ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership

Working Paper
November 2014

Mother Tongue Based

Multilingual Education

› Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education › Introducing the Second Language

› Improved Academic Achievement › Possible Obstacles to Implementation
› Increased Efficiency › Implementing MTB - MLE in Papua
› Socio-cultural Benefits

Photo: UNIPA, Map: SIL

 ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership
The paper outlines the rationale for introducing mother the pursuit of ethnic continuity.3 In other words, the early
tongue based multilingual education (MTB-MLE) in 20th century view that monolingual people perform better
multilingual societies, some of the common obstacles to than bilingual and multilingual people is being increasingly
MTB-MLE implementation and how they can be overcome. accepted as erroneous.
The paper then goes on to consider the situation in Papua
Students whose mother tongue language is different than the
and outlines step for fostering greater use of mother tongues
national language are often at a considerable disadvantage
as the language of instruction in schools. 4
in the education system (see also Box 1). This is especially
Many countries have bilingual or multilingual societies, and true for children living in remote areas. The farther away
more than 20 states have more than one national language. a child lives from urban areas, the less Bahasa Indonesian
However, the majority of countries are monolingual nation- he or she uses. Children in Maluku, for example, only
states, meaning that they have established one language to understand Bahasa Indonesian passively if they understand
be used for government and legal purposes. it at all.5 In addition, while monolingual education systems
are often adopted in states with cultural and linguistic
Indonesia is reported as having 742 languages spoken
diversity, histories of ethnic rivalries or social conflict with
within its borders, making it the 26th most linguistically
the intention of promoting national unity, they can also
diverse nation in the world. The choice of Bahasa Indonesia
add to a widespread, grassroots anxiety about the status
as the national language was first proposed at the Second
of endangered and minority languages.6 Such anxiety has
Indonesian Youth Conference in 1928 and Bahasa Indonesia
become apparent enough in UNESCO member countries to
was officially recognised as the national language in 1945
1
prompt UNESCO to promote initiatives such as ‘World Mother
Constitution. While Indonesian is taught in all schools and
Tongue Day’ and ‘International year of Languages’ to change
English is part of the standard curriculum, the use of major
public perception about the importance of languages.7
languages such as Javanese, Balinese and Sundanese and
over 700 other minority languages varies from region to
region.

Contemporary patterns of global communication and

Indonesia is reported as
immigration have made multilingual education programmes having 742 languages
a way of allowing children to experience their rich multilingual spoken within its borders,
backgrounds as an advantage and as a means of thriving making it the 26th most
in a multilingual world. Giving children proficiency in the linguistically diverse
language spoken in their homes (L1) as well as the language
spoken by the larger community (L2, L3, L4, etc.) can benefit
nation in the world.
individuals and society by increasing cognitive skills,
humanistic understanding, achievement, economic benefits,
linguistic ability, social skills and political cooperation
2
between groups. 3
Fishman, Joshua A. Ethnocultural Dimensions in the Acquisition
and Retention of Biliteracy.
Having access to learning in more than one language 4
Malone, Susan. 2007. Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual
also allows individuals to use different languages for Education: Implications for Education Policy. SIL International.
different functions. For example, literacy in national and/or Presented at the Seminar on Education Policy and the Right to
Education: Towards More Equitable Outcomes for South Asia’s
international languages often opens doors to the world of Children, 17-20 September 2007.
5
work and facilitates mutual intelligibility between the local Sulinama Foundation, 2014. “Ambon-Malay based Early Childhood
Education: Towards mother-tongue based multilingual education:
context and the “outside world” politically and culturally. In
A progress report from Maluku.” Presentation at SEAMEO QITEP
turn, mother tongue literacy can foster cultural identity and Conference Jakarta 23-26 September 2014. SIL Ambon.
6
support the strengthening of ethnic communities as well as Shaeffer, Sheldon. 2014. “Language Diversity and Mother Tongue
Policies in Education.” Presentation at the Seminar on the Use of
Mother Tongue/Local Language to Improve Elementary Students’
Competence. SEAMEO QITEP in Language. 23-26 September 2014.
1 7
Musgrave, Simon. Language Shift and Language Maintenance in Crystal, David. 2011. From the World to the Word-and Back Again.
Indonesia. Monash University. Plenary lecture given to the CILT Primary Languages Show, ‘From
2
Crystal, David. 2011. the Word to the World’, Liverpool, 4 March 2011.

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 ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership
Box 1: The Case for Instruction in the Mother Tongue
Source: Professor Joseph Lo Bianco, 2014. Professor of Language and Literacy Education at the Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of
8
Melbourne, Australia.

“We need to see that literacy grows out of the general learning that children have already done. Children don’t start learning the minute
they enter the classroom; they start learning from the moment they’re born.

When you’re born you’re learning with your parents, your siblings, the other people involved in your life. And so you’re basically at the focus
point of a large community of people who informally are your teachers. So you’re learning your social life, your conceptual development,
your place in the world. And how to control other people’s behavior towards you by mastering language, because language is the tool
we use for all of those things.

We think, in educational circles, of language mainly as a cognitive tool. But language is much more than that. It is a cognitive tool - the
most extensive and complex one we have. But it is also the tool we use to make our presence felt in the world, to get our desires expressed
and met. And children, as they acquire that, are doing it in their mother tongue.

We can’t expect that when they go to school there will be this instantaneous transition over to another medium of exchange for all of this
really important information they encounter at school.”

» Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education

Although there are obvious advantages in having a A large body of evidence from different countries as
multilingual society and education system, choosing the well as advances in the field of cognitive neuroscience
language to use in education remains a highly contentious show that children who have access to mother tongue
topic. Official policy in Indonesia recognizes the right of based multilingual education (MTB MLE) develop
different language groups to maintain their languages. better language skills in their mother tongues as well
However, the large ethnolinguistic communities in western as national languages. When knowledge of a second
Indonesia have been more successful in accessing resources language (L2) is added to a rich knowledge of a first
and institutional support than smaller linguistic communities language (L1), a child forms complex knowledge
in the east. While Bali and Java have devoted a significant networks (additive bilingualism).
amount of time in the curriculum to ensuring mother tongue
In contrast, teaching basic skills to young children in a
literacy, the 275 smaller linguistic communities in Papua face
foreign language through language immersion is shown
various challenges including gaining community support,
to even be detrimental in some cases.11 Children who have
accessing resources and improving teacher8 training.9
limited vocabulary in their first language will not benefit
Although Bahasa Indonesian is used as the language of as thoroughly from bi/multilingual instruction and will
instruction, in provinces like Papua the government has use elements of the second language to replace the first
enacted policy to accommodate the needs children from (subtractive bilingualism).12
rural and remote areas. Regional Regulation of Papua No. 3
There is no “one-size-fits-all” method for integrating multiple
Article 22:2 is one such example stating, “If Bahasa Indonesia
languages into an education system (see Figure 1). In some
cannot be used as the introductory language in delivering
countries, students learn in the official language in higher
education, the local language can be used as the introductory
grades while studying in their mother tongue in lower
language.”10
primary grades. In other countries, logistical and political
complexities pose a challenge to the implementation of MTB
MLE, and students are immersed in the official language from
the beginning and during all grades.
8
Interview with Dr. Myra Harrison, Director Education Resources
Facility, Government of Australia, 2014. http://auserf.com.au/in-
focus/language-and-literacy-2/
9 11
ACDP. 2014. Rural and Remote Area Education Strategic Planning Abadzi. 2006.
12
for Tanah Papua Ganschow, L., R.L. Sparks, and J. Javorsky. 1998. “Foreign Language
10
Local Office of Education, Youth and Sport, Papua Province. 2013. Learning Difficulties: An Historical Perspective.” Journal of Learning
Regional Regulation of Papua No. 3. Disabilities 31(3): 248-58.

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 ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership
13
Figure 1: Language Instruction in Education Systems

Mother Tongue-Based Instruction The learning programme is delivered entirely in children’s L1

Bilingual Education Two languages are used as the media of instruction. This type of instruction is also known as
‘dual language instruction’ in which children who speak both the minority and majority language
are taught in both majority and minority languages.

Mother Tongue-Based Bilingual L1 is used as the primary medium of instruction during all of primary school. Then, L2 is
Education introduced as a subject of study to prepare children for eventual transition to using L2 as the
medium of learning in some academic classes.

Multilingual Education Formal use of more than two languages in the curriculum.

Transitional Bi/Multilingual This type of instruction is aimed at planning a transition for children to move from learning in L1
Education, or ‘Bridging’ to learning in L2. Such transition can be done abruptly after a few years or after a longer period
during which the child has become fully fluent academically in his/her L1.

Maintenance Bi/Multilingual Even after L2 has been introduced, children are instructed in L1 and L2. L1 continues, often as a
Education subject of study, to ensure ongoing support for children to become academically proficient in L1.
This is also called ‘additive bilingual education’ because one or more languages are added but do
not displace L1.
Immersion or Foreign Language The entire education programme is provided in a language that is new to the child.
Instruction

Submersion Speakers of non-dominant languages have no choice but to receive education in a language
they do not understand. The approach promotes subtractive bilingualism, i.e., learning L2 at the
expense of L1.

» Improved Academic Achievement

Bi/multilingual students often develop stronger academic different times of the day made dramatic gains in reading
abilities than similar students in monolingual schools. An performance compared to their English-only peers.17
evaluation of mother tongue instruction in northwest
Beneficiaries of bilingual education projects in Guatemala, in
Cameroon reveals that first grade children taught in their
addition to outperforming similar students in monolingual
mother tongue, Kom, perform significantly better across a
schools on 7 out of 10 measures of academic achievement,
range of subjects, including English and maths, than those
have a far better grasp of their Mayan mother tongues.18
taught solely in13English.14 Similarly, third grade students at
Significant improvements in achievement have also been
bilingual schools in Mali perform better on assessments of
observed amongst students of bilingual education in the
French language skills than those taught exclusively in French
Philippines (see Box 2 below).
despite only starting to learn French in second grade. Malians
who are given bilingual instruction continue to outperform » Increased Efficiency
those given monolingual instruction at the end of primary
Children who struggle to understand lessons in an unfamiliar
school.15 These children also demonstrate stronger skills in
language are more likely to skip school, repeat grades, drop
mathematics.16 Students in the USA receiving instruction
out and fail to learn than those taught in their mother tongue.
in a mother tongue (for example, in Spanish) and English at
13 This is supported by an analysis of the educational attendance
Source: Ball, Jessica. 2011. Mother Tongue-Based Bilingual or
Multilingual Education in the Early Years. UNESCO patterns of children in 153 linguistic groups across 23
14
Pflespsen, A. 2011. Improving Learning Outcomes through Mother
Tongue-Based Education. North Carolina, USA. RTI International. countries, which finds instruction in mother tongue to be
15
UNESCO. 2011. Enhancing Learning of Children from Diverse correlated with higher school enrolment and attendance. The
Backgrounds. Mother Tongue-Based Bilingual or Multilingual
17
Education in the Early Years. Paris, France. UNESCO. Abadzi, H. 2006.
16 18
UNESCO. 2008a. Mother Tongue Matters: Local Language as a Key Dutcher, N. 2003. Promise and Perils of Mother Tongue Education.
to Effective Learning. Paris, France. UNESCO. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics

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 ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership
study concludes that if mother-tongue instruction is available By reducing dropout and grade repetition, mother tongue-
at half or more of the schools attended by members of a based multilingual education can also be more cost-effective
linguistic group, the percentage of out-of-school children in in the medium and long run than monolingual alternatives.
that group is about 10% lower compared to groups for which A World Bank study in Mali has found that mother tongue-
mother-tongue instruction is not available or is only available based programmes cost 27% less over the 6-year primary
in a smaller proportion of schools.19 Another study finds that cycle than programmes taught exclusively in French, largely
Malian students instructed in their mother tongues are five because of reduced drop out and repetition.22 Similarly, a
times less likely to repeat a grade and three times less likely sixth-grade graduate of a bilingual programme in Guatemala
to drop out than those instructed in a second language.2021 has been found to be nearly 10% less costly to produce than a
graduate of a comparable monolingual school.23 Evaluations
suggest that covering the costs of providing mother-tongue
Box 2: Philippines instruction requires an initial increase of between 1-5%
Source: Department of Education, Republic of the Philippines. 2012.
Department of Education Order No. 31, 2012; Walter, S. and D. Dekker. in a country’s education budget, but that the resulting
21
2008. The Lubuagan Mother Tongue Education Experiment. improvement in internal efficiency would greatly reduce the
cost of the education system in the long run.24
In 2012, the Philippine government introduced the use of
mother tongues as the language of instruction in schools, » Socio-cultural Benefits
reversing a long-held policy of using only the national Historical incursions associated with colonialism as well
languages, English and Filipino. Since 2012, students acquire
as a host of contemporary political, economic and social
emerging literacy and numeracy skills in their mother tongues
processes have endangered many of the world’s languages
with the national languages taught as subjects in the first three
and cultures.25 Encouraging and supporting parents in
grades, transitioning to instruction in English and Filipino from
teaching their infants and young children the local language
grade 4 onwards. The change in policy came after a 10-year
experiment in the use of mother tongues in classrooms in in the home, and delivering early childhood education
the district of Lubuagan which produced promising results. programmes and formal education systems in the children’s
Children taking part in the Lubuagan MTB-MLE project, known mother tongue can ensure the transmission of a community’s
as the First Language Component (FLC), received instruction linguistic heritage and prevent this cultural and linguistic loss.
in their first language for the first three years of school. During
In supporting diverse communities to conserve their
this period, they also received instruction in oral English and
languages and culture, MTB-MLE programmes, such as
oral Filipino as preparation for learning to speak and read in
these languages. After three years, children taking part in that implemented in Thailand (see Box 3), have been
FLC merged with others who have received instruction in found to promote greater social cohesion, rather than
the national languages into classrooms where English is the the disintegration feared by proponents of monolingual
primary language of instruction. Standardised tests showed education.
that by grade 3 FLC participants significantly outperformed
Parents are also more likely to communicate with teachers,
their peers in control schools in a range of academic subjects,
including the national languages. For example, FLC students participate in children’s learning and become involved in what
in the 2007-2008 cohort scored an average of more than 75% goes on in the classroom when they feel their knowledge and
26
on a standardized test of knowledge and skills in mathematics, culture are valued. As evident in the case of Guatemala, the
while students in comparator monolingual schools scored just
50% on average. Similar differences were found in the results 22
World Bank. 2005. In Their Own Language…Education for All.
of tests of reading, English and Filipino. 23
Education Notes. June 2005.
Ministry of Education, Government of Guatemala. 2009. Modelo
Educativo Bilingüe e Intercultural (Bilingual and Intercultural
Education Model). Guatemala: Government of Guatemala.
24
Alidou, H. et al. 2006. Optimizing Learning and Education in Africa – the
Language Factor. Presented at the Association for the Development of
19 Education in Africa biennial meeting. Libreville, Gabon, March 27-31
Smits, J., J. Huisman and K. Kruijff. 2008. Home Language and
2006.
Education in the Developing World. Background paper prepared for 25
UNESCO. 2008. Mother Tongue Instruction in Early Childhood
the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2009.
20 Education: A Selected Bibliography. Paris: UNESCO.
Pflepsen, A. 2011. 26
21
A Report of Comparative Test Results. Presented to the House of Benson, C. 2002. Real and Potential Benefits of Bilingual
Representatives, Quezon City, Republic of the Philippines, February 27, Programmes in Developing Countries. International Journal of
2008 Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 5 (6), 303-317.

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 ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership
Box 3: Thailand’s Deep South and the Patani Malay-Thai Bilingual/Multilingual Education Project, 2014
.27
Source: UNESCO, 2014 Effective Literacy Programmes: Pattani Malay-Thai Bilingual/Multilingual Education

Thailand’s government established a primarily Thai-only educational system with the aim of promoting national unity. However, this
policy has shown to actually fuel social conflict as well as overlook the needs of ethnic minority children. The Patani Malay people’s fears
of assimilation by the Thai majority have fueled renewed social violence, and government schools, which are perceived as instruments
of assimilationist policies, have been targeted. Over 150 teachers have been killed. In addition, student achievements in ethnic minority
communities have also suffered. In 2008, 42.11% of third graders in Thailand’s Deep South failed the Thai writing test taken by all third
graders, while only 5.8% failed nationwide.

As part of an effort to promote peace, Thai officials are supporting the Patani Malay-Thai Bilingual/Multilingual Education (PM-MLE)
project in Thailand’s Deep South. PM-MLE is meant to bring the cultural identity of the Patani Malay people into the education system,
show respect for their cultural heritage and reduce resentment. Under PM-MLE, both Thai and Patani Malay are used as the language of
instruction, although for different purposes and at different times in a lesson. Class time is also devoted to children’s academic and socio
cultural development in order to promote their respect for their own as well as other cultures and religions.

The impact of PM-MLE has been positive. Local communities are being strengthened as parents and grandparents are now able to
relate to their children’s schooling. Students taking part in the PM-MLE project also tend to achieve 40-60% higher scores in all subject
areas compared to Patani Malay students in monolingual Thai classrooms. Due to the success of PM-MLE, Thailand has adopted as a
comprehensive national language policy that supports the right of all Thailand’s ethnic minority children to obtain an education that
incorporates their mother tongue.

use of local languages in instruction can transform parental the easier and faster they are mastered and used to impact
and community participation and responsibility, and such achievement in other subjects. Children should learn 1,000-
empowerment can in turn improve the quality of schooling. 2,500 words a year in order to understand the roughly 2,000-
The use of local languages also has an impact on adult 3,000 words needed to understand the concept of lessons
literacy. As parents see their children successfully learn to sufficiently.32 Further, children require 5-7 years of instruction
read and write in their language, they are often motivated to in a second language before they start catching up on school
attend literacy classes27themselves.28 tests that measure their ability to use L2 for formal academic
learning, as opposed to using L2 for basic interpersonal
» Introducing the Second Language communication.33
Countries that use MTE-MLE must decide when the second
language should be introduced and if/when instruction in Yet, giving a child a strong foundation in his/her mother
mother tongue languages will be discontinued. tongue language helps L2 learning much more than early
or long exposure to L2 by itself. Young students are able to
Introducing a second language to children is most transfer literacy and curriculum content skills learned in one
advantageous when it is introduced to them at an early age language while learning another, and high achievement in L1
and in low anxiety situations, containing familiar and easy helps students maximize this skill. Differences in reading and
29
understood messages rooted in their culture and traditions. academic performance may be dramatic between students
Children learn a language most efficiently between the ages who receive bilingual education and those who receive
of 3 and 830, and their ability declines dramatically afterwards 34
instruction only in L2. Further, deficiencies in the second
as working memory and reasoning ability increases.31 In language and verbalization of concepts within curriculum
addition, the earlier vocabulary and grammar are learned, content may not be apparent in the lower grades, but they
27 become more apparent after grades 4-5, when concepts
http://www.unesco.org/uil/litbase/?menu=4&programme=147
28
World Bank. 2005 become more challenging. When students know only limited
29
Mechelli, A., J.T. Crinion, U. Noppeney, J. O’Doherty, J. Ashburner,
32
R.S. Frackowiak, and C.J. Price. 2004. “Neurolinguistics: Structural Nation, P., and R., Waring. 1997. “Vocabulary Size, Text Coverage
Plasticity in the Bilingual Brain.” Nature 431: 757; UNESCO. 2008. and Word Lists.” In Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and
Improving the Quality of Mother Tongue-Based Literacy and Pedagogy, N. Schmitt and M. McCarthy, eds. Cambridge:
Learning: Case Studies from Asia, Africa and South America. Cambridge University Press, pp. 6-19.
30 33
Johnson J.S., and E.L. Newport. 1989. “Critical Period Effects in Ball, Jessica. 2011. Enhancing Learning of Children from Diverse
Second Learning.” Cognitive Psychology 21: 60-99. Language Backgrounds: Mother Tongue-Based Bilingual or
31
Mervis. C.B., and J. Bertrand. 1994. “Acquisition of the Novel- Multilingual Education in the Early Years. UNESCO.
34
Nameless Category Principle.” Child Development 65: 1646-1662. Abadzi. 2006.

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 ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership
grammar and vocabulary, they do not have a sufficient introducing the second language: 10 percent of L2 in Grade
foundation from which to peg complex concepts and classes 1, and then gradually increasing to 20 percent, 30 percent, 40
get stuck in a relatively simple level of discourse. In addition, percent, and 50 percent by Grade 5. In this scenario, students
although introducing L2 early is beneficial, early childhood whose mother tongue is different than the second language
education programs such as preschool, which play a critical will, by Grade 5, catch up with or even overtake students
role in providing students with “school readiness skills” in who have been taught only in this language.38 Effective MT-
preparation for the literacy and numeracy skills to be acquired Based MLE programmes use both languages for teaching
in the early grades of elementary school, are more effective throughout primary school. Figure 2 presents an example
when conducted in the medium of the learner’s mother of a progression plan for teaching and using languages in a
tongue, or the language that the learners know best.3536 3-language MT-Based MLE program.
36
Figure 2: Methods of incorporating multiple languages into education

K1 K2 Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4 Grade 5 Grade 6

Build fluency in Continue oral Continue oral Continue oral Continue oral Continue oral Continue oral Continue oral
oral L1 L1 and written L1, and written and written and written L1, and written L1, and written
oral L2 L1, L2 L1, L2 L2, oral L3 L2, L3 L1, L2, L3

Begin oral L2 Begin written Begin oral L3 Begin written

(late in the L2 (late in the L3
year) year)

L1 for teaching L1 for teaching L1 for teaching L1 for teaching L1-L2-L1 for L1-L2-L1 for L1-L2-L1 for L2-L1 for
teaching teaching teaching teaching

Therefore, the most effective bi/multilingual » Possible Obstacles to Implementation

programmes aim for high achievement in both L1 The following presents common challenges and resistance
and L2 and do not use one as a means of establishing often encountered to using MTB-MLE in schools. Each
proficiency in the other.37 These programmes invest in challenge is addressed in a response based on evidence-
L1 teaching and learning for as long as possible. Students based research and experience.
should ideally continue to learn their mother tongue 1. Challenge: Limited Resources
throughout their schooling, either as a subject itself or as the
• Developing materials in the language of instruction
medium of instruction in some subjects, while they study
for teachers and students involves design, piloting
L2 and even when they are proficient enough that teachers
and evaluation, which requires the commitment of
could use L2 as the sole medium of instruction. Programmes
significant resources. Costs may be even higher when
in which mother tongue instruction is used only at the
the languages in question lack a writing system.
most rudimentary level – perhaps only used verbally in the
classroom - and used only as a “bridge” to teaching fully in the Responses:
L2, have proved less effective. • As discussed, investing in producing materials in the
language of instruction pays off in the long term,
Research suggests that one of the most effective models
ultimately reducing the cost of the education system
of language introduction is an incremental approach to
and improving learning. While the challenge of
35 producing education materials in different languages
Sulinama Foundation. 2014. “Ambon-Malay based Early
Childhood Education.” Presentation at SEAMEO-QITEP conference can appear considerable, “it is better than continuing
in Jakarta 23-26 September 2014. SIL Ambon.
36
Source: Malone, Susan. 2007. Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual
to waste taxpayer dollars educating children who are
Education: Implications for Education Policy. Presented at the functionally illiterate.”39
Seminar on Education Policy and the Right to Education: Towards
38
more Equitable Outcomes for South Asia’s Children. Kathmandu, Abadzi. 2006.
39
17-20 September 2007. SIL International. Pikkert, Joost. 2014. Strategic Planning for Basic Education in the
37
UNESCO. 2008. Improving the Quality of Mother Tongue-based Rural and Remote Areas in Tanah Papua: Educational Planning
Literacy and Learning: Case studies from Asia, Africa and South for Isolated Papuan Language Communities. SIL International for
America. ACDP.

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 ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership
• Some countries have taken advantage of ICT 3. Challenge: Political Ambivalence
technologies (such as computer based word
• Governments may find it difficult to prioritise learning
processing) to reduce costs associated with
outcomes over politically sensitive issues concerning
developing materials for bi/multilingual instruction.
language use in education.
• Example: Papua New Guinea has published materials
• Children of the elite as well as gifted children usually
in hundreds of languages by using a basic “shell book”
have little difficulty in achieving academic success
format.
by learning in the medium of the dominant national
44
• Example: Mali, where bilingually-taught students languages in schools.
significantly outperform those in French-only schools, Responses:
provides education in 11 languages and has materials
40 • The type of system-wide reform that is needed for bi-
available in each.
or multi-lingual instruction to achieve its potential,
including reform of teacher training, adapting the
2. Challenge: Parental Resistance examination system and moving toward a more
student-centred method of instruction, requires
• Parents may wonder why their child is being given
significant political commitment and the development
instruction in their mother tongue instead of in a
of administrative and technical capacities throughout
national or international language that would improve
the education system.
their earning opportunities and enhance their socio-
41
economic status. • The gifted child and those who come from higher
socio-economic households, are in the minority. An
• Example: Many parents in Haiti have resisted the use
equitable education system must consider the vast
of Creole because it is considered the “language of the
majority of students who face significant problems
poor”.
with the language of instruction, especially in schools
• Example: Many Mexican parents believe Spanish in rural and remote areas.
should be prioritized over indigenous languages
42
• The best outcomes from the implementation of
because it is the ‘language of progress.’
mother-tongue policies have been found in countries
Responses: where policies have been matched by sustained
• Learning in their mother tongue will not harm commitment from both national and local authorities.
children’s acquisition of the national language. In
• Example: In Mali, reform has been extensive and
contrast, mother tongue instruction has actually
successful and could have only taken place in a
shown to improve national language proficiency
context of long-term political support for mother-
compared to monolingual instruction in the national 45
tongue instruction.
language.
• Example: India’s government has demonstrated
• Creating awareness among parents of mother-
long-term commitment to multilingual education
tongue language policy and its benefits is crucial for
(See Box 4).
successful implementation of MTB-MLE programs.
4. Challenge: Human Resources
• Parents should be included in providing support in • Teachers proficient in mother tongue languages must
classrooms with, for example, the development of be identified and trained.
materials and supervision of their implementation • Teachers will require support, supervision and
in schools, such as by reading stories in the mother monitoring, creating further costs for the government.
tongue.43
• In many countries, materials in one language are scarce
40 and teacher development for monolingual instruction
World Bank. 2005.
41
UNESCO. 2011.
42 44
World Bank. 2005. Abadzi, A. 2006.
43 45
Pflepsen, A. 2011. UNESCO. 2008a.

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 ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership
Box 4: India’s Three Language Formula • Example: Thailand has provided pre-primary teachers
who do not speak Patani Malay with speaking
India, one of the most linguistically diverse countries in the
assistants who do speak the minority languages to
world, has a long history of supporting the right of children to
allow for bilingual education. These assistants receive
learn in their mother tongues. In the 1960s, the government
a monthly stipend from the PM-MLP project. A number
introduced the Three Language Formula in education,
of unpaid volunteers also support the program.
whereby all children should learn their mother tongue or a
regional language, Hindi and English. The Indian Constitution • Example: In Thailand, new teachers and teacher
also establishes that states and local authorities within states assistants are trained and mentored by teachers who
should ‘provide adequate facilities for the instruction in the already have experience in multilingual education.
mother tongue at the primary stage to children belonging Faculties of local universities are developing a
to linguistic minority groups’. Similarly, the 2009 Right to curriculum to teach university students to become
Education Act emphasizes the education should be delivered teachers for multilingual education. They are also
in the mother tongue where possible. Many states comply with assisting in helping ethnic Thai teachers who do not
the Three Language Formula and mother-tongue instruction speak Patani Malay to understand their role in the
directives, with more than 90 per cent of primary schools programme.49
using mother tongues in instruction. In some states, the
government has invested significant resources in developing
» Implementing MTB-MLE in Papua
materials for instruction in minority languages, bringing about Implementing mother tongue based multilingual education
improvements in enrolment, attendance and achievements more widely in eastern Indonesia, especially in Papua, could
across the curriculum. For example, materials such as alphabet significantly improve education outcomes and contribute to
charts, big books for class and group reading and small books reducing gaps in enrolment and dropout between western
for individual reading have been developed in eight minority and eastern Indonesia. However, a range of obstacles
languages in the state of Andhra Pradesh and in ten minority like those described above have historically prevented
languages in the state of Orissa. An evaluation of multilingual
indigenous languages from being used more widely as a
education programmes in Orissa found students taught in
medium of instruction in Papuan schools.
their mother tongues performed better in tests of language
and mathematics than those who were not.46 Firstly, for many community leaders, education administrators
and practitioners (such as principals, teachers and supervisors)
problematic, creating understandable reluctance to government policy on which language to use in education
the development of resources in multiple language is still too vague. As noted above, government policy in
and the training of teachers in bi- or multilingual46 Indonesia allows local languages to be used in classrooms
instruction.47 if Bahasa Indonesia cannot be used as the introductory
Response: language. However, the ambiguity of the terms ‘cannot be
• Recent research by the Summer Institute of Linguistics used’ and ‘introductory language’ lead many communities
(SIL) has underlined the importance of developing which have low levels of use and understanding of Bahasa
teacher training curriculum that is driven by the Indonesia to feel compelled to use Bahasa Indonesia as the
educational needs of rural and remote communities, language of instruction in school. Although senior education
instead of adopting a teacher training curriculum administrators have voiced significant support for MTB-MLE
meant for urban areas, as a key means of establishing recently (see Box 5), a clearer, more explicit policy that states
48
quality education in remote and rural communities. that the mother tongue and/or the language used most
widely in communication in the community can be used as
46
Source Global Campaign for Education. n.d. Mother Tongue Education: the language of instruction in early grades in the elementary
Policy Lessons for Quality and Inclusion: Johannesburg, South Africa:
Global Campaign for Education; Pandey, L. n.d. Multilingual Education schools, would provide far greater legitimacy to the use of
Programme of Orissa – An Evaluation Study. Presentation. Delhi, India: mother tongues in instruction.
National Council of Educational Research and Training; Subhash.
2013. Three Language Education Formula in Multilingual Education
India: Problems and Prospects. International J. Education Research.
A further challenge is that the value of MTB-MLE tends to
Vol 1. Issue 4 be misunderstood and inconsistent among the isolated and
47
World Bank. 2005.
48
Pikkert, Joost, Jacqualine Menanti and Novi Matulessy. 2014. Rural
49
and Remote Area Education Strategic Planning Study for Tanah UNESCO. 2012. Patani Malay-Thai Bilingual/Multilingual Education.
Papua, 2014. SIL Indonesia. http://www.unesco.org/uil/litbase/?menu=8&programme=147

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 ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership
Box 5: Political support for MTB-MLE in Papua One solution to this could be to strengthen the community
Source: Protasius Lobya, (Cenderawasih Pos, 7 October 2014) school committee for each village school. Currently school
“The mother tongue has a very important role in education committees function in a mainly consultative and fundraising
development, particularly in isolated areas.” - Protasius Lobya, manner. However, they could be strengthened to provide
Secretary of the Education and Culture Office of Papua greater oversight for school matters, including the monitoring
Province (Cenderawasih Post, Oct 3, 2014) of teacher attendance and performance.

“If many first graders do not understand what their teachers are Teachers need to be trained to teach in a multi-lingual
teaching them (in Bahasa Indonesia), then they will not be able context and to use mother tongue instruction in schools.
to count, read or learn science. But they will surely succeed better Here the role of the Faculty of Teaching and Learning (FKIP)
if (we teach them) using the language used in their daily lives.” -
in the local universities plays an important role in promoting
Protasius Lobya (Cenderawasih Post, Oct 7, 2014)
MTB-MLE in its teacher preparation programmes as well as in
the Teacher Training Colleges which have a specific mandate
rural communities that would stand to benefit most from its to serve the rural and remote areas of Papua where mother-
implementation. Reactions range from “We’ve been told the tongue instruction can be of the most benefit.
language we speak is an animal language,” to “Yes! We would
love to have the freedom to use mother tongue but we are
afraid of what the government might think.” Many rural and
remote communities support the use of mother tongues in
classrooms. However, their support tends to be based on the
fear that their languages and cultures will die out if it is not
integrated into the school curriculum rather than perceived
educational benefits.

It is therefore essential that communities, education

administrators and practitioners be made aware that MTB-
MLE can play a critically important role in improving the
quality of their children’s education as well as in preserving
the vitality of their language.

There are several important logistical obstacles to increasing

the use of mother tongue based instruction. One of the Other challenges include the development of mother
most significant of these is the supply and management of tongue orthography, reading and instructional materials as
quality teachers especially to the rural and remote areas of well as curricula. There are approximately 275 languages in
Tanah Papua 50 Teachers from the local communities would Tanah Papua (see Figure 3) and they are at various stages
be better placed to understand local culture and to be able of development, some are dormant or dying, others -
although in daily use -- need development in terms of written
to teach in the mother tongue languages. However, recent
orthography. They may be strictly oral and lack the most basic
studies of teacher absenteeism in Papua have observed
linguistic analysis including a writing system (written letters
that there are higher rates of absence from school and
to represent sounds, vocabulary to represent new ideas and
the classroom among teachers who come from the local
concepts, etc.). Others are vibrant and well-developed in
communities in comparison to those teachers coming from terms of literature, such as stories and legends, representing
51
outside. local culture. Some even have excellent multilingual curricula
that introduce literacy in the local language and then
50 introduce Bahasa Indonesia later. Clearly the development
Tanah Papua includes the current two provinces of Papua and
West Papua included in Inodesian Papua. of orthography, reading and instructional materials and
51
See, for example UNICEF, UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, and National curricula for all 275 languages is not viable. Part of the
Center for Statistics (BPS), (2012) “We like being taught: A study on challenge will be selecting which languages can and should
teacher absenteeism in Papua and West Papua” which found that
native Papuans are twice as likely to be absent from schools than be used for instructional purposes.
non-Papuans teaching in the same areas. At any one time, 40% of
native Papuan teachers may be absent from school.

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 ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership
Moreover, while local language curricula have been mapping language communities, schools and MTB-MLE
developed in many Papuan languages over the years, this development, has the potential of providing critical support
has been carried out by a range of organisations and many for development of Papuan languages and MTB-MLE. In
of the curricula are very different in terms of structure and addition, establishing Mother Tongue Based Multilingual
philosophy. The lack of a “print culture” as well as a specific Education committees at the community level would also
model of MTB-MTE to be used (see Figure 2 above) needs facilitate stronger implementation.
to be addressed. Fortunately, with modern technology it
is possible to write and produce instructional materials in All of these challenges can be overcome with political will
multiple languages more cheaply than in the past. and commitment as they have been in many other countries
around the world. Some key political support for MTB-MLE
For greater numbers of communities and schools to embrace is already in place in Papua. The government has committed
high quality MTB-MLE, the government must provide to running an MTB-MLE pilot programme in collaboration
greater support for capacity development, implementation with other stakeholders, which will start in the school year
and co-ordination of such initiatives. The newly established 2015/2016. Drawing heavily from the Thai-Malay multilingual
“Language and Letters Section” within the provincial education project, the pilot program will evaluate the
office of Education and Culture in Papua, working with effectiveness of using a transitional MTB-MLE model in
NGOs and Foundations such as SIL that are devoted to increasing learning outcomes among students in rural and

Figure 3: Language Map of Tanah Papua

Source: Summer Institute of Linguistics International Indonesia (SIL), Papua.

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 ACDPINDONESIA Education Sector Analytical And Capacity Development Partnership
remote primary schools over a 3-year period. The pilot will
be designed for implementation in 30 “sekolah kampong”
schools (20 treatment and up to 10 control schools) in the
rural and remote areas of the province.

Some of the central challenges to wider adoption of MTB-

MLE education are also being addressed. In addition to
the aforementioned establishment of the Language and
Letters Section within the provincial office of Education
and Culture in Papua, steps are being taken to address the
quality and relevance of teacher training. Cendrawasih State
University’s Faculty of Education and Teaching (UNCEN’s
FKIP) is embarking on a revitalization program of teacher
training programmes that will include the reform of the four
teacher training colleges in Papua and West Papua provinces
to incorporate Papuan Mother Tongue Based Multilingual
Education.

While the challenges may be formidable and the initial

costs of implementing MTB-MLE will be significant, there
is compelling evidence to suggest that if there is sufficient
political commitment and if MTB-MTE is implemented well, it
is a wise investment which in the long run will secure many
educational, social, political and developmental payoffs. Photo: MoEC Public Relations and Information Center

ACDP

The Government of Indonesia (represented by the Ministry of ACDP Secretariat:

Education and Culture, the Ministry of Religious Affairs, and Ministry of Education and Culture
the Ministry of National Development Planning / Bappenas), National Office for Research and Development (BALITBANG)
the Government of Australia, through Australian Aid, E Building, 19th Floor
Jalan Jenderal Sudirman, Senayan, Jakarta 10270
the European Union (EU), and the Asian Development
Phone : (021) 578-51100, Fax: (021) 578-51101
Bank (ADB) have established the Education Sector
Email : [email protected]
Analytical and Capacity Development Partnership Website : www.acdp-indonesia.org
(ACDP). ACDP is a facility to promote policy dialogue and
facilitate institutional and organizational reform to underpin
policy implementation and to help reduce disparities in
education performance. The facility is an integral part of
the Education Sector Support Program (ESSP). EU’s
support to the ESSP also includes a sector budget support
along with a Basic Education Minimum Service Standards
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capacity development program. Australia’s support is
through Australia’s Education Partnership with Indonesia.
This Working Paper has been prepared with grant support
provided by AusAID and the EU, through ACDP.

Kementerian PPN/
Bappenas
KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN KEMENTERIAN EUROPEAN UNION
DAN KEBUDAYAAN AGAMA