Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background Of The Study

Zeros of Euler polynomials

Important results concerning the investigation of zeros of polynomials En (x) can be found in the
paper of Dilcher [19].
The odd-indexed Euler numbers are all zero. The even-indexed ones have alternating signs. Some
values are:

E0 = 1
E2 = 1
E4 = 5
E6 = 61
E8 = 1385
E10 = 50521
E12 = 2702765
E14 = 199360981
E16 = 19391512145
E18 = 2404879675441

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Some authors re-index the sequence in order to omit the odd-numbered Euler numbers with value
zero, or change all signs to positive. This article adheres to the convention adopted above.

The Bernoulli numbers are so exotic that one might well wonder how they came to be discov-
ered. We are fortunate that this has been explained quite clearly in the posthumously published
[Bernoulli:1713].
The Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli (1654-1705) was the first to realize the existence of a single
sequence of constants B0 , B1 , B2 , B3 .... Which provide a uniform formula for all sums of powers.
The key Methods Bernoulli used to derives the formula sum of K-th power of n natural numbers is
pascal’s triangle , an alternate way to present the table of binomial coefficients nk in the expansion

n
 
n n n−k k
(x + y) = ∑ x y (1.1)
k=0 k

Here is a table of the first few:

k=0
n=0 1 k=1
n=1 1 1 k=2
n=2 1 2 1 k=3
n=3 1 3 3 1 k=4
n=4 1 4 6 4 1 k=5
n=5 1 5 10 10 5 1

The figure illustrates,

For the rest, each entry is the sum of the two numbers it’s in-between on the row above.
Pattern: kk + k+1


k+2
n
n+1

k + k +− − −+ k = k+1

Therefore there is a simple formula for the entries ;-

n    
m n+1
∑ = (1.2)
m=0 k k+1
This allows us to find inductively a formula for ∑nm=0 mk ,sums of squares,cubes, or higher powers.

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For example, suppose k = 2. Then applying (1.2)

m(m−1) (n+1)n(n−1)
∑nm=0 2 = 6
2 3
n −n n(n+1)
∑nm=0 m2 = 6 − 4
n3 2
+ n4 + 12
= n
6
n3
2
∑nm=0 m2 = 3 + n2 + 6n

In this way, Bernoulli arrived at the following table:

∑nm=0 1 = n + 1
n2
∑nm=0 m = 2 + 2n
m3 2
∑nm=0 m2 = 3 + n2 + n6
n4 3 2
∑nm=0 m3 = 4 + n2 + n4
n5 4 3
∑nm=0 m4 = 5 + n2 + n3 − 30
n

n6 5 4 2
∑nm=0 m5 = 6 + n2 + 5n n
12 − 12
n7 6 5 3
∑nm=0 m6 = 7 + n2 + n2 − n6 + 42
n

n8 7 6 4 2
∑nm=0 m7 = 8 + n2 + 7n 7n n
12 − 24 + 12
n9 8 7 5 3
∑nm=0 m8 = 9 + n2 + 2n3 − 7n 2n n
15 + 9 − 30
n10 9 8 6 4 2
∑nm=0 m9 = 10 + n2 + 3n4 − 7n n n
10 + 2 − 12
n11 10 9 3
∑nm=0 m10 = 11 + n2 + 5n6 − n7 + n5 − n2 + 66
5n

In any event , Bernoulli notice the repeated occurrence of certain numbers within coefficients of n
These are Bernoulli numbers.the k-th Bernoulli number denoted by Bk ,the coefficient of n in ∑nm=0 mk
. Here are the first few ;
−1 1 −1
B1 = 2 , B2 = 6 , B3 = 0 , B4 = 30 , B5 = 0
1 −1 5
B6 = 42 , B7 = 0 , B8 = 30 , B9 = 0 , B10 = 66

A general formula for the sum of k th powers (not explicitly stated by Bernoulli ) can be written
as
n−1 Bk+1(n)−Bk+1
∑ mk = k+1
, k ≥ 1 ,n ≥ 2 (1.3)
m=0

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where Bn (x) is polynomial in x of degree n , now Called a Bernoulli Polynomial .given by
n 
n
Bn (x) = ∑ Bk xn−k , n≥0 (1.4)
k=0 k

and where the Bk are rational numbers called Bernoulli numbers.they can be defined recursively as
follows;

n−1  
n
B0 = 1 and ∑ Bk = 0 f or n≥2 (1.5)
k=0 k
n+1

it is a bit more convenient to add Bn+1 to both sides of equation (1.5) to get ∑n+1
k=0 k Bk = Bn +1.this
can be written more compactly (in a formal short hand known as ”Umbral calculus”) as

(Bn+1 )n+1 = Bn+1 (1.6)

equation (1.4)show that Bn = Bn (0) for n ≥ 0 .the sum in (1.5) can be written in the form

n  
n
Bn = ∑ Bk , n≥2 (1.7)
k=0 k
which , in view of (1.4), reveals that

Bn = B1 , n≥2 (1.8)

Bernoulli numbers with even subscripts≥ 2 alternative in sign , and those with odd subscripts ≥ 3 are
zero.from equation (1.4) the explicit formula for the first few Bernoulli polynomials: