of the
model adds another node to the circuit being analyzed,
making the circuit solution more complex than necessary.

• The excitation branch has a very small current compared to

the load current of the transformers. In fact, it is so small
that under normal circumstances it causes a completely
negligible voltage drop in Rp and Xp. Because this is true, a
simplified equivalent circuit can be produced that works
almost as well as the original model.
 Approximate Equivalent Circuits of a
Transformer
• The excitation branch is simply moved to the front of
the transformer, and the primary and secondary
impedances are left in series with each other. These
impedances are just added, creating the approximate
equivalent circuits in Figure 2- 18a and b.

• In some applications, the excitation branch may be

neglected entirely without causing serious error. In
these cases, the equivalent circuit of the transformer
reduces to the simple circuits in Figure 2- 18c and d.
Approximate Equivalent Circuits of a
Transformer
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
• It is possible to experimentally determine the values
of the inductances and resistances in the transformer
model. An adequate approximation of these values
can be obtained with only two tests;
– Open- circuit test
– Short-circuit test.
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
• Open-circuit test
A transformer's secondary winding is open
circuited, and its primary winding is connected to
a full-rated line voltage. Under the conditions
described, all the input current must be flowing
through the excitation branch of the transformer.
The series elements Rp and Xp are too small in
comparison to Rc and XM to cause a significant
voltage drop, so essentially all the input voltage is
dropped across the excitation branch.
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
• The open-circuit test connections are shown in
Figure 2- 19. Full line voltage is applied to the
primary of the transformer, and the input voltage,
input current, and input power to the transformer
are measured. From this information, it is possible to
determine the power factor of the input current and
therefore both the magnitude and the angle of the
excitation impedance.
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
• The easiest way to calculate the values of Rc
and XM is to look first at the admittance of the
excitation branch. Since the two branch
elements are in parallel, their admittances
add, and the total excitation admittance is;
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
• Short-circuit test
The secondary terminals of the transformer are
short circuited, and the primary terminals are
connected to a fairly low-voltage source, as shown
in Figure 2- 20. The input voltage is adjusted until
the current in the short circuited windings is equal
to its rated value. (Be sure to keep the primary
voltage at a safe level. It would not be a good idea
to burn out the transformer's windings while
trying to test it.) The input voltage, current, and
power are again measured.
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
• Since the input voltage is so low during the short-
circuit test, negligible current flows through the
excitation branch. If the excitation current is ignored,
then all the voltage drop in the transformer can be
attributed to the series elements in the circuit. The
magnitude of the series impedances referred to the
primary side of the transformer is;
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
• It is possible to determine the total series impedance
referred to the primary side by using this technique, but
there is no easy way to split the series impedance into
primary and secondary components. Fortunately, such
separation is not necessary to solve normal problems.

• These same tests may also be performed on the

secondary side of the transformer if it is more convenient
to do so because of voltage levels or other reasons. If the
tests are performed on the secondary side, the results
will naturally yield the equivalent circuit impedances
referred to the secondary side of the transformer instead
of to the primary side.
 Determining the Values of
Components in the Transformer Model
Example 2-2
Example 2-2
Example 2-2
TRANSFORMER VOLTAGE REGULATION
• Because a real transformer has series impedances
within it, the output voltage of a transformer varies
with the load even if the input voltage remains
constant. To conveniently compare transformers in
this respect, it is customary to define a quantity
called voltage regulation (VR). Full-load voltage
regulation is a quantity that compares the output
voltage of the transformer at no load with the output
voltage at full load. It is defined by the equation;
(Next slide)
 TRANSFORMER VOLTAGE REGULATION

Usually it is a good practice to have as small a voltage

regulation as possible. For an ideal transformer, VR = 0
percent. It is not always a good idea to have a low-voltage
regulation, though-sometimes high-impedance and high-
voltage regulation transformers are deliberately used to
reduce the fault currents in a circuit.
 The Transformer Phasor Diagram
• To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, it is
necessary to understand the voltage drops within it. The
effects of the excitation branch on transformer voltage
regulation can be ignored, so only the series impedances
need be considered. The voltage regulation of a
transformer depends both on the magnitude of these
series impedances and on the phase angle of the current
flowing through the transformer.

• The easiest way to determine the effect of the impedances

and the current phase angles on the transformer voltage
regulation is to examine a phasor diagram, a sketch of the
phasor voltages and currents in the transformer.
 The Transformer Phasor Diagram
• In all the following phasor diagrams, the phasor
voltage Vs is assumed to be at an angle of 0°, and all
other voltages and currents are compared to that
reference. By applying Kirchhoff 's voltage law to the
equivalent circuit in Figure 2-18(b), the primary
voltage can be found as;
 The Transformer Phasor Diagram
• Figure 2-26 shows a phasor diagram of a transformer
operating at a lagging power factor. It is easy to see
that Vp/a > Vs for lagging loads, so the voltage
regulation of a transformer with lagging loads must
be greater than zero.
 The Transformer Phasor Diagram
• A phasor diagram at unity power factor is shown in
Figure 2-27(a). Here again, the voltage at the
secondary is lower than the voltage at the primary, so
VR > 0. However, this time the voltage regulation is a
smaller number than it was with a lagging current.

• If the secondary current is leading, the secondary

voltage can actually be higher than the referred
primary voltage. If this happens, the transformer
actually has a negative voltage regulation (see Figure 2-
27(b)).
The Transformer Phasor Diagram
The Transformer Phasor Diagram
Transformer Efficiency
 TRANSFORMER TAPS AND VOLTAGE
REGULATION
• In previous sections, transformers were described by their turns
ratios or by their primary-to-secondary-voltage ratios. Throughout
those sections, the turns ratio of a given transformer was treated as
though it were completely fixed.

• In almost all real distribution transformers this is not quite true.

Distribution transformers have a series of taps in the windings to
permit small changes in the turns ratio of the transformer after it
has left the factory. A typical installation might have four taps in
addition to the nominal setting with spacings of 2.5 percent of full-
load voltage between them. Such an arrangement provides for
adjustments up to 5 percent above or below the nominal voltage
rating of the transformer.
 TRANSFORMER TAPS AND VOLTAGE
REGULATION
• The taps on a transformer permit the transformer to be
adjusted in the field to accommodate variations in local
voltages. However, these taps normally cannot be
changed while power is being applied to the transformer.
They must be set once and left alone.

• Sometimes a transformer is used on a power line whose

voltage varies widely with the load. Such voltage
variations might be due to a high line impedance
between the generators on the power system and that
particular load (perhaps it is located far out in the
country)
 TRANSFORMER TAPS AND VOLTAGE
REGULATION
• One solution to this problem is to use a special
transformer called a tap changing under load (TCUL)
transformer or voltage regulator. Basically, a TCUL
transformer is a transformer with the ability to
change taps while power is connected to it. A voltage
regulator is a TCUL transformer with built-in voltage
sensing circuitry that automatically changes taps to
keep the system voltage constant. Such special
transformers are very common in modem power
systems.
TRANSFORMER TAPS AND VOLTAGE
REGULATION
 THE AUTOTRANSFORMER
• On some occasions it is desirable to change voltage
levels by only a small amount. For example, it may be
necessary to increase a voltage from 110 to 120 V or
from 13.2 to 13.8 kV. In such circumstances, it is
wasteful and excessively expensive to wind a
transformer with two full windings, each rated at
about the same voltage. A special-purpose
transformer, called an autotransformer is used
instead.
 THE AUTOTRANSFORMER
• In a step-up autotransformer, the first winding is connected in
an additive manner to the second winding. The relationship
between the voltage on the first winding and the voltage on
the second winding is given by the turns ratio of the
transformer.

• However, the voltage at the output of the whole transformer

is the sum of the voltage on the first winding and the voltage
on the second winding.

• The first winding here is called the common winding, because

its voltage appears on both sides of the transformer. The
smaller winding is called the series winding, because it is
connected in series with the common winding.
THE AUTOTRANSFORMER
 THE AUTOTRANSFORMER
• In a step-down autotransformer the voltage at the
input is the sum of the voltages on the series winding
and the common winding, while the voltage at the
output is just the voltage on the common winding.
THE AUTOTRANSFORMER
 THE AUTOTRANSFORMER
• It is common practice in power systems to use
autotransformers whenever two voltages fairly close to each
other in level need to be transformed, because the closer the
two voltages are, the greater the autotransformer power
advantage becomes.

• They are also used as variable transformers, where the low-

voltage tap moves up and down the winding. This is a very
convenient way to get a variable ac voltage.

• The principal disadvantage of autotransformers is that, unlike

ordinary transformers, there is a direct physical connection
between the primary and the secondary circuits, so the
electrical isolation of the two sides is lost. If a particular
application does not require electrical isolation, then the
autotransformer is a convenient and inexpensive way to tie
nearly equal voltages together.
 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
• Two special-purpose transformers are used with power
systems for taking measurements. One is the potential
transformer, and the other is the current transformer.

• A potential transformer is a specially wound transformer with

a high voltage primary and a low-voltage secondary. It has a
very low power rating, and its sole purpose is to provide a
sample of the power system's voltage to the instruments
monitoring it.

• Since the principal purpose of the transformer is voltage

sampling, it must be very accurate so as not to distort the true
voltage values too badly.

• Potential transformers of several accuracy classes may be

purchased depending on how accurate the readings must be
for a given application.
 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
• Current transformers sample the current in a line and
reduce it to a safe and measurable level.

• The current transformer consists of a secondary

winding wrapped around a ferromagnetic ring, with
the single primary line running through the center of
the ring.

• The ferromagnetic ring holds and concentrates a small

sample of the flux from the primary line. That flux then
induces a voltage and current in the secondary
winding.
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS