FACTORS THAT DETERMINE RESISTANCE OF Material’s resistivity

CONDUCTOR
 Resistivity (ρ) is the reciprocal of
 Conductors will always allow the flow of conductivity. The list of resistivities of
current. Electrical cords or wires are the materials clearly show that resistance
best examples of conductors that we varies depending on what kind of
used at home. Are all electrical wires material a conductor is made of. The
used in our house have the same size, temperature of a wire also affects the
length and kind of material? resistance of the wire.

Factors affecting resistance:

 Length WIRE SPLICES AND JOINT TO BE

USED IN DIFFERENT WIRING
• Resistance of a conductor is directly
INSTALLATIONS
proportional to the length of the wire, the
longer the wire the greater will be the  When working with electronic
resistance and shorter the wire smaller will be
equipment or with electrical wiring,
the resistance.
it may from time to time become
 Diameter (Cross-sectional area) necessary to splice or join wires
together. Splices and joints are
• Resistance of a conductor is inversely
essentially the same thing. Several
proportional to the area of the cross- section of
different methods of doing this
the uniform wire. That means, thinner the wire,
greater the resistance and thicker the wire, exist.
lower the resistance. • If the cross-sectional
Definition
area is doubled, twice as many electrons
became available to flow so that the current is  Joint is connection between same
doubled.. member
 Kind of Material (Resistivity) EXAMPLE: Steel and steel
• The material also affects the resistance of a
 Splice is connection between
conductor by a fixed amount for different
different member.
materials.

•Resistance of the conducting wires used in

EXAMPLE: concrete and steel
electric circuits varies with the dimension of the
length and area, and depends on the material
the wire is made of. Kind of Material
(Resistivity) and Material Resistivity (W m)
increases e.g. copper
A splice joint is a method of joining two  This method of wrapping is
members end to end in woodworking. The generally used on small cables because
splice joint is used when the material being the strands are flexible and all can be
joined is not available in the length wrapped in one operation.

required. It is an alternative to other joints KNOTTED TAP

such as the butt joint and the scarf joint.

Splice joints are stronger than unenforced

butt joints and have the potential to be
stronger than a scarf joint.

RAT TAIL OR PIG TAIL

 Joint all the splices discussed up to this

point are known as butted splices. Each
was made by joining the free ends of
the conductors together. Sometimes,
however, it is necessary to join a branch
conductor to a continuous wire called
the main wire. Such a junction is called
a tap joint.
 This kind of joint is commonly used to PLAIN TAP JOINT
join two or more conductors inside the
junction box. It is suitable for service
where there is no mechanical stress
when wires are to be connected in an
outlet box, switch, or conduit fitting.

Y- SPLICE

 This is used where the tap wire is under

considerable tensile stress circuit.
AERIAL TAP  This is the most widely used splice or
joint in interior wiring installation to
extend the length of wire from one
point to another.

WESTERN UNION LONG-TIE SPLICE

 This is used as a temporary tap usually

done in constructions sites. The easy
twist will facilitate tap wire movement.

DUPLEX CROSS JOINT

 This is used extensively for outside
wiring to extend the length of wire from
one end to another.

CROSS JOINT

 This is a two-tap wire turned

simultaneously and is used where the
two tap wire is under heavy tensile
stress.  The same application is done as in plain
tap and the only difference is that this
WESTERN UNION SHORT- TIE SPLICE tap is a combination of two plain taps
place side by side with each other.
WRAPPED TAP OR TEE JOINT WHAT IS RESISTANCE?

An electron travelling through the wires and

loads of circuit encounters resistance R.
Resistance is a hindrance to the flow of charge.

 This is used on large solid conductors

where it is difficult to wrap the heavy
tap wire around the main wire.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE RESISTANCE OF

A CONDUCTOR

Atomic Structure

Example-Copper Atom
Resistance refers to the property of a substance
that impedes the flow of electric current. If a
substance offers very high resistance to
current to flow it is called an insulator. If its
resistance to current flow is very low, it is
called a conductor. Resistivity refers to the
ability of substances to resist current flow.
CASE FACTORS CURRENT
1 LENGTH(l ) I1
2 LENGTH(2l ) I1/2
3 LENGTH(l ), More (A) I2 >I1
4 LENGTH(l ), More (A), I3 >I1
Diff. Material

RESISTANCE IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO

THE LENGTH (R α ɭ )

The longer the wire, the more resistance that

there will be. There is a direct relationship
between the amount of resistance encountered
by charge and the length of wire it must
traverse.

RESISTANCE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO

THE CROSS – SECTIONAL AREA (R α ½)

The cross-sectional area of the wires will affect

the amount of resistance. Wider wires will have
a greater cross-sectional area.

RESISTANCE DEPENDS IN THE MATERIAL USED

(R = ρ ÷)
Not all materials are created equal in terms of
conductive ability. The conducting ability of a
material is often indicated by its resistivity. The
resistivity of a material is dependent upon the
material’s electronic structure and
temperature.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WIRES AND CABLES 3) Weather proof wire
• No weather reaction, in this type of
Wires and Cables wire. Because it has cotton breeding
with water proof. But is it flammable so
The Basic key difference between wires and no in use now.
cables: A wire is a single conductor whereas a 4)LC Wire
cable is a group of conductors. • It is called lead covered wire. Lead
Wires & Cables are purpose built conductors. pipe on rubber insulation & its coating
The size and type of wire/cable must suit the on conductor. It is very good in
power rating required for their use. The higher moisture condition but less tensile
the power the thicker the wire/cable. strength so low uses now.

Uses of Wire: 5) MICC wire

Domestic & Small Industry • It is called mineral insulated copper
Wiring in appliances covered wire. In this type wire copper
conductor coated is with magnesium
Uses of Cable: oxide. And after copper coating is
Distribution Lines coated on it. In case of moisture
Small and Big industries weather PVC coating (serving) is coated
Transmission Lines on it.
6) PVC wire
WIRES • It is called poly vinyl chloride wire.
Various types of wires: PVC coating on copper conductor so it's
1) VIR wire so many advantages as follows:
• It is called vulcanized insulation rubber
wire. Copper and aluminum conductor a) High dielectric strength
and rubber coating are used in it. Now b) High tensile strength
single and double braided wires are c) More defense against moisture
mostly in a use. But it has lower tensile d) High Life
strength, chemical reaction & bad e) No disturb in vibration
insulation so it is not used. Available in 600,660,1100 Voltage,
• Suitable for: Low & Medium voltage Widely used Long life Durable against
supply only water, heat, oil, UV light.
• old type: not readily available to
purchase.
2) CTS & TRS wire
• It is called crab tyre sheath wire & tuff
rubber sheath wire. Hard and good
rubber coating on copper wire is used in
this wire. It is used in house wiring &
industrial wiring.
• Available in 250/440V only.
Types of Wires- There are mainly 5 types of • The gaps are filled with fibrous material
wires like jute.
• The Belt is covered with lead sheath.
• Triplex Wires: Triplex wires are usually Super Tension (S.T.) Cables
used in single-phase service drop • The S.T cables are intended for 132 kV
conductors, between the power pole to 25 kV voltage levels.
and weather heads. • In such cables, the following methods
• Main Feeder Wires: Main power feeder are specially used to eliminate the
wires are the wires that connect the possibility of void formation:
service weather head to the house. • Instead of solid type insulation, low
• Panel Feed Wires: Panel feed cables are viscosity oils under pressure is used for
generally black insulated THHN wire. impregnation.
They are used to power the main • Using inert gas at high pressure in
junction box and circuit breaker panels b/w the lead sheath & dielectric.
• Non- Metallic Sheathed Wires/ Romex: Oil Filled Cables
is used in most homes and has 2-3 • In case of oil filled cables, the channels
conductors , each with plastic or ducts are provided within or adjacent
insulation, and a bare ground wire. to the cores, through which oil under
• Single Strand Wires: It also uses THHN pressure is circulated.
wire, though there are other variants. • It consists of coecentric standard
conductor but built around the hallow
Introductions to Cables cylindrical steel spiral core, which acts
as a channel for oil.
• A power cable is an assembly of two or Gas Pressure Cables
more electrical conductors, usually held • An inert gas like N at high pressure is
together with an overall sheath. The introduced lead sheath and dielectric.
assembly is used for ttransmission of • Gas like SF6 is also used in cables
electrical power. Power cables may be • Pressure is about 12-15 atmosphere.
installed as permanent wiring within • Working power factors is also high.
bilding, buried in the ground, run
overhead, or exposed. Conductor Coatings
• Flexible power cables are used for
portable devices,mobile tools and • Bare Copper - it slowly combines with
machinery. oxygen at room temperature to form
copper oxide. Raising the temperature
Belted Cables accelerates this reaction,and at about
• These cables are used for the voltage 180C and higher, bright copper wire
level up to 11 kV. turns black in just a few minutes.
• The cores are not in circular shape. • Tinned Copper- are a soldering aid and
• The cores are insulated from each other are usually specified where this
by use of impregnated paper. terminating method is to be used.
Suitable for conducors continually
 exposed to temperatures not exceeding The western union splice or Lineman splice was
• 150C, tinned copper conductors are developed during the introduction of the
slightly more expensive than bare telegraph to mechanically and electrically
copper wires. connect wires that were subject to loading
• Silver Coated Copper- is made by stress. The wrapping pattern is designed to
electro-plating pure silver on 18 AWG cause the termination to tighten as the
wire which then is cold drawn to size a conductors pull against each other
finally annealed. Minimum silver
thickness is 40- micro-inches.
• Nickel Coated Copper- (50 micro inches
minimum nickel thickness) is
recommend for TFE hook-up wire
operating for prolonged periods at
temperatures of from 200 to 260 .

USES OF DIFFERENT WIRE SPLICES AND JOINTS

When working with electricity, it's important to

be extremely careful. These wire splicing
techniques are broadly the same for low A tap splice, also called a tap joint, is used to
voltage wiring of consumer electronics and the connect a conductor to a running wire.
AC power supply to your home. When splicing
wires, it's very important to bear in mind the
risks, especially if you're working on something
with high voltage. It is important to understand
its importance and uses.

What is the main purpose of wires and splices?

To connect one wire to another, as a
continuation of a circuit or to terminate to a
block or panel.

Fixture splices, or fixture joints, are used to

connect wires of different sizes.

A Western Union Splice works best to splice

together small, solid conductors.
Rat-tail splice, also known as a twist splice or
a pig-tail splice. The splice is not meant to A Through Fixture joint is used where fixture
connect wires that will be pulled or stressed. leads are connected to branched wire in an
Rather, it is intended for wires that are immediate point.
protected inside an enclosure or junction box.
This kind of joint is commonly used to join two
or more conductors inside the junction box. It is
suitable for service where there is no
mechanical stress when wires are to be
connected in an outlet box, switch, or conduct
fitting.

An Underwriter's Knot, also known as Pretzel

Knot, is used in making drop cord, tie an
underwriter knot at the top so the weight is
supported not by the copper conductors where
they are connected to the terminals, but by the
knot.

Britannia Splice is used in interior wiring where

solid wires of larger sizes are to be joined and
where large wire connectors or pliers are not at
hand. A britannia splice, also known as a cable
splice, is not easy or neither difficult in doing.
This splice is applied on both inside and outside
of the building to big solid wire where twisting
is difficult but there is an equipment to lessen
the difficulty on doing this kind of splice.
A Double-crossed Joint, is used in the same
manner as the ordinary-crossed joint with the
advantage of being stronger. This is used where
two tap conductors are to extend away from
branch. conductor in opposite direction from
the main through wire.

Plain tap or tee joints is used to a great extent

of joining a tap or another conductor to a
through conductor.

Y-splice is a method of wrapping is generally

used on small cables because the strands are
flexible and all can be wrapped in one
operation.
The same application is done in a cross joint as
a in plain tap and the only difference is that this
tap is a combination of two plain taps place side
by side with each other.

Knotted tap joint is used to Join all the splices

discussed up to this point are known as butted
splices. Each was made by joining the free ends
of the conductors together. Sometimes,
however, it is necessary to join a branch
conductor to a continuous wire called the main
wire. Such a junction is called a top joint.
Aerial tap joint is used as a temporary tap
usually done in construction sites. The easy
twist will facilitate tap wire movement.
 to bear in mind the risks, especially if
you're working on something with high
voltage. Make sure power is off,
including the fuse, wear gloves, never
work near water and always double
check your work before turning the
electricity back on.

BASIC ELECTRON THEORY

Duplex cross – joint is a two-tap wire turned

Structure of an Atom
simultaneously and is used where the two tap
Example: Carbon Atom
wire is under heavy tensile stress.

Nucleus
• 6 Protons
• 6 Neutrons
Electrons

Western Union Short-tie Splice is the most

widely used splice or joint in interior wiring
installation to extend the length of wire from Orbits
one point to another.

The distribution of electrons in the orbital rings

around an atom’s nucleus determines the
element’s electrical properties

Conductor / Insulator
Western Union Long-tie Splice is used
• The stability of the electrons in the
exclusively for outside wiring to extend the
outer ring determines whether a
length of wire from one end to another.
material made from this element is a
conductor, insulator, or semiconductor.
 When working with electricity, it's
important to be extremely careful. • Elements whose electrons are unstable
When splicing wires, it's very important and can easily move from one atom to
another make good conductors.
Elements whose electrons are stable and can Copper
not easily move from one atom to another (Cu)
make good insulators.

Because the outer-most band is incomplete, the

Conductors single electron is unstable and loosely bonded
to the atom. Hence, it can easily move to the
• When an element’s outer electron ring
outer band of another adjacent atom.
is incomplete or not full, its electrons
This free flow of electrons is what makes silver
can move more freely from one atom to
and copper good conductors.
another atom.

• Elements whose electrons can move More Examples:

more freely make good conductors.

• In general, most metals make good

conductors because they only have one
or two electrons in their outer band.

• Silver and gold are the best conductors.

Salt Gold
Copper is the second best conductor.
Most wiring uses copper wire because it
is a good conductor and is less
expensive than the other metals.

Steel
Insulators
• When an element’s outer ring is
Conductors: Example Ag & Cu complete, or full, its electrons can not
easily move from one atom to another
Silver atom.
(Ag) • Elements whose electrons can not
move freely make good insulators.
• Examples of good insulators are glass,
plastic, rubber, paper, or air. Most
wiring uses plastic as an insulator.
 • Plastics are polymers or long chains of • Examples of good semiconductor
atoms bonded to one another. Viewing materials are
the atomic structure of plastics is far – Carbon (used to make resistors)
beyond the scope of this class (If you – Silicon (used to make
are interested in such topics, you may transistors)
want to take AP Chemistry.).
• Neon and argon, both gases, are good Semiconductors: Example C & Si
insulators and are often used in light
bulbs. Carbon Silicon
(C) (Si)
Insulator: Example Ne & Ar
The outer-most orbits of carbon and silicon can
Neon Argon each contain a maximum of eight (8) electrons.
(Ne) (Ar) Because they both contain four (4), these
electrons are neither stable nor unstable.
The outer-most orbits of neon and argon can
each contain a maximum of eight (8) electrons. This electron structure is what makes carbon
This is exactly how many they have. This makes and silicon good semiconductors.
the electron in the outer-most bands stable.
This stable electron structure is what makes CHARACTERISTICS OF CONDUCTORS USED IN
neon and argon good insulators. WIRING INSTALLATIONS

More Examples: What is a conductor?

 It is a material that easily conducts
electrical current, heat and light.

 These materials have a loosely bound

valence electrons which became free
electrons.
 Good examples of conductors are Gold,
Diamond Rubber Silver, and Copper.

What are the most generally used conductors?

Conductors for wiring installations

Wood
 The two most generally used
conductors are copper and aluminum.
Semiconductor
 Each has characteristics that make its
• When an element’s outer ring is neither use advantageous under certain
complete nor incomplete, the element circumstances.
is considered to be a semiconductor.
What are the characteristics of conductors?  Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity is a measure of how well
Characteristics a material transports an electric charge. This is
 High Conductivity an essential property in electrical wiring
 High Strength systems. Copper has the highest electrical
 Low Weight conductivity rating of all non-precious metals:
the electrical resistivity of copper = 16.78 nΩ•m
at 20 °C. Specially-pure Oxygen-Free Electronic
Reason (OFE) copper is about 1% more conductive.
 to give adequate current carrying  Tensile Strength
capacity and low voltage drop Tensile strength measures the force required to
 to maintain ground clearance in long pull an object such as rope, wire, or a structural
spans beam to the point where it breaks. The tensile
 as above strength of a material is the maximum amount
of tensile stress it can take before breaking.
Characteristics Copper’s higher tensile strength (200–250
 Flexibility N/mm2 annealed) compared to aluminum (100
 Mechanical Stability N/mm2 for typical conductor alloys)is another
 Physical Stability reason why copper is used extensively in the
 Lifetime Stability building industry.
 Ductility
Reason Ductility is a material's ability to deform under
 avoid vibrational fatigue failure tensile stress. This is often characterized by the
 to withstand a variety of loading material's ability to be stretched into a wire.
conditions Ductility is especially important in metalworking
 to withstand environmental conditions because materials that crack or break under
(e.g. corrosion resistance) stress cannot be hammered, rolled, or drawn
 to maintain the characteristics for 40 50 (drawing is a process that uses tensile forces to
years stretch metal).
 Strength and ductility combination
What are the characteristics of a Copper? Usually, the stronger a metal is, the less pliable
 Has high conductivity it is. This is not the case with copper. A unique
 Sufficiently high mechanical strength combination of high strength and high ductility
 Resistant to corrosion makes copper ideal for wiring systems. At
 It is very ductile junction boxes and at terminations, for
 Easily soldered and welded has example, copper can be bent, twisted, and
relatively high tensile strength; pulled without stretching or breaking.
 Copper is more expensive and heavier  Creep resistance
than aluminum. Creep is the gradual deformation of a material
from constant expansions and contractions
under “load, no-load” conditions. This process
has adverse effects on electrical systems:
terminations can become loose, causing possible to create aluminium joints that
connections to heat up or create dangerous compare in quality to copper joints.
arcing.  Thermal conductivity
Copper has excellent creep characteristics Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material
which minimizes loosening at connections. For to conduct heat. In electrical systems, high
other metal conductors that creep, extra thermal conductivity is important for dissipating
maintenance is required to check terminals waste heat, particularly at terminations and
periodically and ensure that screws remain connections. Copper has a 60% higher thermal
tightened to prevent arcing and overheating conductivity rating than aluminium,so it is
 Corrosion resistance better able to reduce thermal hot spots in
Corrosion is the unwanted breakdown and electrical wiring systems.
weakening of a material due to chemical  Solderability
reactions. Copper generally resists corrosion Soldering is a process whereby two or more
from moisture, humidity, industrial pollution, metals are joined together by a heating process.
and other atmospheric influences. However, This is a desirable property in electrical systems.
any corrosion oxides, chlorides, and sulfides Copper is readily soldered to make durable
that do form on copper are somewhat connections when necessary.
conductive.  Ease of installation
Under many application conditions copper is The strength, hardness, and flexibility of copper
higher on the galvanic series than other make it very easy to work with. Copper wiring
common structural metals, meaning that can be installed simply and easily with no
copper wire is less likely to be corroded in wet special tools, washers, pigtails, or joint
conditions. compounds. Its flexibility makes it easy to join,
 Coefficient of thermal expansion while its hardness helps keep connections
 Metals and other solid materials expand securely in place. It has good strength for
upon heating and contract upon pulling wire through tight places (“pull-
cooling. This is an undesirable through”), including conduits.
occurrence in electrical systems. Copper It can be bent or twisted easily without
has a low coefficient of thermal breaking. It can be stripped and terminated
expansion for an electrical conducting during installation or service with far less
material. Aluminium, an alternate danger of nicks or breaks. And it can be
common conductor, expands nearly connected without the use of special lugs and
one third more than copper under fittings. The combination of all of these factors
increasing temperatures. This higher makes it easy for electricians to install copper
degree of expansion, along with wire.
aluminium’s lower ductility, can cause
electrical problems when bolted What are the characteristics of an Aluminum?
connections are improperly installed. By  Aluminum has only about 60 percent of
using proper hardware, such as spring the conductivity of copper, it is used
pressure connections and cupped or extensively.
split washers at the joint, it may be  Its lightness makes possible long spans,
and its relatively large diameter for a
 given conductivity reduces corona (the and grounded at both the electric meter and
discharge of electricity from the wire the transformer.
when it has a high potential).
 The discharge( corona) is greater when Main Feeder Wires
small diameter wire is used than when • Main power feeder wires are the
large diameter wire is used. wires that connect the service
 Some bus bars are made of aluminum weather head to the house. They’re
instead of copper where there is a made with stranded or solid THHN
greater radiating surface for the same wire and the cable installed is 25%
conductance. more than the load required.

ELECTRICAL WIRES AND CABLES Panel Feed Wires

• Panel feed cables are generally black
Wire insulated THHN wire. These are used to
• is a single electrical conductor power the main junction box and the
• A wire is a single strand of metal circuit breaker panels. Just like main
capable of transmitting power power feeder wires, the cables should
or data from one area to another. be rated for 25% more than the actual
load.
Size of wires
• Each application requires a certain wire Non-Metallic Sheathed Wires
size for installation, and the right size • Non-metallic sheath wire, or Romex, is
for a specific application is determined used in most homes and has 2-3
by the wire gauge. Sizing of wire is done conductors, each with plastic insulation,
by the American wire gauge system. and a bare ground wire. The individual
Common wire sizes are 10, 12 and 14 – wires are covered with another layer of
a higher number means a smaller wire non-metallic sheathing. Since it’s
size, and affects the amount of power it relatively cheaper and available in
can carry. ratings for 15, 20 and 20 amps, this type
Wire Lettering is preferred for in-house wiring.
• The letters THHN, THWN, THW and
XHHN represent the main insulation Single Strand Wires
types of individual wires. • Single strand wire also uses THHN wire,
though there are other variants. Each
Types of wires wire is separate and multiple wires can
• Triplex Wires be drawn together through a pipe
Triplex wires are usually used in single-phase easily. Single strand wires are the most
service drop conductors, between the power popular choice for layouts that use
pole and weather heads. They are composed of pipes to contain wires.
two insulated aluminum wires wrapped with a
third bare wire which is used as a common
neutral. The neutral is usually of a smaller gauge
Cable Metallic Sheathed Cable
• is a group of wires swathed in • Also known as armored or BX cables,
sheathing. The term cable originally metal-sheathed cables are often used
referred to a nautical line of multiple to supply mains electricity or for large
ropes used to anchor ships, and in an appliances. They feature three plain
electrical context, cables (like wires) are stranded copper wires (one wire for the
used to carry electrical currents. current, one grounding wire and one
neutral wire) that are insulated with
Types of Electrical Cables cross-linked polyethylene, PVC bedding
• Here are more than 20 different types and a black PVC sheathing. BX cables
of cables available today, designed for with steel wire sheathing are often used
applications ranging from transmission for outdoor applications and high-stress
to heavy industrial use. installations.

Non-Metallic Sheathed Cable Multi-Conductor Cable

• These cables are also known as non- • This is a cable type that is commonly
metallic building wire or NM cables. used in homes, since it is simple to use
They feature a flexible plastic jacket and well-insulated. Multi-conductor or
with two to four wires (TECK cables are multi-core (MC) cables feature more
covered with thermoplastic insulation) than one conductor, each of which is
and a bare wire for grounding. Special insulated individually. In addition, an
varieties of this cable are used for outer insulation layer is added for extra
underground or outdoor use, but NM-B security. Different varieties are used in
and NM-C non-metallic sheathed cables industries, like the audio multicore
are the most common form of indoor ‘snake cable’ used in the music industry.
residential cabling.
Coaxial Cable
Underground Feeder Cable • A coaxial (sometimes heliax) cable
• These cables are quite similar to NM features a tubular insulating layer that
cables, but instead of each wire being protects an inner conductor which is
individually wrapped in thermoplastic, further surrounded by a tubular
wires are grouped together and conducting shield, and might also
embedded in the flexible material. feature an outer sheath for extra
Available in a variety of gauge sizes, UF insulation. Called ‘coaxial’ since the two
cables are often used for outdoor inner shields share the same geometric
lighting and in-ground applications. axis, these cables are normally used for
Their high water-resistance makes them carrying television signals and
ideal for damp areas like gardens as connecting video equipment.
well as open-to-air lamps, pumps, etc.
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable Twin-Lead Cable
• Like the name suggests, this type • These are flat two-wire cables that are
consists of two wires that are twisted used for transmission between an
together. The individual wires are not antenna and receiver, like TV and radio.
insulated, which makes this cable
perfect for signal transmission and Twinaxial Cable
video applications. Since they are more • This is a variant of coaxial cables, which
affordable than coaxial or optical fiber features two inner conductors instead
cables, UTP cables are often used in of one and is used for very-short-range
telephones, security cameras and data high-speed signals.
networks. For indoor use, UTP cables
with copper wires or solid copper cores Paired Cable
are a popular choice, since they are • With two individually insulated
flexible and can be easily bent for in- conductors, this cable is normally used
wall installation. in DC or low-frequency AC applications.

Ribbon Cable Twisted Pair

• Ribbon cables are often used in • This cable is similar to paired cables, but
computers and peripherals, with the inner insulated wires are twisted or
various conducting wires that run intertwined.
parallel to each other on a flat plane,
leading to a visual resemblance to flat Types of Copper Wire Conductors
ribbons. These cables are quite flexible • Beryllium Copper wire
and can only handle low voltage • Copper Alloy wire
applications. • Copper Clad Aluminum wire
• Copper Clad Steel wire
Direct-Buried Cable • Copper Nickel & Nickel Plated Copper
• Also known as DBCs, these cables are wire
specially-designed coaxial or bundled • Oxygen-Free Highly Conductive Copper
fiber-optic cables, which do not require (OFHC) wire
any added sheathing, insulation or • Titanium Clad Copper wire
piping before being buried
underground. They feature a heavy Compositions of Copper Wire
metal core with many layers of banded • Copper, silver, and gold are in group
metal sheathing, heavy rubber 11 of the periodic table; these three
coverings, shock-absorbing gel and metals have one s-orbital electron on
waterproof wrapped thread-fortified top of a filled d-electron shell and are
tape. High tolerance to temperature characterized by high ductility, and
changes, moisture and other electrical and thermal conductivity. The
environmental factors makes them a filled d-shells in these elements
popular choice for transmission or contribute little to interatomic
communication requirements. interactions, which are dominated by
 the s-electrons through metallic bonds. between these shells corresponds to
Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, orange light.
metallic bonds in copper are lacking • As with other metals, if copper is put in
a covalent character and are relatively contact with another metal, galvanic
weak. This observation explains the corrosion will occur.
low hardness and high ductility of single
crystals of copper. At the macroscopic
scale, introduction of extended defects
to the crystal lattice, such as grain
boundaries, hinders flow of the material
under applied stress, thereby increasing
its hardness. For this reason, copper is
usually supplied in a fine-
grained polycrystalline form, which has
greater strength than monocrystalline
forms.

• The softness of copper partly explains

its high electrical conductivity
(59.6×106 S/m) and high thermal
conductivity, second highest (second
only to silver) among pure metals at
room temperature. This is because the
resistivity to electron transport in
metals at room temperature originates
primarily from scattering of electrons
on thermal vibrations of the lattice,
which are relatively weak in a soft
metal. The maximum permissible
current density of copper in open air is
approximately 3.1×106 A/m2 of cross-
sectional area, above which it begins to
heat excessively.
• Copper is one of a few metallic
elements with a natural color other
than gray or silver. Pure copper is
orange-red and acquires a
reddish tarnish when exposed to air.
The characteristic color of copper
results from the electronic transitions
between the filled 3d and half-empty 4s
atomic shells – the energy difference