Identifying the Proper Impedance

Plane and Fault Trajectories in

Distance Protection Analysis

Fernando Calero and Héctor J. Altuve

Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

Presented at the
66th Annual Georgia Tech Protective Relaying Conference
Atlanta, Georgia
April 25–27, 2012

Originally presented at the

38th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, October 2011
 1

Identifying the Proper Impedance Plane and Fault

Trajectories in Distance Protection Analysis
Fernando Calero and Héctor J. Altuve, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.

Abstract—Distance relay characteristics have long been fault type selection logic on the characteristic that the distance
discussed in literature, but with little regard to the impedance relay presents to a fault. This knowledge is also important to
plane to which they refer. Numerical distance relays include properly test distance relays.
phase and ground elements with different characteristics. They
also include power swing detection, load encroachment, and
Distance relays typically include directional elements. In
directional elements that generally require different impedance many cases, these directional elements respond to different
planes than those used for distance elements. quantities (for example, negative- or zero-sequence quantities)
This paper centers on the selection of the impedance plane for from those of the distance elements. In one implementation,
analyzing the operation of distance, power swing detection, and the directional elements measure the negative- or zero-
directional elements. With simple power system models, this sequence impedance [7]. A common misconception is to try to
paper shows element characteristics and impedance loci and
represent directional element characteristics on the same plane
trajectories on different planes to explain the concepts and
discuss practical applications. This paper also describes a real used for distance elements.
power system disturbance and illustrates the use of different Multifunction relays include other protection elements,
impedance planes for analyzing protection element operation. such as power swing detection and load-encroachment
elements, that typically respond to positive-sequence
I. INTRODUCTION quantities. These elements require a positive-sequence
Distance protection generally requires six elements (AB, impedance plane for analysis, instead of the plane used for
BC, CA, AG, BG, and CG) to protect against the ten possible distance elements.
fault types. These elements are continuously monitoring the This paper focuses on the proper selection of the
power system. In most cases, more than one element may impedance plane for analyzing the operation of distance,
operate for a given fault or other abnormal condition. In directional, and other protection elements. Using computer
general, both the distance element characteristics and the simulation results from simple power system models, the
impedances measured during faults depend on the fault type paper shows element characteristics and impedance loci and
and the prefault system operating conditions. trajectories on different planes to explain the concepts and
The impedance or R-X plane has been traditionally used to discuss practical applications.
analyze distance element operation for different power system
conditions, such as faults, power swings, and load conditions II. IMPEDANCE PLANES
[1] [2] [3] [4]. This method of analysis requires the element A way to analyze the operation of two-input protection
operating characteristic and the impedance measured by the elements is to use a complex plane defined by the ratio of the
element for the given power system condition to be plotted on input signals. Two planes have been mainly used in protective
the same plane. The element operates when the measured relaying: the impedance plane and the current-ratio plane. The
impedance falls in the operating region of its characteristic. admittance plane, an alternative to the impedance plane, is
For unbalanced faults, more than one impedance plane can seldom used.
be used to analyze distance element operation. For example, The impedance plane is a tool to analyze distance,
the operation of the BC distance element for a CA fault can be directional, and power swing detection element operation by
analyzed on the ZBC impedance plane or the ZCA impedance superimposing element operating characteristics and the
plane. The element characteristic and the measured impedance measured impedances for various power system conditions,
look different on both planes. Many publications address including faults, power swings, and normal load conditions.
distance element characteristics and measured impedances but
A. Impedance Planes for Distance Elements
do not explicitly discuss the impact of the plane selected for
analysis. 1) Measured or Apparent Impedance
Multifunction line protection relays have fault selectors Distance elements respond to voltage (V) and current (I)
that enable only the appropriate distance elements for a given signals measured at their location in the power system. These
fault [5] [6]. Electromechanical protection schemes have elements perform phase or amplitude comparison of signals
standalone relays with OR tripping logic [1]. It is important to derived from V and I to create operating characteristics [3] [4]
understand the practical impact of the presence or absence of [6] [7] [8] [9].
 2

Conceptually, dividing the measured voltage phasor V by

the measured current phasor I yields the impedance Z
measured by the distance element, or apparent impedance,
which serves to analyze distance element operation.
V
Z= (1)
I
This apparent impedance can be plotted on a complex
impedance plane. The set of Z values for which a distance
element is on the verge of operation plots on the impedance Fig. 2. Symmetrical component network for a bolted phase-to-phase fault.
plane as the element operating characteristic, which divides Fig. 3 depicts the sequence network for a forward bolted
the operating region from the restraining region. single-phase-to-ground (AG) fault. Fig. 3 shows that
The distance element is constantly receiving its input VF1 + VF2 + VF0 = 0, which is used to find an expression for
voltage and current signals and conceptually deriving a Z ZL1. Measuring ZL1 for this fault requires measuring the
value under all operating conditions of the power system. In A-phase voltage and a compensated A-phase current, as (4),
steady state (a fixed load condition or a fault after the transient (5), and (6) show. Equation (5) is also valid for ABC, ABG,
has died out), Z plots as a point on the impedance plane. and CAG faults.
During transient events (such as a power swing or the
transient stage of a fault or of the relay measurement process), V1 + V2 + V0
ZL1 = (4)
Z describes a trajectory. The distance element operates when ⎛ ZL0 − ZL1 ⎞
I1 + I2 + I0 + ⎜ ⎟ 3I0
the point or trajectory stays in the operating region of its ⎝ 3ZL1 ⎠
characteristic for longer than the element operating time.
As mentioned previously, line distance protection generally VA
ZL1 = (5)
requires at least six distance elements. Distance element input IA + k0 • 3I0
signals V and I should be such that, for any forward fault type,
ZL0 − ZL1
at least one element measures the positive-sequence k0 = (6)
impedance between the relay and the fault. This impedance is 3ZL1
a measure of the distance to the fault. The appropriate V and I
ZS1 ZL1
signals can be derived using symmetrical components.
Fig. 1 shows the positive-sequence network that represents
a forward bolted (no fault resistance) three-phase fault in a VS
I1
V1 VF1
radial system. The three-phase fault is simple to visualize and
can be used to illustrate concepts. In Fig. 1 and the rest of this ZS2 ZL1
paper, V is the measured voltage phasor, I is the measured
current phasor, ZL is the line impedance, ZS is the source
I2
impedance, and VF is the voltage phasor at the fault point. V2 VF2
Equation (2) shows that several voltage and current ZS0 ZL0
combinations provide an impedance measurement equal to the
positive-sequence impedance ZL1 for this fault.
I0
V1 VA VB VC VAB VBC VCA V0 VF0
ZL1 = = = = = = = (2)
I1 IA IB IC IAB IBC ICA
Fig. 3. Symmetrical component network for a bolted single-phase-to-ground
fault.

From (2), (3), and (5), we conclude that six distance

elements with the input signals shown in Table I provide
protection for all ten possible fault types. For bolted faults, the
phase and ground elements that receive only faulted phase
Fig. 1. Symmetrical component network for a bolted three-phase fault.
information (referred to as the fault loop elements) measure
Fig. 2 depicts the sequence network for a forward bolted the positive-sequence impedance between the relay and the
phase-to-phase (BC) fault. Fig. 2 shows that VF1 = VF2, fault. Table I also shows the fault types for which each
which is used to find an expression for ZL1. Equation (3) element measures the correct positive-sequence impedance for
gives the voltage and current combinations that provide an bolted faults.
impedance measurement equal to ZL1 for these faults. This
expression is also valid for ABC and BCG faults.
VI − V2 VBC
ZL1 = = (3)
I1 − I2 IBC
 3

TABLE I B. Other Impedance Planes

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT INPUT SIGNALS TO TRADITIONAL PHASE AND
GROUND DISTANCE ELEMENTS 1) Positive-Sequence (V1/I1) Impedance Plane
Distance Voltage Current In some relays, power swing detection, load encroachment,
Fault Types and some directional elements respond to the positive-
Elements (V) (I)
sequence voltages and currents [4] [6] [10]. Hence, the
AB VA – VB IA – IB ABC, AB, ABG
positive-sequence (V1/I1) impedance plane is the best tool to
Phase
BC VB – VC IB – IC ABC, BC, BCG analyze the operation of these elements (see Section IV).
Elements
CA VC – VA IC – IA ABC, CA, CAG
2) Negative-Sequence (V2/I2) and Zero-Sequence (V0/I0)
AG VA IA + k0 • 3I0 ABC, ABG, CAG, AG Impedance Planes
Ground
BG VB IB + k0 • 3I0 ABC, ABG, BCG, BG Some directional elements respond to negative- or zero-
Elements sequence voltages and currents [7]. Negative- or zero-
CG VC IC + k0 • 3I0 ABC, BCG, CAG, CG
sequence impedance planes serve to analyze the operation of
However, distance elements that receive unfaulted phase these elements (see Section V).
information measure impedances that are different from the
line section impedance between the relay and the fault [1] [2] III. APPARENT AND FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE PLANES
[3] [4]. A. Distance Element Characteristics
2) Impedance Plane Alternatives Many distance elements are described in various
The six impedance measurement loops shown in Table I publications. These elements differ in implementation and
define six possible impedance planes: ZAB, ZBC, ZCA, ZAG, polarizing quantities. A phase mho distance element, polarized
ZBG, and ZCG. To analyze, for example, the response of the with positive-sequence voltage, is used as an example for our
BC distance element to a CA fault, we can use the ZBC plane discussion of element characteristics.
or the ZCA plane. The ZBC plane in this example is the A distance element performs the phase comparison of an
apparent impedance plane, and the ZCA plane is the fault loop operating quantity (S1) and a polarizing quantity (S2). The
impedance plane. threshold operating condition generally occurs when the two
The apparent impedance plane is a plot of the impedance Z phasors are in quadrature, as (7) shows.
measured by the distance element, given by (1). This plane
⎛ S1 ⎞ ⎛ Z−a ⎞
represents the ratio of the element voltage and current input arg ⎜ ⎟ = arg ⎜ ⎟ = ±90° (7)
(or measured) signals. The polarity or direction assumed as ⎝ S2 ⎠ ⎝ Z−b ⎠
positive for the currents in the distance element equations Equation (7) describes a circle on the impedance (Z) plane
determines the forward direction of the apparent impedance. [8] [9]. The tips of phasors a and b determine the diameter of
In our previous example, the apparent impedance plane for the circle (see Fig. 4 later in this paper). Hence, these phasors
the BC element is a plot of the ratio of V = VB – VC to define the size and the position of the element characteristic
I = IB – IC. on the impedance plane. Equation (7) defines the proper
The apparent impedance plane is the best plane to analyze impedance plane to plot the element characteristic. For
distance element operation because it allows the
VB − VC
representation of the element operating characteristics and the example, if Z = = ZBC , the ZBC plane should be
measured impedances for faults, power swings, and load IB − IC
conditions. The characteristics provided by relay used.
manufacturers are shown on this plane for nonfault conditions 1) Forward Faults
and look like static characteristics. The characteristics For forward faults, the distance element input currents flow
obtained when testing a distance relay also correspond to this in the tripping direction. Consider the BC mho distance
plane. element polarized with positive-sequence voltage.
The fault loop impedance plane is a plot of the ratio of the Equations (8) and (9) give the element input signals.
voltage and current corresponding to the faulted phases
(instead of the element input signals). In our example, the fault S1 = (VB − VC) − Zc(IB − IC) (8)
loop impedance plane for the CA fault is a plot of the ratio of
S2 = (VB1 − VC1) (9)
VC – VA to IC – IA.
Section III shows that a distance element characteristic and where:
the impedance measured by this element for a given fault look Zc is the setting that defines the mho element reach.
different on both planes. Section III also shows that it is The ZBC plane is the apparent impedance plane for this
sometimes convenient for the characteristics and impedances BC mho element.
measured by distance elements from different phases to be
represented on the same plane.
 4

Dividing (8) and (9) by the current (to convert them into depicts the resulting BC element characteristics on the ZBC
impedance equations), we obtain (10) and (11). Reference [8] plane for the different types of forward faults. For the BC
describes the symmetrical component operations required to fault, the characteristic is the same as that in Fig. 4.
derive (11). TABLE II
S1 VB − VC b PHASOR VALUES FOR THE BC ELEMENT FOR DIFFERENT
= − Zc = ZBC − Zc (10) TYPES OF FORWARD FAULTS*
IB − IC IB − IC
Fault Type IA1/IA2 b
S2 VB − VC VB2 − VC2
= − BG a 2
–ZS1/(1 – a2)
IB − IC IB − IC (IB1 − IC1) − (IB2 − IC2)
(11) CG a –ZS1/(1 – a)
VB2 − VC2
= ZBC − AB –a ZS1/a2
(IB1 − IC1) − (IB2 − IC2)
BC –1 –ZS1/2
For a forward BC fault in a simple radial network, we 2
CA –a ZS1/a
obtain the a and b phasors from (7), (10), and (11) [8] [9]:
* j120
In Table II, a = e
a = Zc (12)
ZS1
b=− (13)
2
where:
ZS1 is the source positive-sequence impedance.
Fig. 4 shows the BC mho element characteristic for
forward BC faults. This polarized mho element uses unfaulted
phase information in the polarizing quantity by using the
positive-sequence voltage. This polarizing quantity expands
the circle to the third quadrant for forward faults. The mho
characteristic has a fixed reach point, defined by the setting Fig. 5. BC element characteristics for different types of forward faults. The
labels refer to fault types.
impedance Zc.
X
As mentioned previously, we can also use the fault loop
ZBC a = Zc impedance plane. As an example, Fig. 6 shows the
Plane characteristics of all the distance elements for a BC fault on
the ZBC plane. In this example, the ZBC plane is the fault
loop plane, and the characteristics of the distance elements
receiving input signals from other phases differ from that of
the faulted phase BC element. The BC element characteristic
is the same as that in Fig. 4.
R
–ZS1
b=
2

Fig. 4. BC polarized mho element characteristic for forward BC faults.

As mentioned previously, distance elements are constantly

measuring currents and voltages. It is possible to find more
generic expressions for a and b. Equations (14) and (15)
provide the a and b expressions that determine polarized mho
element characteristics for all operating conditions [8] [9].
Other distance elements will have similar expressions.
a = Zc (14) Fig. 6. Characteristics of all the distance elements on the ZBC plane for a
forward BC fault. The labels refer to distance elements.
⎛ ⎞ Most line protection relays use a faulted phase
⎜ 1 ⎟
b = –ZS1⎜ ⎟ (15) identification algorithm to supervise the distance elements.
⎜⎜ 1 – IA1 ⎟⎟ Some relays, for example, only enable the ground distance
⎝ IA2 ⎠ element of the faulted phase for single-phase-to-ground faults.
Table II shows the b phasor expressions for different types For phase-to-phase-to-ground faults, the relay enables the
of forward faults in a simple unloaded radial network. Fig. 5 phase distance element of the faulted phases [4] [5] [6]. As a
 5

result, the relay presents only the characteristic corresponding However, the element characteristics for BC and BCG
to the faulted phases (for example, the characteristic for the faults are slightly different because IA1 = –IA2 for BC faults
BC fault in Fig. 4) and does not present all the other in radial systems but IA1 ≠ –IA2 for BCG faults. As a result,
characteristics shown in Fig. 6. Electromechanical distance the value of the b phasor corresponding to BCG faults is
protection schemes consist of single-function relays with OR different from the value for BC faults.
tripping logic and typically without any phase selection Fig. 8 shows the sequence network for a bolted BCG fault
supervising logic. Hence, the scheme presents all the phase in a radial system. Equation (18) gives the IA1/IA2 ratio for
and ground element characteristics for all faults. The this fault.
composite characteristic, therefore, looks similar to Fig. 6.
IA1 (ZS2 + ZL1) + (ZS0 + ZL0)
=– (18)
2) Reverse Faults IA2 ZS0 + ZL0
For a reverse BC fault, the distance element input currents
flow in the nontripping direction. Equations (16) and (17) give
the a and b phasors for reverse BC faults [8] [9]. The b phasor
has the opposite sign as that for forward faults.
a = Zc (16)

ZS1
b= (17)
2
Fig. 7 shows the BC mho element characteristic for reverse
BC faults. The figure also shows the characteristic for forward
faults (dotted circle) for comparison. The polarizing quantity
reduces the circle in the first quadrant for reverse faults. The
mho characteristic keeps its fixed reach point, defined by the
setting impedance Zc. The element is directional, because the
apparent impedance for reverse faults plots in the third Fig. 8. Symmetrical component network for a phase-to-phase-to-ground
fault.
quadrant.
Equation (18) shows that, when the zero-sequence
impedances are much larger than the positive-sequence
impedances, IA1/IA2 approaches –1 (as it corresponds to a
BC fault) and the BC element characteristic for a BCG fault
approaches that of the BC fault.
B. Effect of Load
In radial systems and unloaded homogeneous two-source
systems, the fault resistance RF plots as a horizontal line on
the apparent impedance plane [4]. The effect of load is to
introduce a reactive component that effectively tilts the
apparent fault impedance downwards or upwards, depending
Fig. 7. BC polarized mho element characteristic for reverse BC faults. on the load flow direction. This tilt produces distance element
3) Phase-to-Phase-to-Ground Faults overreach or underreach [4] [6] [8] [10].
According to Table I, three distance elements correctly Distance elements implemented with comparators and with
measure ZL1 for a BCG fault: the BC, BG, and CG elements. the proper polarizing quantity exhibit beneficial adaptive
This behavior repeats for the other two phase-to-phase-to- characteristics with respect to load flow [4] [6] [10].
ground faults. To illustrate this concept, consider the phase polarized mho
Distance relays typically enable only the phase element for element described by (8) and (9). The a and b phasors for
phase-to-phase-to-ground faults because ground distance forward faults are defined by (14) and (15). For BC faults
elements may overreach for these faults when they include under radial or no-load conditions, IA1 and IA2 are pure fault
fault resistance [4]. In addition, single-pole tripping (SPT) currents and IA1 = –IA2. When load flow is present, IA1
schemes should trip all three breaker poles for these includes the load current component while IA2 does not, so
multiphase faults. In our example, only the BC element is IA1 ≠ –IA2. Hence, the element characteristic differs from
enabled for BCG faults. Hence, the a and b phasor that for the no-load condition.
expressions for BCG faults are the same as those for BC One approach to illustrate the effect of load is to use
faults: (14) and (15) give a and b for forward faults, and (16) incremental quantities [11]. Using superposition, any fault
and (17), for reverse faults. current can be represented as the sum of the prefault current
 6

and the incremental or fault current. For balanced load characteristics are typically represented as static
conditions, the prefault component appears only in the characteristics in manufacturer manuals for practical reasons.
positive-sequence current, as (19) and (20) show. However, the user should be aware that the characteristics
I1 = ILD + ΔI1 (19) change during faults or when testing the relay.
In contrast, the characteristics on the apparent impedance
I2 = ΔI2 (20)
plane of self-polarized distance elements (such as the mho
where: element polarized with the voltages given in Table I and the
ILD is the prefault load current. phase current polarized reactance and resistance elements) are
∆I1 and ∆I2 are the incremental currents (∆I1 = –∆I2). static. For example, the characteristic of a self-polarized mho
Equation (21) provides the expression for the b phasor that element is a circle that crosses by the origin of coordinates and
defines the BC element characteristic, considering the effect does not expand or contract during faults. As a result, this
of load [8] [9]. element may lack directionality for some fault locations and
types. The characteristics of self-polarized distance elements
–ZS1
b= (21) do not adapt to changing power system conditions.
ILD
2– C. Fault Loci
IA2
Fig. 9 illustrates the behavior of the BC mho distance The previous sections refer to representing distance
element for four combinations of ILD and I2. For the no-load element characteristics on the impedance plane. Analyzing
condition, (21) takes the form of (13) and the mho element has distance element operation for faults requires plotting on the
the no-load Characteristic 0 in Fig. 9. Forward power flow same impedance plane the impedances measured for these
(arg (ILD) = 0°) causes the characteristics to shift to the left faults. This is the purpose of this section. We will see that, for
(Characteristics 1 and 3). For reverse power flow (arg (ILD) = practical purposes, it is sometimes convenient to represent the
180°), the characteristics shift to the right (Characteristics 2 impedance loci measured by several distance elements on the
and 4). For higher ILD/I2 values, these shifts are more same impedance plane.
noticeable (Characteristics 3 and 4). As mentioned previously, the measured impedance Z plots
as a point on the impedance plane for any steady-state
ZBC Plane X
condition. During transient events, Z varies with time and
10
describes a trajectory on the impedance plane.
It is possible to generate a locus composed of many steady-
2
state measured impedance values by running multiple
5 1
0 simulation cases for different parameter values. We use the
example power system shown in Fig. 10 to show the measured
3 impedance loci resulting from varying the fault resistance RF.
0 R
VS = 70∠0° S m = 0.5 R VR = 70∠δ = 70∠ –20°
4

–5
RF
–10 –5 0 5 10 ZS1 = ZS2 = 4∠85° ZR1 = ZR2 = 4∠85°
ZS0 = 12∠85° ZL1 = 5∠85°
Fig. 9. BC element characteristics for different values of ILD/I2. ZR0 = 12∠85°
Characteristic 0 is for no load; Characteristic 1 is for ILD/I2 = 0.3, ZL0 = 15∠85°
arg (ILD) = 0°, arg (I2) = –85°; Characteristic 2 is for ILD/I2 = 0.3, All impedances are in secondary ohms
arg (ILD) = 180°, arg (I2) = –85°; Characteristic 3 is for ILD/I2 = 1,
arg (ILD) = 0°, arg (I2) = –5°; and Characteristic 4 is for ILD/I2 = 1, Fig. 10. Example two-source power system.
arg (ILD) = 180°, arg (I2) = –5°.
Fig. 11 through Fig. 14 show the measured impedance loci
Other distance elements, like the sequence current for all distance elements at Buses S and R in Fig. 10 for
polarized reactance and resistance elements used in midline faults with different RF values. These figures also
quadrilateral distance elements, show a more appreciable and show the V1/I1 loci. Active power flows from S to R and
beneficial shift in their characteristics [4] [6] [9]. reactive power flows from R to S in these examples. Fig. 11
In general, the characteristics on the apparent impedance and Fig. 12 represent AG faults. Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 represent
plane of multiphase polarized distance elements (such as the BC faults. These figures are fault loop impedance planes.
positive-sequence polarized mho or the sequence current For load conditions (RF = ∞), all the distance elements
polarized reactance and resistance elements) are dynamic measure equal impedances. These impedances plot in the
(they vary with the fault direction, the prefault power flow, or fourth quadrant for the Bus S elements (Fig. 11 and Fig. 13)
the source impedance). This dynamic behavior results from because active power flows in the forward direction and
the fact that the element receives unfaulted phase information reactive power flows in the reverse direction. For the Bus R
in addition to the faulted phase information that is properly elements (Fig. 12 and Fig. 14), the load impedance plots in the
reflected on the apparent impedance plane. These second quadrant.
 7

As RF decreases, the impedances measured by the distance

elements describe different loci. These loci end at RF = 0
(bolted faults). The elements receiving faulted phase
information (the AG element in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12 and the
BC element in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14) correctly measure the
impedance between the relay and the fault when RF = 0. The
other elements measure other values of impedance, and it is
possible that under some power system configurations, their
apparent impedance could enter their operating region. The
faulted phase selection logic should not enable these elements.

Fig. 14. Loci of the impedances measured by all distance elements at Bus R
for BC faults with RF varying from RF = ∞ (shown by the point) to RF = 0
(reverse load flow). The labels refer to distance elements.

D. k0 Factor Influence on the Measured Impedance

The impedance measured by ground distance elements is
affected by mutual magnetic coupling in double-circuit lines.
This section presents an interesting situation in which
different zone elements in the same loop may measure
different impedances.
Magnetic mutual induction occurs in lines mounted on
Fig. 11. Loci of the impedances measured by all distance elements at Bus S
multiple-circuit structures and may also occur between single-
for AG faults with RF varying from RF = ∞ (shown by the point) to RF = 0 structure lines that use the same right of way. Fig. 15 shows a
(forward load flow). The labels refer to distance elements. double-circuit structure. In this configuration, the current
flowing on one line induces voltage in the other line. The
magnetic flux linking with the adjacent line is mostly caused
by the zero-sequence current. Positive- and negative-sequence
currents add to zero and do not practically contribute to
mutual coupling. Hence, mutual coupling affects ground
distance elements and directional elements that use zero-
sequence quantities.

Fig. 12. Loci of the impedances measured by all distance elements at Bus R
for AG faults with RF varying from RF = ∞ (shown by the point) to RF = 0
(reverse load flow). The labels refer to distance elements.
Fig. 15. In double-circuit lines, magnetic mutual coupling affects ground
distance and directional elements that use zero-sequence quantities.

In parallel double-circuit line applications, the zero-

sequence current that flows on each line for an external fault
increases the impedance measured by the distance elements of
the adjacent line [4] [12]. As a result, these elements
underreach, which is acceptable for Zone 1 elements but
unacceptable for Zone 2 or any other overreaching distance
element. A solution to this problem is to use a large Zone 2
reach setting. A better solution is to set the Zone 2 zero-
sequence compensation factor k0 to a value k0M that includes
the effect of mutual coupling, as (22) shows [12].
Fig. 13. Loci of the impedances measured by all distance elements at Bus S
for BC faults with RF varying from RF = ∞ (shown by the point) to RF = 0 ZL0 − ZL1 + Z0M
(forward load flow). The labels refer to distance elements.
k0M = (22)
3ZL1
where:
Z0M is the zero-sequence mutual coupling impedance
between the two lines.
 8

The effect of having different zero-sequence compensation corresponding to the six fault loops and the positive-sequence
factors for Zone 1 and Zone 2 ground distance elements is that impedance plane are equivalent for any balanced power
these elements measure different impedances for the same system condition. However, power swings occurring during
ground fault. the open-phase period following a single-pole trip make these
Consider the example 230 kV system shown in Fig. 16, planes different, as we show in this section.
which includes a parallel double-circuit line. In the relay
A. Element Characteristics
shown in Fig. 16, Zone 1 and Zone 2 are set at 80 and
120 percent of the line impedance, respectively. From (6) and Power system disturbances cause oscillations of machine
(22), we obtain k0 = 0.767 for the Zone 1 element and k0M = rotors that result in power flow swings.
1.476 for the Zone 2 element. The impedance measured by distance elements during
power swings may penetrate element operating characteristics.
ZS1 = ZS2 = 19.80∠80.70° ZR1 = ZR2 = 19.80∠80.79°
Power swing detection elements may be used to prevent
ZS0 = 50.38∠79.48° ZR0 = 50.38∠79.48°
distance element misoperation (power swing blocking) or
Z0M = 34.398∠80.09° initiate system islanding for unstable power swings (out-of-
step tripping).
Power swing detection is often based on the rate of change
k0 = 0.767∠ –0.32° of the measured impedance [13]. The traditional approach is to
k0M = 1.476∠ –0.686°
compare the measured phase or positive-sequence impedance
ZL1 = 16.175∠81.16° with an element characteristic on the impedance plane. This
ZL0 = 53.378∠80.93° characteristic may consist of circles, blinders, or polygons.
Fig. 16. Example 230 kV system that includes a double-circuit line. Fig. 18 shows a characteristic composed of two concentric
polygons defined on the positive-sequence impedance plane.
Using a simulation program, an AG fault is applied at the Measuring the time that the apparent impedance stays between
remote right-hand-side bus. Fig. 17 illustrates the effect of both polygons allows for discrimination between faults and
using the traditional k0 value for Zone 1 and the compensated power swings.
k0M value for Zone 2: the AG Zone 1 element measures an
X(Ohms) V1/I1 Plane
impedance higher than that measured by the AG Zone 2
element. The mutual coupling compensation applied in k0M
places the line-end fault under the reach of the Zone 2 20
element. Without this compensation, the Zone 2 element
would measure the same impedance as the Zone 1 element and
underreach for this fault. 0

–20

–20 0 20
R(Ohms)

Fig. 18. Power swing detection and load-encroachment element

characteristics.

Under heavy load conditions, the measured impedance may

fall inside the operating characteristic of a phase distance
element and cause an undesirable operation. Load-
encroachment elements define two load regions on the
Fig. 17. Different k0 settings make Zone 1 and Zone 2 elements measure
impedance plane, as shown in Fig. 18. Under load conditions,
different impedances for phase-to-ground faults. this element blocks the operation of phase distance elements if
the measured positive-sequence impedance falls into either of
IV. POSITIVE-SEQUENCE (V1/I1) IMPEDANCE PLANE the load regions.
Some relays include protection elements that respond to the B. Power Swing Impedance Trajectories
positive-sequence voltage and current, such as power swing The time-varying impedance measured during a power
detection, load encroachment, and, in some cases, directional swing describes a trajectory on the impedance plane. We use
elements. The positive-sequence (V1/I1) impedance plane is the example power system in Fig. 10, with |VS| = 70 V and
used to analyze the operation of these elements. |VR| = 65 V, to show the measured impedance trajectories for
Equation (2) shows that different combinations of voltages balanced (all breaker poles closed) and unbalanced (during the
and currents give the same apparent impedance value for single-pole-open interval in SPT schemes) power swings on
three-phase faults. This fact is also true for balanced load and different impedance planes.
power swing conditions. Hence, the impedance planes
 9

Fig. 19 shows the trajectory of a balanced power swing on

the positive-sequence impedance plane as the angle difference
δ between the source voltages in Fig. 10 experiences a
360-degree rotation. The trajectory crosses the line
impedance, shown as a short line starting at the origin of
VS = 70∠0 V VR = 65∠δ V
coordinates in Fig. 19. The power swing detection element
characteristic shown in Fig. 18 would appear as a small
characteristic around the line impedance in Fig. 19. For this
balanced power swing, the six distance elements (AG, BG,
CG, AB, BC, and CA) measure exactly the same impedance
as the positive-sequence element. Actually, electromechanical
power swing detection relays typically use one of the
combinations of phase voltages and currents given by (2) as
input signals (VA and IA or VAB and IAB, for example).

Fig. 20. A-phase open symmetrical component network used to find the
impedance trajectories during a power swing.

Fig. 19. The trajectory of a balanced power swing is the same on the V1/I1,
ZAB, ZBC, ZCA, ZAG, ZBG, and ZCG impedance planes.

Today, many utilities use transmission line SPT to enhance

power system stability [14] [15]. SPT schemes trip only the Fig. 21. The trajectories of unbalanced power swings are different on the
faulted phase for single-phase-to-ground faults. After a time V1/I1, ZAB, ZBC, ZCA, ZAG, ZBG, and ZCG impedance planes. The labels
interval, the automatic reclosing scheme closes the open refer to distance elements.
breaker pole. If the fault persists, the scheme trips all three Fig. 21 shows that the positive-sequence, ZBC, ZBG, and
phases and recloses again or blocks reclosing. ZCG trajectories have the same shape as that in Fig. 19.
In SPT schemes, the open-phase interval following a However, the trajectories measured by the AB, CA, and AG
single-pole trip can last for a long time. Fig. 20 shows the elements, which measure A-phase information with Pole A
symmetrical component representation of an open A-phase at open in this example, are significantly shifted. The
both terminals in a power system with the sources grounded. characteristics of the elements that receive information from
The power swing during the open-phase condition is the open phase are also shifted when the B- or C-phase is open
unbalanced: all three sequence components of voltage and during the power swing.
current are present. When using line-side voltage transformers, voltage
For unbalanced power swings, the six distance elements measurements may be corrupted during the open-phase period
and the positive-sequence element measure different by the oscillating transients because of the line inductance and
impedances. For example, Fig. 21 shows the trajectories of an capacitance [16]. In response to the open-phase condition, the
unbalanced power swing as measured by the positive- relay typically eliminates this voltage measurement from the
sequence, AB, BC, CA, AG, BG, and CG elements. The positive-sequence voltage calculation to avoid errors [17]. For
network in Fig. 20 was solved for particular values of δ example, (23) provides the V1 calculation when the A-phase
between 0 and 360, assuming bus-side voltage transformers. is open.
1
V1 = (0 + aVB + a 2 VC) (23)
3
 10

Fig. 22 shows the positive-sequence impedance trajectories This element compares z2 against two thresholds. If z2 is
for a balanced power swing (the same as that in Fig. 19) and less than a forward fault threshold, the element declares a
an unbalanced power swing, with V1 calculated using bus- forward fault. If z2 is greater than a reverse fault threshold, the
side and line-side voltage. When considered in the part of the element declares a reverse fault. Equation (25) gives the
impedance plane where the power swing characteristics are forward threshold and (26), the reverse threshold (for Z2F > 0
placed, all the trajectories have the same shape and no and Z2R > 0).
significant shift. V2
1.25 Z2F – 0.25 (25)
I2
V2
0.75 Z2R + 0.25 (26)
I2
where:
Z2F and Z2R are relay settings.
Equating (24) to (25) and (26) and solving for V2/V1, we
obtain (27) and (28), which define the forward and reverse
operating characteristics on the V2/I2 plane shown in Fig. 23.
V2 1.25 Z2F
= (27)
Fig. 22. Power swing trajectories for a balanced power swing (Trajectory 1) I2 ⎛ V2 ⎞
cos ⎜ ∠ – ∠ZL1⎟ + 0.25
and for unbalanced power swings, using line-side (Trajectory 2) and bus-side ⎝ I2 ⎠
(Trajectory 3) voltage to calculate V1.
V2 0.75 Z2R
V. NEGATIVE-SEQUENCE (V2/I2) AND =
I2 ⎛ V2 ⎞ (28)
ZERO-SEQUENCE (V0/I0) IMPEDANCE PLANES cos ⎜ ∠ – ∠ZL1⎟ − 0.25
⎝ I2 ⎠
Some relays include directional elements that respond to
the negative- or zero-sequence voltage and current. The
negative-sequence (V2/I2) or zero-sequence (V0/I0)
impedance planes should be used to analyze the operation of
these elements.
A. Element Characteristics
Traditional directional elements compare the angle between
a polarizing quantity (V2 or V0, for example) and an
operating quantity (I2 or I0). An implementation of negative-
and zero-sequence directional elements calculates an
impedance scalar quantity. For example, the negative-
sequence element calculates the scalar quantity z2 using (24)
[4] [7], which is the projection of V2/I2 on a straight line that
has the line impedance angle (∠ZL1). Fig. 23. Negative-sequence directional element characteristics.

z2 =
( (
Re V2 I2 e j∠ZL1 * ) ) = V2 cos ⎛ ∠ V2 – ∠ZL1⎞ (24)
The forward operating region is located below the forward
characteristic, and the reverse operating region is located
2 ⎜ ⎟
I2 I2 ⎝ I2 ⎠ above the reverse characteristic.
Similarly, the zero-sequence directional element calculates
where:
an impedance scalar quantity z0 and compares it against
* represents the phasor complex conjugate operation. forward and reverse thresholds.
 11

B. Measured Impedances sequence directional element should not be represented on this

Fig. 24 shows the negative-sequence network for a forward impedance plane.
unbalanced fault in a two-source system. For any forward fault As mentioned previously, the characteristics of the
location (any m value), the directional element measures the reactance and resistance elements are static only if these
negative-sequence impedance of the equivalent system behind elements are self-polarized. The characteristics of sequence
the relay, as (29) and Fig. 23 show. current polarized reactance and resistance elements are
dynamic.
V2
= –ZS2 (29) X
I2
ZBC
Plane

Fig. 24. Negative-sequence network for a forward unbalanced fault in a two-

source system. R

A similar analysis shows that, for all reverse unbalanced

faults, the directional element measures the negative-sequence
F
impedance of the equivalent system in front of the relay.
V2
= + ( ZL1 + ZR2) (30) Fig. 26. A series capacitor in front of the relay plots as a negative reactance
I2 on the ZBC plane, which gives the idea that a directional element will not
operate for a fault beyond the capacitor.
The characteristics of sequence directional elements are
frequently shown on the same impedance planes as those used X
for distance elements. An example is the quadrilateral distance
element characteristic, in which a directional element
characteristic, generally represented as a straight line crossing X
by the origin of coordinates, shows the forward direction with
respect to the relay location.
Consider, for illustration, a line with a series capacitor Rleft Rright
(Fig. 25). This capacitor does not modify the negative-
sequence impedance measurement (29) for forward faults. The
R
negative of the source impedance plots on the element
operating region. However, the series capacitor and the
protected line impedances plot on the ZBC plane, as shown in
Fig. 27. Proper way to represent a quadrilateral distance element
Fig. 26. A fault right after the capacitor plots at Point F, which characteristic.
conveys the idea of a reverse fault on the ZBC plane.
However, the negative-sequence directional element responds VI. FIELD CASE EXAMPLE
well to this forward fault. The key conclusion is that the
A real-life power system event serves to illustrate some of
characteristics of negative-sequence (or zero-sequence)
the concepts discussed in this paper. This section shows that
directional elements cannot be represented on the impedance
different impedance planes can be used to analyze a power
planes used for distance elements.
system event.
Fig. 28 shows the oscillogram recorded by a relay installed
on a 115 kV line as part of a permissive overreaching transfer
trip (POTT) directional comparison scheme with SPT logic.
For an external BG fault, this relay incorrectly received the
permissive signal from the remote terminal, caused the
Fig. 25. A series capacitor in the protected line does not affect the negative-
opening of the B-phase of the line, and successfully reclosed.
sequence impedance measurement for forward faults.
The fault occurred on a 69 kV line separated from the relay
Fig. 27 shows the proper way to represent a quadrilateral location by the 115 kV line, three autotransformers, and a long
distance element characteristic. Fig. 27 shows only three 230 kV line.
boundaries. The top boundary (X) is a reactance line, which Section 1 in Fig. 28 shows the BG fault. This external fault
limits the reach for forward faults. The right boundary (Rright) was correctly detected as a forward fault by the local relay of
limits the resistive reach on the forward power flow direction. the 115 kV line. However, the remote relay did not detect the
Likewise, the left boundary (Rleft) limits the resistive reach on fault because of a wrong setting and echoed the permissive
the reverse power flow direction. The characteristic of a tripping signal sent by the local relay. As a result, the local
 12

relay tripped, opening the B-phase of the 115 kV line.

Section 2 in the oscillogram shows the resulting unbalanced
power swing, which ends when the faulted line protection
trips to clear the fault. Practically at the same time, the 115 kV
line protection scheme successfully recloses the B-phase, and
a balanced power swing (Section 3 in Fig. 28) starts. This
power swing eventually damps out, and the system continues
to operate normally.

1
0

Fig. 30. Negative-sequence plane representation of the external BG fault

(Section 1 in Fig. 28).

2
3 Fig. 31 represents the event on the positive-sequence
impedance plane. It also shows the power swing detection
element characteristic. Point 0 represents the prefault
condition. Point 1 is the fault point. The impedance trajectory
between Point 0 and Point 1 represents the relay filtering
transient process triggered by the fault. Trajectory 2 that starts
at Point 1 is the unbalanced power swing during the B-phase
open period. This trajectory leaves the impedance plane on the
right side of the figure and returns on the left side
(Trajectory 3), already representing a balanced power swing.
After some oscillations close to the left side of the power
Fig. 28. Oscillogram recorded by an unfaulted 115 kV line relay. Section 0
is the prefault condition; Section 1 is an external BG fault followed by an swing detection element characteristic, this trajectory
incorrect single-pole trip; Section 2 is an unbalanced power swing during the eventually ends close to the initial operation Point 0.
B-phase open period; and Section 3 is a balanced power swing after faulted
X (Ohms)
line tripping and unfaulted line B-phase reclosing. X V1/I1 Plane
100
Fig. 29 shows the impedance measured by the local BG 80
ground distance elements on the ZBG plane. The fault 60
impedance plots far away from the element characteristics and 40
1 2
shows an apparent fault resistance value of approximately 20 0
8 secondary ohms. The polarized mho element characteristics 0
3
R
exhibit a significant expansion for this forward fault. These
–20
elements did not operate.
–40
–60
–80
–80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80
R (Ohms)

Fig. 31. Positive-sequence plane representation of the event shown in

Fig. 28. Point 0 is the prefault condition; Point 1 is a BG fault; Trajectory 2 is
an unbalanced power swing (B-phase open); and Trajectory 3 is a balanced
power swing.

This example illustrates the use of different impedance

planes to analyze the operation of protection elements with
different input signals.

VII. CONCLUSION
Fig. 29. ZBG plane representation of the external BG fault (Section 1 in
Fig. 28). From the study of impedance planes in this paper, the
following can be concluded:
Fig. 30 shows the impedance measured by the local
• Distance and directional elements perform signal
negative-sequence ground directional element. The negative-
phase comparison to create operating characteristics.
sequence impedance equals the source impedance behind the
The impedance plane serves to analyze the operation
relay and plots inside the element forward operating region.
of these elements by superimposing the characteristic
and the impedance measured by the element.
 13

• Two impedance planes can be used for phase and [7] J. Roberts and A. Guzmán, “Directional Element Design and
Evaluation,” proceedings of the 21st Annual Western Protective Relay
ground distance elements: the apparent impedance Conference, Spokane, WA, October 1994.
plane (defined by the ratio of the element input [8] F. Calero, “Distance Elements: Linking Theory With Testing,”
signals) and the fault loop impedance plane (defined proceedings of the 62nd Annual Conference for Protective Relay
by the ratio of the signals corresponding to the faulted Engineers, College Station, TX, March 2009.
phases). [9] F. Calero, A. Guzmán, and G. Benmouyal, “Adaptive Phase and Ground
Quadrilateral Distance Elements,” proceedings of the 36th Annual
• The apparent impedance plane allows the analysis of
Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 2009.
element operation for faults, power swings, and load
[10] J. Roberts, A. Guzmán, and E. O. Schweitzer, III, “Z = V/I Does Not
conditions. Make a Distance Relay,” proceedings of the 20th Annual Western
• Other planes used in protective relaying include the Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 1993.
positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence impedance [11] G. Benmouyal and J. Roberts, “Superimposed Quantities: Their True
planes and the current-ratio plane. Nature and Application in Relays,” proceedings of the 26th Annual
Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 1999.
• Analyzing the operation of protection elements with
[12] F. Calero, “Mutual Impedance in Parallel Lines – Protective Relaying
different input signals requires different impedance and Fault Location Considerations,” proceedings of the 34th Annual
planes. For example, the characteristic of a negative- Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 2007.
or zero-sequence directional element should not be [13] D. A. Tziouvaras and D. Hou, “Out-of-Step Protection Fundamentals
represented on the same plane as the characteristics of and Advancements,” proceedings of the 30th Annual Western Protective
Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 2003.
phase or ground distance elements.
[14] F. Calero and D. Hou, “Practical Considerations for Single-Pole-Trip
• The characteristics on the apparent impedance plane Line-Protection Schemes,” proceedings of the 31st Annual Western
of self-polarized distance elements are static (do not Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 2004.
vary with the fault direction, the prefault power flow, [15] V. H. Serna, J. C. Rivera, H. E. Prado, H. J. Altuve, D. Sánchez, and
or the source impedance). J. Gallegos, “Transmission Line Single-Pole Tripping: Field Experience
in the Western Transmission Area of Mexico,” proceedings of the 37th
• The characteristics on the apparent impedance plane
Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA,
of multiphase polarized distance elements (such as the October 2010.
positive-sequence polarized mho or the sequence [16] D. Hou, A. Guzmán, and J. Roberts, “Innovative Solutions Improve
current polarized reactance and resistance elements) Transmission Line Protection,” proceedings of the 24th Annual Western
are dynamic (they vary with the fault direction, the Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 1997.
prefault power flow, or the source impedance). [17] A. Guzmán, J. Mooney, G. Benmouyal, and N. Fischer, “Transmission
Line Protection System for Increasing Power System Requirements,”
• For practical purposes, it is sometimes convenient to proceedings of the 55th Annual Conference for Protective Relay
use the same impedance plane to represent Engineers, College Station, TX, April 2002.
characteristics and impedances measured by distance
elements from different phases (see Fig. 11 through IX. BIOGRAPHIES
Fig. 14 and Fig. 21, for example). Care should be Fernando Calero received his BSEE in 1986 from the University of Kansas,
exercised during this process and when analyzing the his MSEE in 1987 from the University of Illinois (Urbana-Champaign), and
results. his MSEPE in 1989 from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. From 1990 to
1996, he worked in Coral Springs, Florida, for the ABB relay division in the
• The use of tools that allow the visualization of the support, training, testing, and design of protective relays. Between 1997 and
different protective relaying planes facilitates the 2000, he worked for Itec Engineering, Florida Power and Light, and Siemens.
analysis of relaying element operation (in particular, In 2000, Mr. Calero joined Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. and
presently is a senior automation systems engineer.
of the multiphase polarized distance elements) during
power system events. Héctor J. Altuve Ferrer received his BSEE degree in 1969 from the Central
University of Las Villas in Santa Clara, Cuba, and his Ph.D. in 1981 from
VIII. REFERENCES Kiev Polytechnic Institute in Kiev, Ukraine. From 1969 until 1993, Dr. Altuve
served on the faculty of the Electrical Engineering School at the Central
[1] C. R. Mason, The Art and Science of Protective Relaying. John Wiley University of Las Villas. From 1993 to 2000, he served as professor of the
and Sons, New York, NY, 1956. Graduate Doctoral Program in the Mechanical and Electrical Engineering
[2] A. R. van C. Warrington, Protective Relays: Their Theory and Practice, School at the Autonomous University of Nuevo León in Monterrey, Mexico.
Vol. 1. Chapman and Hall Ltd., London, England, 1962. In 1999 through 2000, he was the Schweitzer Visiting Professor in the
Department of Electrical Engineering at Washington State University.
[3] V. Cook, Analysis of Distance Protection. Research Studies Press Ltd.,
Dr. Altuve joined Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. in January 2001,
Letchworth, England, 1985.
where he is currently a distinguished engineer and director of technology for
[4] H. J. Altuve Ferrer and E. O. Schweitzer, III (eds.), Modern Solutions Latin America. He has authored and coauthored more than 100 technical
for Protection, Control, and Monitoring of Electric Power Systems. papers and several books and holds four patents. His main research interests
Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc., Pullman, WA, 2010. are in power system protection, control, and monitoring. Dr. Altuve is an
[5] E. O. Schweitzer, III, “New Developments in Distance Relay IEEE senior member.
Polarization and Fault Type Selection,” proceedings of the 16th Annual
Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 1989.
[6] E. O. Schweitzer, III and J. Roberts, “Distance Relay Element Design,”
proceedings of the 46th Annual Conference for Protective Relay
Engineers, College Station, TX, April 1993.
© 2011 by Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.
All rights reserved.
20110914 • TP6506-01