HUMAN BIOSCIENCES B

Anatomy – Study Notes

La Trobe University
HBS1HBB
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HBS1HBB Study Notes

Table of Contents
Week 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 2
Terminology, Body Tissues and Medical Imaging .................................................................. 2
Week 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 17
Skeletal System ...................................................................................................................... 17

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Enquiry 1 – The Musculoskeletal System

Week 1
Terminology, Body Tissues and Medical Imaging

Terminology – Anatomical Principles

D1 Structure reflects function.
D2 The anatomy of the human body has a commonly accepted pattern, but there may be
variation from one person to another.
M1 Simple movements of the body or its parts take place in a direction parallel to the
body's planes of reference.
Terminology – Learning Objectives

LO1 1. Define the term anatomical principle. Apply principle D1 to some of the organs or organ
systems of the body. Suggest ways in which the use of principles can assist in your
learning of anatomy.
Anatomical Fact: Isolated observations or statements of structures or events in the body.
Anatomical Concept: Structures or events, each with common defining characteristics.
- Component (What)
- Relationships (Where)
- Function (Why or How)
Anatomical principle: Generalised ideas or applications of patterns within different parts of
the body.
Apply structure reflects function to the heart muscle.
Fact: The heart is an internal organ
Concept:
What: A hollow visceral organ with walls composed of cardiac muscle tissue.
Where: Thoracic cavity, deep to the ribs.
Why: Pumps blood around the body.
Principle: The hollow chambers of the heart fill with blood, which is then pumped around the
body by the contraction of its muscular walls.

Each principle provides a guideline and an application for different parts of the body

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LO2 2. Explain what is meant by 'anatomical relationships'.

Define and use the terms in describing the following relationships; anterior and
posterior (or ventral and dorsal); superior and inferior; proximal and distal; medial and
lateral; superficial and deep.
Give an example of how principle D2 may apply to this objective.
Anatomical Relationships: How one part of the body is related (or located) to another.

Term Definition Example

Anterior (Ventral) Toward front of body The nose is anterior to the
back of the head

Posterior (Dorsal) Toward rear of body The back is posterior to the

chest

Superior (Cranial) Toward the head (top) The eyes are superior to the
mouth

Inferior (Caudal) Toward the bottom The toes are inferior to the
hands

Proximal Closer to origin or attachment The shoulder is proximal to

the fingers

point
Distal Away from the origin or The toes are distal to the
kneecap

attachment point
Medial Toward centreline The heart is medial to the arm

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Lateral Away from the centreline The arms are lateral to the
head

Superficial (External) Toward body surface The skull is superficial to the

brain

Deep (Internal) Toward interior The heart is deep to the ribs

Every human has small anatomical differences, either internally or externally. Sometimes a
nerve or blood vessel is out of place or small muscle is missing. We seldom see extreme
anatomical variations as they are incompatible with life.

LO3 3. Describe, and demonstrate, the standard anatomical planes; sagittal plane; coronal (or
frontal) plane and transverse (or horizontal) plane. Using appropriate anatomical
terminology, describe the relative position of the two parts of the body separated by
each of these planes.

Anatomical
Position of
Reference

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Sagittal Plane Coronal (Frontal) Plane Transverse (Horizontal)

Plane
Divides left and right Divides anterior and
posterior Divides superior & inferior

Anatomical Position of Reference:

 Head, eyes palms and feet facing forward.

 Thumbs on the lateral side of the body.
 Arms at side and feet slightly apart.

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LO4 4. Define each of the following terms and then, using principle M1 and the body planes
for reference, demonstrate and describe the following movements and the planes
these movements occur in:

Movement Definition Plane

Flexion & Extension Decrease & Increase angle Sagittal
between body parts
Dorsiflexion & Plantarflexion Decrease & increase angle Sagittal
between shin and top of
foot
Abduction & Adduction Moving laterally and Coronal
medially
Pronation & Supination Palm toward ground & Transverse
palm toward face
Elevation & Depression Raising & lowering the jaw Coronal
Protraction & Retraction Jaw toward anterior & Sagittal
posterior of body
Rotation Twisting a limb medially or Axis of limb
laterally about its axis
Circumduction Moving a limb so it All planes (M1 does not
describes a cone in space apply)
Opposition Touching thumb to fingers N/A
on same hand
Inversion & Eversion Turning sole of foot Transverse
medially and laterally

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Body Tissues – Anatomical Principles

T1 Tissues with common elements which are present in different amounts or arranged in
different ways have different functions.
T2 Tissue growth, tissue maintenance and repair depend on a good blood supply
RV1 Body cavities may have hard and/or soft tissue walls and are generally lined with
secretory membranes.
RV6 In serous fluid-filled cavities which occur within the major body cavities, friction
between organs and the body wall and between the organs themselves is limited, and
mobility enhanced, by serous fluid derived from the membranes lining the walls of
the cavity.
Body Tissues – Learning Objectives

LO5 5. List the four basic tissue types found in the human body. What is each tissue's basic
function (have you heard of the Four C’s way to remember)?

Tissue Type Function - Basic

Epithelial Covers
Connective Supports or Connects
Muscle Moves or Contracts
Nervous Controls

LO6 6. There are 5 special characteristics of epithelial tissue. Relate these to a function.
General functions

 Covers a body surface or lines a body cavity

 Lines passageways that are open to the external environment
 Covers walls and organs in the ventral body cavity (Serous membranes – serosa)
Special characteristics
i) Specialised contacts between cells
ii) One free surface
iii) Supported by connective tissue
iv) Innervated (good nerve supply) & Avascular (no blood vessels in tissue)
v) Highly regenerative

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LO7 7. Below are the sub-classes of epithelial tissue. Based on their structure, give an example
of their location and give examples of the following epithelial layers:
Organisation of Epithelium
Named according to:

 Shape
o Squamous
o Cuboidal
o Columnar
 Number of layers
o Simple
o Stratified
o Pseudostratified

Epithelial Tissue Image Location

Sub-Class
Simple squamous  Alveoli
 Serous
membranes
 Linings of heart
and blood
vessels
Simple cuboidal  Kidney tubules
 Ducts &
secretory
sections of
small glands
Simple columnar  Digestive tract
(secretory)
 Bronchia,
uterine tubes
(ciliated)

Stratified squamous  Outer layer of

skin
 Linings of
oesophagus &
trachea

Epithelia tissue sits on a basement membrane (basal surface)

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LO8 8. The subclasses of connective tissue - from least to most dense - are:

 Blood (not assessable) Least Dense

 Connective Tissue Proper
o Loose connective tissue (areolar, adipose, reticular)
o Dense connective tissue (regular, irregular, elastic)
 Cartilage (hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic)
Most Dense
 Bone (compact and cancellous)

LO9 9. List the 3 structural elements of connective tissue and describe the function(s) of each.
Using the principle T1, describe how these structural elements will differ between bone
and cartilage.

Structural Element Function Cartilage Bone

Specialised cells Synthesise the matrix Cells contained in Cells found in
and maintain the small spaces called lacunae.
health of the matrix. lacunae.

Chondroblasts/cytes. Osteoblasts/cytes.
Fibres Provides support Tough but flexible Many collagen
fibres
Ground substance Unstructured Dense ground Calcified bone
material that fills the substance. matrix. Very hard.
space between the Amorphous but firm.
cells and contains the
fibres.

Bone Tissue Hyaline Cartilage

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LO10 10. Define the terms 'somatic' and 'visceral'.

Somatic = Structures surrounding the body cavities. Towards the body wall.
Visceral = Surrounding the organs of the body cavities.

LO11 11. Describe the layers of the body from superficial to deep and state the basic tissue type
in each layer.

Skin (epithelium)

Hypodermis (adipose
tissue - fat)

Muscle (muscle
tissue)

Ribs (bone
tissue)

Internal viscera
(lungs)

Parietal membrane
Body Cavity
(epithelium)

LO12 12. Using principle T2, explain why a cut to the skin will heal quickly, while a torn tendon
will take weeks or months to heal.

 Tissue beneath the skin has an excellent blood supply and constantly replaces the
surface epithelium.
 Tendons, i.e. dense regular connective tissue, has very poor blood supply (avascular)
and take much longer to regenerate.

T2: Tissue growth, maintenance and repair depend on a good blood supply

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Medical Imaging – Anatomical Principles

R1 Tissues of greater density absorb more x-rays and, therefore, appear whiter on a
radiograph.
R2 All ionizing radiation is harmful.
R3 Divergence of x-rays results in greater magnification and decreased image sharpness
of structures further from the x-ray film.
R4 A minimum of two views that are perpendicular to each other are required to exclude
any abnormality.
Medical Imaging – Learning Objectives
LO13 13. Briefly define medical imaging and the reason for its use.
Medical imaging is a set of methods for visualising the interior of the body. It is used:

 For clinical analysis and diagnosing injuries or illnesses

 To see organ and tissue function

LO14 14. Use principle R1 to describe the relationship between tissue density and absorption of
x-rays and state how these differences contribute to clarity.

 Higher density = higher absorbance of x-rays = better clarity and appears whiter.

R1: Tissues of greater density absorb more x-rays and, therefore, appear
whiter on a radiograph.

LO15 15. Using principle R3, describe why the body part to be examined is placed closest to the
x-ray plate.

 When the body part is placed close to the image receptor (x-ray plate) the image
increases in clarity/sharpness and decreases in magnification.

R3: Divergence of x-rays results in greater magnification and decreased image

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LO16 16. Consider principle R2, and then list some of the potential effects of radiation on human
health.
Potential effects of radiation include:

 Cell damage
 Cell mutation
 Cancer
Thyroid, gonads and breast tissue are especially sensitive to radiation.

R2: All ionizing radiation is harmful.

LO17 17. State what is meant by the term 'projection' when used in radiology. Define the
common radiographic positioning terminology by describing the orientation of the
body segment relative to the film and the orientation of the beam relative to the body
segment.
Projection: The pathway of the x-ray (or central beam) as it passes from the central tube of
the machine, through the body and onto the image receptor.

Position Example Description

Anteroposterior  Beam passes
(AP) through the
anterior side of
body.
 Exits through
the posterior
side
 Back to receptor
and front to
projector.
Posteroanterior  Beam passes
(PA) through the
posterior side of
body.
 Exits through
the anterior side
 Front to
receptor and
back to
projector.

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Axial  View take super

inferiorly or
infer superiorly.
 Top to bottom
or bottom to
top.

Lateral  Projection taken

at 90o to AP or
PA.
 Specified by
which side (left
or right) touches
the receptor.

LO18 18. Discuss why a minimum of two views that are perpendicular to each other are required
to exclude any abnormality.

 The human body is a 3D shape; thus, it is difficult to represent it on one plane.

 Done to exclude abnormality.
 Helps to identify anatomical components accurately.

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LO19 19. List an advantage and disadvantage of using each of the imaging modalities below:

Imaging Modality Advantages Disadvantages

X-Rays  Cheap and  Uses ionising
available in most radiation.
towns.  Poor
 Good visualisation of
visualisation of soft tissues.
bone tissue.
 Useful for
detecting
abnormally
dense tissue
(tumours)
Ultrasound  Can image a  Image of bone
range of tissue. not as good as
Soft tissue and x-ray.
bone.  Not all
 No ionising structures are
radiation visible at single
 Portable and angle
cheap.  Operator
 Harmless to dependent.
foetus.  Prone to
artefacts.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging  Excellent imaging  Expensive
(MRI) of soft tissues equipment and
(no bone) testing
 No ionising  Claustrophobia
radiation is a factor
 Relatively safe  Excludes
patients with
pacemakers or
metal implants
 Patients must
remain still for
a long time

End of Week 1 Content.

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