Animals Characteristics:

- Multicellular
- Lack cell wall
- Obtain energy by consumption of organisms
- Reproduce sexually
- Motile
- Response to external stimuli
Evolutionary milestones:
- Appearance of tissues
- Body symmetry
- Protostome and deuterostome development

Ectoderm (top layer)

Mesoderm (middle layer)
Endoderm (bottom layer)

All animals are

Bilaterally symmetrical

2 main groups:
1. Protostome
2. Deuterostome
Protostome has 2 main groups
1. Ecdysozoans
2. Lophotrochozoans

Animals from left to right.

1. Porifera
2. Cnidaria
3. Ctenophora
4. Nematoda
5. Arthropoda
6. Platyhelminthes
7. Annelids
8. Mollusca
9. Echinodermata
10. Chordata

Lack of tissues separate sponges from all other animals

3 Types of Tissue layers:

1. Ectoderm
2. Mesoderm
3. Endoderm
Tissues are the only animals lacking tissues
- Not true tissues.
Upper (Dorsal) surface
Lower (Ventral) surface

Symmetrical animals are divided into 2 groups

1. Radial Symmetry
2. Bilateral Symmetry

Radial Symmetry
- Divided into equal halves by MULTIPLE planes that passes through central axis
- Animals with radial symmetry have 2 embryonic tissues
1. Ectoderm- outer layer that covers the body; lines inner cavities; nervous systems
2. Endoderm- inner layer that lines hollow organs.

Bilateral Symmetry
- Have THREE embryonic tissue
1. Ectoderm
2. Mesoderm
3. Endoderm
- Forms muscles, circulatory and skeletal systems
- Bilateral symmetrical animals have heads.
- Divided into mirror image halves along ONE plane that runs down the midline
- Exhibit cephalization
- Sensory organs
- Well defined head
- Anterior (head) region
- Posterior (tail) region
Most Bilateral animals have BODY CAVITIES
- Body cavities- fluid filled cavities between the digestive tube and the outer body wall
- Can act as a skeleton, provide support for the body and the
framework which muscles can act
- Form a protective buffer between internal organs and outside
world
- Organs to move independently of the body wall
3 Types of Body Cavities
1. Coelomate
2. Pseudocoelomate
3. Acoelomate

Coelomate
- Possess a coelomate (a fluid filled body cavity COMPLETELY lined with mesoderm)
EXAMPLE: annelids (Earthworms)
Pseudocoelomate
- Possess a pseudocoelom (a fluid filled body cavity NOT COMPLETELY lined with
mesoderm)
EXAMPLE: Nematodes (Roundworms)

Acoelomate
- Lack a body cavity
EXAMPLE: Cnidarians (Jellyfish) and Planaria (Flatworms)

MAJOR ANIMAL PHYLA

- 27 phyla of animals
- Most animals are Invertebrates ( lack a vertebral column)
- Less than 3% are vertebrates

Sponges
- Have a simple body plan
- Phylum Porifera
- Found in most marine and aquatic environments
- Do not move but comes in many sizes/shapes
- Reproduce asexually by budding
- May also reproduce sexually via fusion of sperm and eggs
- LACK TRUE TISSUES AND ORGANS
- Perforated by tiny pores where water passes,
- Few through large openings through which water is expelled
EXAMPLES:
- Encrusting sponge (orange)
- Tubular sponge (purple tubes)
- Flared sponge (pink)

- Sponge cells are specialized for different functions

- Epithelial cells- flat cells that covers outer surface
- Pore cells- modified epithelial; regulate flow of water through pores
- Collar cells- flagellated cells; maintain water flow through sponge
- Amoeboid- motile; digest and distribute nutrients, produce reproductive cells,
secrete skeletal projections

- Some sponges contain chemicals useful to humans

- Drug spongistatin- treatment for the fungal infection that sicken AIDS patients

Cnidarians
- Well armed predators
EXAMPLES: sea jellies, sea anemones, corals, hydrozoans, sea wasps
 - Mostly marine; all carnivorous predators
- Are arranged into distinct tissues INCLUDING: contractile muscle like tissue & organized
nerve net
- Controls contractile tissue and feeding behavior

- Most cnidarians LACK TRUE ORGANS and have NO BRAIN

- 2 BODY PLANS
1. Polyp
2. Medusa
Polyp
- Is attached to rocks
Medusa
- Floats in the water

Both have tentacles with cnidocytes, defense and capture of prey

- Have stinging cells called cnidocytes.

- Finely coiled filament that explosively expelled
when the trigger is touched
- Inject poison into prey
- Other stick to or entangle small prey
- Venom can cause extreme pain or death in humans

- Have gastrovascular cavity (sac like digestive chamber with single opening that serves
as both a mouth and an anus
- Corals
- Secrete hard skeleton
- Polyps form colonies
- Hard external skeleton of calcium carbonate
- Skeleton remains after polyp dies
- New polyps build on the skeletal remnants

- Comb Jellies
- Phylum Ctenophora
- Use cilia to move
- Carnivorous, eat tiny invertebrate animals that capture with stick tentacles
- Most are hermaphroditic, can release both eggs and sperm into seawater

- Flatworms
- Parasitic or free living
- Bilaterally symmetrical
- Phylum Platyhelminthes
- Many are parasites, organisms that live in or on the body of another organism
- Reproduce both sexually and asexually, most are hermaphroditic.
 - Have organs but lack respiratory and circulatory systems
- Distinct head, along with sensory organs
- Eyespots of freshwater planarians detect light and dark
- Clusters of nerve cells (ganglia)
- Cephalization, in anterior portion of body
- Enhances animals ability to respond to stimuli
- Some are harmful to humans
- TAPEWORM
- FLUKES- intermediate host, such as snails
- Blood flukes- schistosmoiasis, cause diarrhea, amenia, possible brain
damage
- 200 million may be infected

- Annelids
- Phylum Annelids
- Divided into series of repeating units (segmentation)
- Identical copies of nerves, excretory structures, and muscles that
allows for complex movement
- Have fluid filled coelom
- Hydrostatic skeleton, pressurized fluid provides framework.

- Reproduce sexually
- Hermaphroditic, others have separate sexes
- During copulation, sperm are transferred from one individual to the other
- Some annelids reproduce asexually by fragmentation
- CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ( blood is confined to the heart and
blood vessels)
- Distributes gases and nutrients throughout the body
- Blood is filtered and wastes are removed by excretory called nehpridia
- Annelid nervous system consists of:
- Simple brain in head
- Series of of repeating paired segmental ganglia joined by a
pair ventral nerve cords extending the length of the body

- Annelid digestive system

- Consists of a tubular gut with 2 opening- a mouth and an anus
- Digestion occurs in a series of compartments:
- Pharynx: draws in food
- Esophagus: conducts food to crop
- Crop: stores food
- Gizzard: grinds food
- Intestine: absorbs digested nutrients

Three annelids species fall into 3 main subgroups

 1. Oligochaetes
2. Polychaetes
3. Leeches

1. Oligochaetes
- Moist terrestrial habitats
- Includes earthworms and its relatives
- Extensive tunneling through soils, earthworms have major roles in
aerating the soil and mixing its organic matter, FAVORABLE FOR
PLANT GROWTH
2. Polychaetes
- Most live in ocean
- Some have tubes, to project feathery gills used for gas exchange and to
filter the water for food
3. Leeches
- Live in freshwater or most terrestrial habitats
- Either carnivorous (prey smaller invertebrates) or parasitic (suck blood of
larger animals)

Mollusks
- Consists of clams, snails, and cephalopods
- Most have open circulatory systems (blood is not confined to the heart and blood
vessels)
- Extension of the body wall, called Mantle, form chamber for the gills.
- Similar to that of annelids (ganglia connected by ventral nerves)
- Ganglia are concentrated in the head
- Reproduce sexually
3 Classes of Mollusks:
1. Gastropods
2. Bivalves
3. Cephalopods

1. Gastropods
- Snails and slugs
- Muscular foot for locomotion
- Possess a shell, but not all are shelled
- Feed using radula, a flexible ribbon studded with spines that scrape algae from rocks or
prey
- Most use their skin and gills for respiration

2. Bivalves
- Filter feeders
- Scallops, oysters, mussels, and clams
 - Live in freshwater and marine habitats
- Posses two shells; clamped shut by a strong muscle
- Filter feeders and use gills for both feeding and respiration
- Muscular food used for burrowing or for attaching to rocks
3. Cephalopods
- Marine predators
- Octopuses, nautiluses, cuttlefish, and squids
- All cephalopods are marine predatory carnivores
- Large, complex brains, capable of learning
- High develop sensory systems
- Some may have shells (nautiluses)
- Have tentacles with chemosensory abilities and suction disks
- Used for locomotion and to capture prey
- Move rapidly by forcefully expelling water from mantle cavity
- CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

- Arthropods
- Most diverse and abundant animal
- Phylum Arthropoda
- Includes insects, arachnids, myriopods, crustaceans
- Appendages and exoskeleton
- Secreted by epidermis
- Composed of primarily protein and chitin
- - The exoskeleton
- protects against skeleton
- provides watertight covering
The exoskeleton much be MOLTED (SHED) so the animals can grow in size
- Arthropods have specialized segments and adaptations for active lifestyles
- Insect body is divided into 3 regions.
1. Head: for feeding and sensing the environment
2. Thorax: the segment where structures used for locomotion
(wings, legs) are attached
3. Abdomen: digestive structures
- Arthropods have efficient gas exchanges
- Aquatic arthropods (crustaceans) have gills, (thin external respiratory
membranes)
- Terrestrial arthropods have either lunds or tracheae (in arachnids) (net of
narrow branching respiratory tubes)
- MOST HAVE OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

- Arthropods have complex sensory and nervous systems, responsible for finely
coordinated movement and complex behaviors.
 - Nervous system consists of the brain; composed of fused ganglia, and
additional ganglia along the length of the body linked by ventral nerve
cord

- Well developed sensory structures, compound eyes and chemical

and tactile receptors.

- Insects
- Only flying invertebrates
- Most abundant and diverse class of arthropods
- Capable of flight
- Helps insects escape predators
- Find widely dispersed food

-Use Trachear for gas exchange

-Undergoes metamorphosis (radical change from juvenile body to adult
body form)
- Juvenile (larva), worm shaped body
EXAMPLES: maggots, caterpillars
- Complete metamorphosis
- Egg -> larva (feeding stage) -> pupa (non feeding stage) -> adult
EXAMPLES: houseflies, moths, and butterflies
- Incomplete metamorphosis
- Egg -> nymph (feeding stage, resembles adult) -> adult
EXAMPLES: grasshopper and crickets

- Divided into several dozen groups; 3 of groups include

1. Butterflies and moths
2. Bees, ants, and wasps
3. Beetles

1. Butterflies and moths

- Most conspicuous and best studied of insects
- Butterflies fly Day; moths fly at NIGHT
2. Bees, ants, and wasps
- Equipped with stinger; injects venom into victim
- Bees and ants have complex social behavior; foraging, defense, reproduction, or
rearing larvae
3. Beetles
- ⅓ of all known insects are beetles
- Hard protective exoskeletal structure
- Destructive agricultural pests or predators, used to control other insects

- Most arachnids are predatory meat eaters

 - Spiders, mites, ticks, scorpions
- Arachnids lack antennae, have 8 walking legs
- Most are carnivorous
- Some inject paralyzing venom into prey
- Breathe by tracheae, lungs or both
- Simple image forming eyes, single lens
- Abdominal glands produce protein threads (silk), weave webs
- Spiders have sensory hairs; sensitive to touch, smell or taste, aid in detecting
predators or prey
- Myriapods
- Many legs
- Includes centipedes, millipedes
- One pair of antennae
- Simple light detecting eyes
- Respire by tracheae
- Centipedes have 1 pair of legs per body segments
- Millipedes have 2 pairs of legs per body segments
- Centipedes are carnivorous
- Capture prey with frontmost legs, inject poison into the prey
- Millipedes feed on decaying vegetation
- secrete foul smell, distasteful liquid

- Most Crustaceans are aquatic

- Crab, crayfish, lobster, shrimp, barnacles
- 2 pairs of antennae
- Compound eyes
- Means of gills

- Roundworms are abundant and mostly tiny

- Most are microscopic
- Elongate body, protected by a cuticle that must be molted
- Tubular gut with separate mouth and anus
- Sensory organs that transmit information to a simple brain
- Lack CIRCULATORY AND RESPIRATORY systems
- Gas exchange occurs by diffusion between body cells and
environment
- Reproduce sexually
- Free living and break down organic matter

- Few roundworms (Nematodes) are harmful to humans

- Some are parasitic
- Hookworm- human feet and travel to intestine, cause continuous bleeding
- Trichinella- people who eat improperly cooked infected pork, invade blood
vessels and muscles= bleeding and muscle damage
 - Heartworms- transmission to dogs by a bite of infected mosquito

- Echinoderms
- Calcium carbonate skeleton
- Phylum Echinodermata
- Sand dollars, sea urchins, sea stars, sea cucumbers, and sea lilies
- Bilateral symmetry (larvae), radial symmetry (adults)
- Exhibit deuterostome development
- Endoskeleton- sends projection through the skin
- Unique water vascular system
- Consist of sieve plate, circular central canal, radial canal,
numerous tube feet
- Water vascular system functions- locomotion respiration, and food
capture

- Echinoderms have primitive system with no distinct brain

- Nerve ring, radial nerves, nerve network through epidermis
- LACK CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- Reproduce sexually
- Shed eggs and sperm into water
- External fertilization
- Regenerate lost body parts

CH 25. Animals Diversity II: Vertebrates

Key features of Chordates

1. Notochord: stiff flexible rod extending the length of the body
2. Dorsal, hollow nerve cord: above digestive tract, expands anteriorly= BRAIN
3. Pharyngeal gill slits: in pharynx, form respiratory organs, may appear as grooves
4. Post anal tail: chordate tail extends past anus
Humans are Phylum Chordata
- Chordate features are best seen during embryonic development but later we lose
notochord, gill slits, and tails
- Only dorsal nerve cord is left in post embryonic human development

Chordates in 3 Clades:
1. Lancelets
2. Tunicates
3. Craniates

Lancelets:
- Marine filter feeders
 - Small fishlike invertebrate chordates
- Retains all 4 chordate features as adults
- Half buried in sand; only anterior of body exposed
- Food particles drawn in by pharyngeal cilia, transported to digestive tract

Tunicates:
- Sea squirts and salps
- Marine environment
- Larvae are motile exhibit all chordate features
- Adults are sessile filter feeders, lost tail and notochord
- Barrel shaped tunicates AKA salps, open ocean, movement by contracting band of
muscle that propels it forward

Craniates:
- Have SKULL
- All chordates, have a skull enclosing a brain
- Haglish, and vertebrates- animals
- Embryonic notochord is replaced during development by backbone, or vertebral column,
composed of bone or cartilage
1. Supports body
2. Provides attachment sites for muscles
3. Protects nerve cord and brain
Hagfish
- Slimy resident on ocean floor
- Lack jaws
- Exclusively marine, live near ocean flood
- Feed on worms
- Secrete massive quantites of slime as defense against predators
- Respire using gills, 2CHAMBERED HEARTS, ectothermic (cold blooded)
- LACK TRUE BACKBONE, not true vertebrate but have rudimentary braincase

Several adaptations have allowed vertebrates to successfully invade most habitats

1. Internal skeleton, grow and repair itself, greater size and mobility, invade most
habitats
2. Jaws evolved. Exploit wider range of food sources than jawless animals
3. Development of paired appendages (fins, legs, wings) helped stabilize movement
4. Increased size and complexity of the brain and sensory structures. Percieve
environment and respond in different ways

Vertebrates include:
1. Lampreys
2. Cartilaginous fishes
3. Ray finned fishes
4. Coelacanths
5. Lungfishes
6. Amphibians
7. Reptiles
8. mammals

1. Lampreys
- Some parasitize fish
- Jawless, like hagfish
- Large rounded sucker that surrounds the mouth
- Spinal cord protected by cartilage segments
- Both fresh and salt water
- Marine water must return to fresh water to spawn

- Some are parasitic

- Attach to host with suckerlike mouth
- Rasping teeth on tongue, used to excavate hole in host body wall; sucks blood
and body fluids

2. Cartilaginous Fishes
- Marine predators
- Class chrondrichthyes
- Sharks, Skates, Rays
- Most are marine
- Jaws and cartilaginous skeleton
- Leathery skin embedded with tiny scales
- Gills
- 2 chambered hearts
- Internal fertilization, male deposit sperm directly into female’s reproductive tract
- Sink when stop swimming, lack swim bladder
- Some sharks feed by filtering plankton from water, most are predators of larger
prey, such as fishes, marine mammals, sea turtles, crabs, or squid
- Several rows of sharp teeth
- Back moves forward when front teeth are lost
- Most sharks avoid humans, but some can be dangerous
- 2008, 59 documented attacks; 4 were fatal
- Skates and rays, bottom dwellers with flattened bodies, wing shaped fins and thin
tails
- Spine near base of the tail, can inflict dangerous wounds
- Others produce electrical shock that stun prey

3. Ray- finned Fishes

- Most diverse vertebrates
- Bony fish found in every watery habitat, both fresh and marine
- Group includes: Ray finned fish- angler, moray eel, sea horse.
 - Lobe finned fishes- lungfish and coelacanth

- Distinguished by structure of their fins; formed by webs of skin supported by

bony spines
- Bony skeleton
- Skin covered with interlocking scales
- 2chambered hearts
- Gills for respiration
- Most have swim bladder, float effortlessly at any level
- Important human food source
- Tuna have been reduced by 10% of original population due to overfishing

4./5. Coelacanths and Lungfishes

- Lobed fins
- Both have fleshy fins that contain rod shaped bones, surrounded by thick layer of muscle
- Modified fleshy finds could be used to drag the fish from drying puddle to deeper pool
- Gave rise for first vertebrates to invade land

- Lineages of lobefins left descendants, are the tetrapods (amphibians, reptiles,

mammals)
- Lungfish- found in freshwater habitats
- Live in stagnant waters, low oxygen
- Both lungs and gills
- Can survive when water dries up
- Burrow into mud
- Seal in mucus lined chamber, breathe through lungs as metabolic rate slows
6. Amphibians
- Double life
- Frogs, toads, salamanders, caecilians
- 3 chambered hearts
- Respire through lungs and moist skin
- 4 limbs
- Reproduce sexually using external fertilization
- Confined to moist habitats
- Must be kept moist to avoid desiccation
- Male sperm swim to female eggs
- Egg protected by a jelly like coating
- Frogs and toads undergo metamorphosis; starting out as tadpoles, developing
into terrestrial hopping adults
- Salamanders; lizard like bodies with four legs and long tails
- Begin like as larvae with gills, retained in adults by some species, others
metamorphose into terrestrial adults
 - Caecilians, limbless burrowing amphibians, resembles earthworms; 5 feet long,
small eyes and limited vision

7. Reptiles
- Class Reptilia
- Adapted for life on land
- Lizards, snakes, alligators, crocodiles, turtles, birds
- Respire through lungs
- 3 notable adaptations that allows freedom from aquatic origins
1. Tough scaly skin; protects body and resist water loss
2. Internal fertilization
3. Shelled amniotic egg; encapsulates embryo in liquid filled
membrane. Amnion, prevents embryo from drying out
- Adapts to life on land
- All have modified 3- 4 chambered hearts, separate oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood more effectively than amphibians
- More efficient lungs than amphibians do and do not use their skin as respiratory
organ
- Reptile skeleton provides support, more efficient movement on land.
- Lizards and snakes, mostly predators
- Snakes, multiple adaptations to acquire food
- Immobilize prey with venom, hollow teeth
- Distinctive jaw joint, allows jaw to distend= to be able to swallow prey much
longer than itself
- Crocodilian- alligators and crocodiles
- Warmer waters of earth
- Crocodilians have nostrils located high on their heads, be able to
submerge for long periods of time with upper portion of head above water
- Strong jaws, conical teeth to crush and kill fish, birds, mammals, turtles,
and amphibians.
- Parental care- bury eggs in mud nests; more eggs to land in mouth

- Turtles
- Variety of habitats, including deserts, streams, ponds, oceans
- Boxlike shell for protection, fused to vertebrate, ribs, collarbone
- Have no teeth, horny beak instead. Plant and animal matter
- Largest turtle leatherback, lives in oceans, 6ft, jelly fish
- Migrate long distances to reach beach to bury eggs

- Birds
- Feathers, body scales
- Earliest known= archaeopteryx
- feathers provide lift and control, insulation
- Hollow bones reduce weight of skeleton
 - Reproductive organs shrink during non breeding periods
- Females- single ovary, minimizing weight to aid flight
- Nervous system- extraordinary coordination for balance for flight, acute
eyesight
- Constant body temperature
- Warm blooded (endothermic)
- High metabolic rate, demand for energy, efficient oxygenation of tissues
- Eat frequently, adaptations for circulatory and respiratory systems.
- 4 chambered, mix oxy/deoxygenated blood
- Air sacs, provide supply of oxygenated air to lungs.

8. Mammals
- Class mammalia
- Provide milk for their young
- Milk producing glands- mammary glands
- Colostrum- form of milk produced by mammary gland during late
pregnancy
- Contains antibodies for newborn against disease
- Warm blooded, high metabolic rates
- 4 chambered hearts
- hair = protects and insulates
- legs= running vs crawling
- Sweat, scent, sebaceous (oil producing) glands
- Brain is highly developed
- Unparalleled curiosity and learning ability, alter behavior based on
experience
- Increased chance of survival in changing environment
- Extended parental care after birth
- Mammals to learn extensively

- Mammals subdivided into 3 groups

1. Monotremes
2. Marsupials
3. Placental
- Monotremes and marsupials evolved during pangea
- Placental evolved after australia split

1. Monotremes
a. Egg laying
b. 3 species, platypus, 2 spiny anteater (echnidas)
i. Platypuses, forage for food in water, eat small vertebrate/
invertebrate
ii. Echidnas terrestrial and eat insects and worms
C. Monotremes lay leathery eggs
 - Young are nourished from milk secreted by mother
2. Marsupials
- Opposums, koalas, kangaroos, wallabies, wombats, tasmania devil
- Embryo begins in uterus of females
- Young born at very immature stage, much crawl to and grasp nipple
- Post birth development; completed in protective pouch
3. Placental mammals
- Land, air, and sea
- Highly diverse class- bats, moles, impalas, whales, seals, monkeys,
cheetahs
- 40% rodents of all mammal species
- Most mammals are placental mammals
- Uterus contains placenta, functions in gas, nutrients, and waste
exchange between circulatory system of mom and embryo
- Young are retained in uterus for entire embryonic development
- Bats use echolocation to catch flying prey by emitting short pulses
of high pitched sounds

CH 26. Animal Behavior

- One property of faces is attractiveness.

- Symmetry and sexual dimorphism- important variables.
- Behavior- observable activity of living animal
- EX: moths fly to light, honeybees fly to cup of sugar water, bluebirds sing, wolves
howl, frogs croak, humans dance, play sports, wage war

2 Forms of Behavior
1. Innate
2. Learned

1. Innate
- Performed without experience
- Reasonably complete forms the first time an animal encounters a particular
stimulus
- Appears even if the animal is deprived of the opportunity
- EX. red squirrels attempt to bury nut when presented for the first time

- Can occur immediately after birth before opportunity for learning presents itself
 - EX: female cuckoo birds lay their eggs in nests of other bird
species,raised by adoptive parents
- After birth, chick will shove nest owner’s eggs out to eliminate competition
for food

2. Learned Behavior
- Require experience
- Make changes in behavior- learning
- EX: human learning language
- Sparrows use of stars for navigation

- Habituation
- Decline in response to repeated stimulus
- This ability prevents animals from wasting energy and attention on irrelevant
stimuli
- EX: sea anemone retracts tentacles when touched, but will stop if touch is
repeated

- Conditioning
- Learned association between stimulus and response
- Complex form of learning is called trial and error learning
- New and appropriate responses to stimuli are acquired through experience
- Responses to natural occuring stimuli based on rewards and punishments
- Often occur during play or exploratory behavior
- EX: hungry toad captures stinging bee- stings on tongue- learn to avoid
encounters with bees

- Operant conditioning
- Learn behaviors to receive reward or avoid punishment
- Train animals

- Insight learning
- Problem solving without trial and error
- Solve problems suddenly without experience
- Humans manipulate to come to a solution
- EX: chimpanzee stack boxes to reach banana suspended from ceiling
- Tinbergen and Lorenz
- New born birds crouch when any object moves over their heads
- Learn to discriminate between harmless objects (geese)= cause crouching
- Learning governed by innate contraints
- Occurs within boundaries to help increas changes only the behavior is acquired
- EX: robin, ability to learn songs limited to own species, songs of other species
are excluded
 - Imprinting- animal’s learning system is rigidly programmed to learn certain thing
only in certain period- sensitive period- in development
- Best known in birds such as ducks, follow animal or object most encountered
during early sensitive period
- Mother bird will be followed by its young during sensitive period- IMPRINT
- Behavior arises out of interaction between genes and environment
- Bird migration behavior has inherited components
- Naive migrating birds, hatched months earlier travel properly from one
location to another without prior experience
- Birds ability to migrate- must be in their genes
- Genetically controlled ability to migrate is supported by hybridization experiments-
blackcap warblers

Aggressive behavior helps secure resources

- Competition for food, resources, or mates= aggression; antagonistic behavior, between
members of the same species
- Includes- physical combat between rivals, injure or kill participants
- Natural selection favors evolution of symbolic displays or rituals for resolving conflicts
- Allows competitors to assess each other on basis of size, strength, motivation,
determining winner without injury or death
- Ritualized combat- non lethal ways- fiddler crabs, kangaroos, rattle snakes
Dominance hierarchy
- Helps manage aggressive interactions
- Each animal in group establishes rank that determines access to resources
- Dominant individuals obtain most access to resources needed for reproduction, including
food, mates, and space
- EX: male big horn sheep, reflected in horn size
- Most studied dominance hierarchy is CHIMPANZEES
- Ethologists Jane Goddall.
- Male chimpanzees rush forward throwing rocks etc to intimidate rival males
- Territoriality- defense of an area where important resources ( mate, food, shelter)
are located
- Most commonly seen in adult males
- Territories are defended against members of the same species who compete
most directly for the resources being protected
- Woodpecker defending tree
- Small depression in sand- nesting site for cichlid fish
- Hole in sand- home ro crab
Territoriality reduces aggression
- Once territories are established- boundaries are recognized and respected
- Animal is highly motivated to defend even against larger, stronger animals
Competition for mates may be based on territories
- Males who succeed in defending territories have greatest chance in passing their genes
- Females choose males whose territories are large in size, etc. survival of her offspring
Animals advertise their occupancy
- Advertised through sight sound and smell
- EX: male rabbits and hamsters use pheromones to mark territories
- Male sea lions and crickets use vocal display
Vocal display are common form of territorial advertisement
- Husky trills of male seaside sparrow is part of aggressive display, warning other males to
steer clear of his territories
Sexual selection
- Behaviors that help animals compete for access to mates
- Males usually have traits to help them compete for females
- Females have traits that make the advantageous choices
- Males may fight to mate
- Males compete not for direct access to females, but control of terriroties
that will attract females
- Males may provide gifts to mates
- Induced to mate by males that provide resources directly, AKA meal
- Dance flies only mate with males that bring them dead insect to eat
Competition between males continues after copulation
- Both males and females can copulate with multiple partners
- If make copulates with female and doesnt guard his, her reproductive success may be
taken by others.
- Parental- males are large, colorful, and territorial
- Cuckolders- sneakers that hide and wait to deposit sperm without being noticed
Communication
- Production of a signal by one organism that causes anther organism to change its
behavior in a way beneficial to both
Ways to Communicate
- Visual displays
- Sound
- Chemicals
- touch
Visual Communication is more effective over short distances
- Active visual
- Passive visual

-Active visual- specific movements or posture conveys a message

- Aggression behavior in wolves
- Passive visual- size, shape, color, of an animal conveys information, usually
about its sex and reproductive state
- Female mandrills become sexually receptive, develop large bright colored
swelling on buttocks
- Active and passive- anole lizard; his head (active visual), color of throat (passive
visual)
Sound communication
 - Effective over longer distances
- Almost instantaneous
- Can be transmitted through darkness, dense, forest..
Chemical messages
- Persist longer but are hard to vary
- Pheromones: chemicals produced by animals that influence the behavior of other
members of the same species.
- EX: queen honeybee produces pheromones, queen substances, which prevents other
females in the hive from becoming sexually mature.
Touch communication
- Helps establish social bonds
- Gesture including kissing, nuzzling, patting, petting, grooming
Advantages of group living
- Ability to detect repel and confuse predators
- Increased hunting and food finding efficiency
- Potential for division of labor
- Likelihood of finding a mate
Disadvantages of group living
- Increased competition within group for limited resources
- Increased risk of infection from contagious diseases
- Increased risk of being spotted
- Increased risk of offspring being killed by other members of the group.

Altruism- sacrifice thier own interests for the good of the colony.
- More likely if all members of the society are closely related (kin selection)
- Honey bees have rigidly organized caste system based on functionaly position in the
colony
- 3 Larval stages roles
1. Queen- 1queen/hive, produce eggs and regulate lives of the workers
2. Drones- all males, serve as mates to queen
3. Workers- sterile females, perform variety of functions depending on age
- As she matures, production of wax, Builder= constructing cells.
- Final role- forager, gathering pollen
- Communication sources of nectar by WAGGLE DANCE

- Pheromones.