Data Collection

“Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on

variables of interest in an established systematic fashion that enables one to
answer stated research questions, test hypotheses and evaluate outcomes.”

Data collection is actually the evidence for the information that is collected in
order to find research question. Data collection is considered as a component of
research in all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities
and business. Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a
research. Without collecting a required data, no one will be able to complete the
research project.

A data collection is necessary as it ensures that the data gathered are both
defined and accurate. Without the help of data or information collected or
gathered by the researcher, the research problem or questions cannot be solved.

The gathered data may be available both in qualitative and quantitative forms.
With the use of these two forms, a researcher may have descriptive statements
for data collection or may have quantitative measurements expressed in the unit
of measurement scales such as ‘nominal’, ‘ordinal’, ‘interval’ and ‘ratio’.

According to Goodwin (2008), the measurement scales represent four different

ways of assigning numbers to events of the study. These four types are used to
collect data in quantitative research studies. These scales function on a unique
scale of hierarchy level in order to collect data as the highest level is ratio and the
lowest is nominal but these scales represent in order from lowest to highest i.e.
NOIR (No Oil In Rivers). The ratio scale at the top is followed by interval and
ordinal scale and nominal lies at the bottom of this hierarchy.

These measurements are explained in detail:

1. Nominal
The simplest of measurement scales is nominal. Nominal variables also called
categorical variables can be placed into categories. This scale is usually called as
‘labels’ due to its labeling structure. It is divided into categories without having
any order. The features of this scale are characterized as:

i. It is considered as the lowest level in the scale of measurement and

the measurement obtained through this is weakest.
ii. It only classifies or categorizes objects, individuals or events related
to the collection of data.
iii. It is carried out purely at the naming or labeling level.
iv. There is no mathematical ordering in nominal scale as the labels do
not stand for quantities.
v. This scale typically assigns people to categorize according to their
individual levels or characteristics and count the number of people
falling into each category.

Example:
 Gender: Male/Female
 Age: 22/23/25
 Religion: Islam
 Hair color: Brown/Black/Blonde
 Marital status: Single/Married

2. Ordinal
i. In measurement scale, the ordinal is higher than nominal and lower
than interval and ratio.
ii. In this scale, there is an opportunity to rank the persons, objects,
events or phenomena in relation to their characteristics under
observations.
iii. As compare to nominal, it provides relatively more information than
just labeling and classification.
iv. Through this scale, the researcher can infer that one participant is
higher or lower in respect of performance.
v. In this scale, there is some ordered relationship among variable’s
observation.
Example:
 How do you feel today?
a) Very happy
b) Happy
c) Unhappy
d) OK
 When did you start learning English? At the age of
a) 21-25
b) 16-20
c) 10-15
d) 5-9
 What is your socio-economic status?
a) Poor
b) Middle
c) Rich

It actually provides options for the people to select one of the options.

3. Interval
i. Interval scale is a step forward than both nominal and ordinal scale of the
hierarchy in measurement scale.
ii. It indicated order and also the distance in the order.
iii. Interval scale is usually employed by psychologists where attitudes,
achievements, IQs are measured.
iv. It has a unit of measurement with an arbitrary starting and terminating
point.
v. It measures with order and established numerically equal distances on the
scale.

Example:
The best example of an interval scale is of a thermometer that has intervals of ten
degrees. The difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measureable 10 degrees
and same is the difference between 80 and 70 degrees.
 4. Ratio
In measurement scales, the ratio scale lies on the top of all scales. It has all the
properties of a nominal, ordinal and interval scale. It has a fixed starting point and
provides details from the point of departure. A measure taken on a ratio scale can
be expressed in terms of multiples, division, percentages and fractions of any
other measures taken on same scale.

Example:
Time is ratio since 0 times is meaningful. Same in the case of height, a height of
zero is meaningful means you don’t exist. Weight in grams is also a ratio variable
as zero grams means absence of weight and in that case, zero value is meaningful.

Tools and Techniques of Data Collection:

A researcher requires many data gathering tools and data. These tools may vary
in complexity, interpretations, design and administration. Each tool is suitable for
the collection of certain type of information.

Different tools for data collection are:

i. Questionnaire
ii. Interviewing
iii. Observing
iv. Rating Scale
v. Achievement Test
vi. Inventory
vii. Sociometric Technique
viii. Projective Technique

These techniques are explained in detail as well:

1) Questionnaire
“A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to
a sampling of population from which information is desired”
The questionnaire is probably the most used and most abused of data gathering
devices. It is easy to prepare and to administer.

Following are the characteristics of questionnaire:

i. It deals with an important and significant topic.

ii. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources
like books, reports and records.
iii. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data.
iv. Questions are objectives with no clues.
v. Questions are presented in a order from simple to complex.

Questionnaire technique has some merits and demerits as well. First talk about
the merits:

i. It is very economical.
ii. It’s a time saving process.
iii. It covers the research in wide area.
iv. It is suitable for special type of responses.

Following are the demerits:

i. There is lack of personal contact.

ii. Greater possibility of wrong answer.
iii. Chances of receiving incomplete responses.
iv. It may be useless in many problems.

2) Interviewing
Interview is a two way method which permits an exchange of ideas and
information.

“Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction.”

It is a rapport established between the interview and interviewee. Not only the
physical distance between them is annihilated, the social and cultural barrier is
also removed.
Following are the characteristics of interview:

i. The interviewer can probe into casual factors determine attitude,

discover the origin of problems.
ii. It is appropriate to deal with young children.
iii. It has flexibility.
iv. It is applicable in survey method.

In interviewing, there are also some merits and demerits. Some merits are:

i. It is a deep and direct research.

ii. There is knowledge of past and future.
iii. Examination of known data.

Its demerits are:

i. It may provide misleading information.

ii. Its results may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer.
iii. It is one sided and incomplete research.

3) Observing
This is the most commonly used technique of evaluation research. It is used in
evaluating the performance, interests, attitudes, values towards their life
problems and situation.

Following are the characteristics of observing technique:

i. It serves a formulated research purpose.

ii. It is planed systematically.
iii. It is a direct technique to study an event or a problem.
iv. It is based mainly on visual audio scene.
v. It is a formal as well as informal technique.

Some of the advantages of observation are discussed here:

i. It is a reliable and valid technique of collecting data and information.

 ii. We get first hand data through this method.
iii. It is simple, broad and comprehensive method.
iv. Record of observation is also available immediately.

There are some limitations of this technique as well:

i. It has a limited scope because all the events cannot be observed

directly.
ii. It is a subjective method.
iii. It is a time consuming process.
iv. Observer should be trained and experienced.

4) Rating Scale
Rating is a term applied to express opinion or judgment regarding some situation,
object or character.

“A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity and frequency of variable.”

A rating method is a method by which one systematizes the expression of opinion

concerning a trait. In this, data is collected by verbal behavior, facial expression,
personal documents, clinical type interview, thoughts and perceptions.

The advantages of rating scale are:

i. Writing reports to parents.

ii. Filling out admission blanks for colleges.
iii. Finding out students need.
iv. Making recommendations to employer.
v. Stimulating effect upon rater.

Rating scale has some limitations as well:

i. Difference in rating abilities.

ii. Difference in reliability as subjects for rating.
iii. Impacts of emotions.
iv. Over rating.
 v. Limits of rating specific qualities.

5) Achievement Test
The term achievement test is more popular in academic field and it refers to the
test designed for measuring the achievements of a learner that what a learner has
acquired through learning.

“Achievement test is a tool of measurement used in measuring the learning

output of the subjects in a particular subject or area after a specific period of
instruction.”

Following are the features of achievement test in the academic field:

i. At the places of learning, achievement tests are specifically designed

to measure the learning outcomes of learners.
ii. They are past oriented as they test what has already been learnt by
learners.
iii. These tests may help the school personnel to make a decision about
student’s placement in a particular class.
iv. Achievement test data can be helpful in judging the quality of
instruction in a particular class, school, school district or state.
v. Achievement tests help in maintaining uniformity in standard in
different classes of the schools by placing emphasis on the uniformity
of curriculum, text books etc.

Basically, this achievement test is related to the measurement of individual’s

learning. Achievement test scores are used in placing, advancing or retaining
students at particular grade revels.

6) Inventory
“An inventory is a kind of self-response instrument.”

Inventories yield scores which are assumed or have been shown to measure
certain tendencies or traits. The individual regarding this technique checks
responses to certain questions or statements and has a tendency to like and to
choose. These are actually personality scales that are usually instruments. These
instruments yield scores.

There are some advantages of inventory as well:

i. Inventories are useful in educational and vocational guidance.

ii. They are helpful to the teachers to provide educational facilities to
students.
iii. Personality inventories have been proved valuable in diagnosis in
clinical situations for psychiatrists.
iv. An inventory is not very much time bound.

Other than all these advantages, there is a limitation as well in this technique.
This instrument may be of limited value because of individuals’ inability to report
their own reactions accurately.

7) Sociometric Technique
“Sociometric techniques are methods that qualitatively measure aspects of
social relationships, such as social acceptance and social status.”

Sociometry comes from a Latin word as ‘socius’ means companion and ‘metrum’
means measure. It is basically an inquiry into the evolution and organization of
groups and the position of individuals within them. This technique is used for
describing the social relationship among individuals in a group.

Objectives of sociometry are also given:

i. It focuses on achieving business targets.

ii. It focuses on key contributors who create value.
iii. It enhances the informal relationship networks.
iv. It focuses on culture and provides connection, contribution and
credibility.
v. Sociometric tools are invaluable in identifying informal leaders.
Sociometric techniques remain pervasive in the social sciences, having relevance
to personality research and small group research. There are three important
methods of sociometric analysis:

i. Sociometric matrix contains most important possibilities and

implications for behavioral researcher. It is inclusive but not suitable
for large group.
ii. Sociogram is a graphic representation of social links that a person
has. It is used to analyze the choices or preferences, each person
makes within a group.
iii. Sociometric index is related to one common index that is choice
status of a person. The value of choice status is the direct index of
individual’s popularity in the group.

8) Projective Technique
Projective techniques are indirect and unstructured methods of investigating and
sometimes it is called as indirect interviewing techniques for the collection of data
that have been developed by psychologists to use projections of respondents for
inferring about underlying motives, urges or intentions.

This technique is useful in giving respondents opportunities to express their

attitudes without personal embarrassment. Projective technique plays an
important role in motivational researches.

Some important projective techniques are:

i. Word Association Test:

In this test, an individual is given a clue or hint and asked to respond to the first
thing that comes to mind. There can be many interpretations of same thing. The
responses given by respondents are important for researcher.

Example:

Out of 50, 20 people associate the word ‘Fair’ with ‘Complexion.’

 ii. Completion Test:

In this, the respondents are asked to complete an incomplete sentence or story.

The completion will reflect their attitude and state of mind.

iii. Construction Test:

This is more or less like completion test. They can give you a picture and asked to
write a story about it. The initial structure is limited e.g. two cartoons are given
and a dialogue is to written.

iv. Expression Techniques:

In this, the people are asked to express the feeling or attitude of other people.

There are some disadvantages of projective technique as well:

 Highly trained interviewers and skilled interpreters are needed.

 It is a costly method.
 The respondent selected may not be representative of the entire
population.

Each of the above tools or techniques of data collection explained has its
distinction to help in the collection of certain type of evidence from the sources of
information.