Group for Earth Observation No 63 - September 2019

Pictured a few seconds after leaving its launchpad, Russia’s new Meteor M2-2
Earth observing satellite heads for orbit aboard its Soyuz-2-1b/Fregat-M launcher.
Image: Roscosmos
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2 www.geo-web.org.uk
 Les Hamilton

M any readers will by now have been receiving LRPT images from Russia’s Meteor M2-2 satellite,
which was successfully launched on July 5. Following four weeks or so transmitting the three
visible channels, the satellite’s commissioning phase switched to displaying the three infrared
channels in early August before reverting back to the visible channels on August 19. A frustrating
factor has been the numerous changes in frequency between 137.9 MHz and 137.1 MHz and
Symbol Rates of 72,000 and 80,000 baud. This behaviour also occurred during the commissioning
phase of Meteor M2 in 2014, so it is probable that by the end of the year, if not before, the final
values for both frequency and symbol rate for Meteor M2-2 will have been finalised.

T here are also ongoing developments in both the Meteor Plugin for SDRsharp and the LRPT
Decoder software, perhaps the most significant being the ability to automatically detect the
Symbol Rate of the transmission. Details are regularly updated in Alex’s excellent tutorial to be
found at
http://happysat.nl/Setup_Meteor/Setup.html
Alex also regularly updates a status page showing the current frequency, Symbol Rate and
Channels in use by both the Meteor satellites, at
http://happysat.nl/Meteor/html/Meteor_Status.html

Another excellent resource for keeping up with developments—providing you are a Facebook
subscriber—is the APT Group (which covers both APT and LRPT satellite transmission modes. This
is an open group, which means that anyone can read their posts: if you wish to contribute, though,
you must register as a member. Their website is
https://www.facebook.com/groups/Satellite.apt.group/

I f you haven’t started receiving this new satellite yet, there are a number of fine images in this
issue, sent in by readers, to whet your appetite.

P lease remember that contributions from readers detailing their activities are always welcome, by
email, to the editor at
[email protected]

Contents

GEO Report and Quarterly Question Francis Bell 4

Successful Meteor M2-2 Launch Les Hamilton 6
Combatting severe ‘pager’ interference John Cooper 9
NOAA 15 on the brink 10
Atmospheric River swells Terrestrial Rivers NASA Earth Observatory 11
Northern Italy at Night European Space Agency 12
Apollo 13 Launchpad European Space Agency 13
Raikoke Erupts NASA Earth Observatory 14
Deciphering the Maude Rise Polynya NASA Earth Observatory 15
Okjökull Remembered NASA Earth Observatory 20
Satellite Status 22

www.geo-web.org.uk 3
 Francis Bell

I would like to start this brief report by offering The school ‘Space-Link’ one day event, which GEO
my congratulations to those members I know of has attended for a number of years, was frustratingly
who are receiving the latest Russian polar orbiting cancelled at the last minute and I’m not sure about
satellite Meteor M2-2. I have been reading the further contacts with this group.
correspondence published via our GEO Subscribers
YAHOO group and admire the way individuals have GEO did book a stand at the large Newbury radio
shared their experiences and advice relating to the rally but unfortunately I was unable to attend
reception of this new satellite. Sometimes, when because a few days before this event I had to
possible, I have downloaded some of the images go to hospital and have my leg put in plaster.
which have been referred to in correspondence, and Unfortunately I had sustained an injury to my foot
these have included excellent images of Australia —medically known as Charcot-Foot—which needed
and North America. I believe I have at home the immobilising for immediate rest, hence the plaster
equipment necessary to receive this new satellite. I cast. The demand for rest and my lack of mobility
just need to overcome the personal inertia of getting ruled out my attendance at the Newbury rally hence
started with it. there was no GEO stand there even though it had
been booked. At the time of writing my foot is much
Often in my reports I include comments about better and I am walking almost normally again.
rallies and shows which GEO has recently attended.
Unfortunately my attendance at the two events I am still in touch with Dundee University and their
which I had hoped to support on GEO’s behalf this programme of satellite reception and I hope to give
summer both had to be abandoned. an up-to-date report about GEO’s support for them
in the next Quarterly Report.

My thanks to those readers who responded to island in question has been a holiday destination for
Quarterly Question 62, which related to an isolated my wife and myself on a number of occasions and
island in the mid Pacific Ocean. In addition to the it’s unfortunate to think of the natural landscape
satellite image shown there were clues to the island’s being damaged by fire. However, it must be
identity in the text. The name of the island and other recognised that in this case it is a volcanic island so
details can been read, below, in a correct answer I many devastating events must have happened there
received from David Rennolds (G0BXS). in the past.
Answers as follows:
The question this quarter is quite straightforward:
Name: EASTER ISLAND
“Name the individual island shown in the satellite
Lat/Long: 109º WEST 27º SOUTH image on page 5”.
Country claiming sovereignty: CHILE
A secondary question—perhaps more difficult—
Question 63 is why we call this group of islands the ‘Canary
The question this quarter has been prompted by the Islands’. This is a more difficult question than asking
news in August 2919 relating to the many wildfires about the origin of the name for ‘Easter Island’
in Brazil. In addition to Brazil there have been which, I understand, was discovered by European
wildfires on one of the islands in the Canary Island explorers on 5th April 1722 which happened to be
Group. I was particularly distressed to learn of the Easter Sunday.
fires in the Canary Islands because the particular

4 www.geo-web.org.uk
 Copyright contains modified Copernicus Sentinel data (2019), processed by ESA

The recent satellite image of the island in The Copernicus Emergency Mapping Service was
question is shown above and notes which were activated to help respond to the fire. The service
published with the image follow. I have edited uses satellite observations to help civil protection
these notes a little to remove the name of the authorities and, in cases of disaster, the
island in question. international humanitarian community, respond
to emergencies.
Satellite Image Information
An unprecedented wildfire has ripped through one The fire started near the town of Tejeda and
of Spain’s Canary Islands off the northwest coast spread to Tamadaba Natural Park, driven by a
of Africa. The wildfire, which started on Saturday combination of high temperatures, strong winds
August 17, 2019, has now started to subside after and low humidity. According to authorities, over
engulfing around 10 000 hectares of land, leading 700 firefighters on the ground and 16 aircraft
to the evacuation of over 9000 people. helped tackle the blaze, with some flames
reaching over 50 metres in height.
This false colour image, captured on August 19,
was created using the shortwave infrared Answers, please, to Francis Bell via email at
bands from instruments aboard the Copernicus [email protected]
Sentinel-2 satellite, and allows us to clearly see
the fires on the ground in bright orange. Burn or
scars are visible in dark brown. These bands also [email protected]
allow us to see through smoke—but not clouds.
by November 30, 2019.

www.geo-web.org.uk 5
 Successful Meteor M2-2 Launch
Les Hamilton

Following a wait of almost eighteen months following

the unfortunate demise of the Meteor M2-1 weather and
climate-monitoring satellite, its twin, Meteor M2-2 was
successfully launched atop a Soyuz-2-1b/Fregat-M rocket
along with a cluster of 32 secondary payloads. The launch
was from Russia’s far eastern Vostochny Cosmodrome at
05:41 UT on July 5.

As readers may recall, Meteor M2-1 did launch as

expected but, due to a programming error—the rocket’s
take-off coordinates were mistakenly entered for the
Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, over 4000
kilometres to the west—the rocket’s upper stage fired
facing the wrong orientation, and as a result the launcher
and its payloads plunged into the North Atlantic ocean. Personnel look on as the Meteor M2-2 payload is
integrated with the Fregat‑M upper stage of the launcher.
Image: Roscosmos

Moments before the second stage completed its firing 4

minutes and 47 seconds into the flight, the third stage
engine started firing through the inter-stage lattice
structure, which itself separated along with the second
stage a second or so later.

The third stage then burned for four and a half minutes
before shutting down, releasing the Fregat upper stage
and its passengers into a ballistic trajectory just short of
Meteor M2-2 satellite
orbital velocity. This set the third stage into free fall back
Image: Roscosmos to Earth on a path designed to bring its debris crashing
safely into the Atlantic Ocean. Almost immediately, the
Following lift-off, the Soyuz flew under power from both Fregat fired its engines for just over a minute to enter its
its first and second stages for a total of 118 seconds, initial parking orbit, and about three-quarters of an hour
after which the exhausted strap-on first stage boosters later fired again to establish the near circular 98.6° orbit of
were jettisoned. The second stage then continued to burn 790 by 830 km from where it released Meteor-M No.2-2
for another 170 seconds, with separation of the rocket’s (Meteor M2-2 for short).
payload fairing taking place about a minute before the end
of this burn. Following the successful release of its primary payload, the
Fregat’s task continued with a complex preprogrammed
sequence, including multiple firings of its main engine,
designed to deliver its secondary payloads into two
different orbits. Payloads in the micro-sat range were
released at an altitude of 580 km and inclination of 97.7°,
while the cubesats were to be released at around 530 km
and 97.5°. The total release programme was completed in
just 4½ hours following lift-off.

Its task completed, the Fregat was placed in a suicide

trajectory through the atmosphere and disintegrated over
the equatorial east Pacific Ocean.

Meteor-M2-2 is identical with its lost predecessor,

and several more spacecraft of this configuration are
planned to fly in the next few years. Built by the VNIIEM
Corporation, the 2,750 kilogram satellite is designed for at
The Meteor M2-2 satellite undergoing final checks prior to its least five years of service.
integration with the Fregat‑M launcher upper stage.
Image: Roscosmos

6 www.geo-web.org.uk
6
Instrumentation
Meteor-M2-2 is equipped
with two imaging payloads.
MSU-MR is a low-resolution
instrument operating in
visible-light and near-infrared
wavelengths which will take
wide-swath images of Earth
to help monitor cloud cover
and the icecaps. The second
imager, KMSS-2, provides
complimentary high-resolution
visible-light images of more
specific areas.

The satellite also carries

two sounding instruments:
the MTVZA-GYa microwave
radiometer and IKFS-
2 infrared spectrometer,
which will build profiles of
temperatures, humidity and
wind conditions within the The Soyuz-2-1b/Fregat-M rocket being transported to its launchpad at the Vostochny Cosmodrome.
atmosphere. Image: Roscosmos

The Soyuz-2-1b/Fregat-M rocket on its launchpad the day before lift-off The Soyuz-2-1b fires its motors at the instant of lift-off
Image: Roscosmos Image: Roscosmos

www.geo-web.org.uk 7
 Enrico Gobbetti received his first Meteor M2-2 image (above) acquired from the 12.27 UT pass on July 18, 2019

8 www.geo-web.org.uk
 Combatting severe ‘pager’ interference
to Receive Meteor M2-2 Imagery
John Cooper G8GKU

The Meteor M2-2 Image above was captured by G8GKU at 15:25 UT on July 31 2019, and processed to give RGB123 false colour.
Orbit No 375, at 137.9 MHz OQPSK with 72000 symbol rate.
Read article on following page ...

www.geo-web.org.uk 9
Along with the new Meteor M2-2 satellite came the The device has to be embedded in circuit to be
challenge of OQPSK in place of the QPSK utilised by actually used: the device is not ‘plug and play’,
Meteor M2. The immediate situation was to leave me unless one has the evaluation module version. There
with no working demodulation or decoding system is a useful article detailing the building of a amplifier
for OQPSK. with the PGA-103+ at the following URL,
http://www.g4ddk.com/PGA103+2.pdf
Discussion with Les Hamilton revealed the option of
using tools as found in Les’s pre-packaged archive To ensure maximum signal is obtained, the aerial is
tool sets. Please see real-time tracked in azimuth and elevation with data
http://leshamilton.co.uk/MeteorLRPTSuite.htm obtained from Alex’s DDEtoSerial driver, to be found
at the following URL,
A ‘thank you’ has to go to Les for assembling the http://tripsintech.com/
various sets of tools. orbitron-dde-azimuth-elevation-to-serial/

As always, things were not so simple as might have Secondly is the use of twin screened 50 Ohm coax
been thought. The tools chain as above is centred between the preamplifier and the receiver position.
around using the LRPT Demodulation within SDR# Silver plated coax screen is highly recommended.
as to be found in the archive.
Thirdly is the use of the SDR-Play Duo receiver.
The Pager Situation This receiver has a front end design which allows
Due to the quantity and strength of 137.x MHz data repetition of weak signals in the presence of strong
and ‘pager’ signals in Oxford, it is not workable close in-band signals at an offset of only a few
to use the well tried and tested SDR‑RTL Dongle kilohertz. This is exactly the situation when I am
receiver. As I am located close to Oxford, a hybrid receiving 137.x MHz images.
system had to be devised to facilitate the reception
and decoding of M2-2 images. The complete signal chain for Meteor M2-2 uses the
above for reception of the satellite signal and the
Beating the Pagers received data is stored as a 16 bit I.Q. WAV file.
The three key components which allow me to receive
(mostly) unbroken images from Meteor M2-2 are as At this stage the tools within Les’s archive come
follows. Other methods of course exist, and the use into play. The SDR# application is fired up and the
of the following products is merely descriptive as recorded dot.wav file selected as the signal source.
opposed to an endorsement to purchase. The LRPT demodulator plug-in within SDR# is used
to demodulate the OQPSK, resulting in an ‘s’ file,
First, after the crossed dipole RHCP aerial, is which is then decoded by the LRPT decoder within
the use of a specific signal preamplifier, the the tools set archive. There are options to be set in
Mini‑Circuits PGA‑103+ device. A data sheet may be SDR#, the demodulator and the decoder, all of which
found on the Mini‑Circuits web pages. There are are self descriptive.
other devices by other manufacturers but the
PGA‑103+ is excellent for the task. It has a very low By using this hybrid system, the break-up and
noise figure and an impressive degree of strong loss of many images due to strong local close
signal handling, resulting in low (if any) cross- in-band interference has been very much reduced.
modulation of the weak M2-2 signal by the local Acknowledgement is made of all software names and
heavyweight data transmitters. such items.

NOAA 15 on the Brink

Enthusiasts monitoring NOAA 15, a Several days later, the problem
weather satellite sent into orbit over 21 appeared to have been overcome only
years ago (in May, 1998), experienced for it to reappear a few days thereafter.
problems receiving images from
July 23 this year. The problem By August, NOAA 15 was once again
manifested itself in distorted images, transmitting good imagery, but the end
and sometimes no images at all, and of life for this satellite can surely not
was attributed to instability of the scan now be long delayed, considering its
motor. age.

www.geo-web.org.uk 10
 Atmospheric River Swells Terrestrial Rivers
NASA Earth Observatory

In late June 2019, a potent

atmospheric river event carried
soaking rain into southern
Chile, dropping nearly a
month’s worth of precipitation
in just 48 hours. According
to atmospheric scientist René
Garreaud of Universidad de
Chile, between 100 to 200
millimetres of rain fell over a
wide area near Concepcion,
leading to landslides and severe
flooding in the Biobio and
Araucania regions.

The images above capture

some of the signs of that
deluge. The top natural-colour
pair was acquired by NASA’s
Moderate Resolution Imaging
Spectroradiometer (MODIS) The Pacific Ocean near Conception in Chile before and after the atmospheric river event.
instruments on May 18 by the MODIS images © NASA
Aqua satellite and on July 1 by
Terra a few days after the storm.

The third image was acquired

on July 1 by the Enhanced
Thematic Imager+ on Landsat 7.

The discoloured water offshore,

which extends more than
50 kilometres in some areas,
is sediment that ran off the
hillsides and downriver.

Atmospheric rivers can stretch

tens to hundreds of kilometres
in width, and can carry an
amount of water vapour
equivalent to 7.5 to 15 times
the flow at the mouth of the
Mississippi River.

These weather systems are

essentially jet streams of
moist air. They often occur
Sediment flowing from the Rio Itata as imaged by Landsat 7 on July 1.
off the west coast of North Image: USGS / NASA
America, sending soaking rain
into California, Oregon, and According to Garreaud, the early colleagues study how such outflows
Washington. In subtropical winter rainfall increased discharge of nutrients promote and sustain
Chile, atmospheric rivers on some rivers by ten-fold, carrying phytoplankton blooms in the
contribute 45 to 60 percent of nutrient-rich sediments into southern winter.
the annual precipitation, most the coastal zone. Garreaud and
of it in the winter rainy season
(June to September), according NASA Earth Observatory images by Lauren Dauphin and Joshua Stevens, using Landsat data from
to a 2018 research paper. the U.S. Geological Survey and MODIS data from NASA EOSDIS/LANCE and GIBS/Worldview.
Story by Mike Carlowicz.

www.geo-web.org.uk 11
 Northern Italy at Night
European Space Agency

Everyone is used to living with smarter Researchers have devised a method Cities at Night
devices. But imagine living in a smart to assess the environmental impact http://citiesatnight.org/
city where everything from public of artificial light on humans, animals,
transport to city lamps is efficient and and the surrounding environment is an online platform that invites
sustainable. This night time image of using one of the few sources of citizens to flip through the half a
northern Italy from Earth orbit is one publicly-accessible night images of million photographs of Earth at night
of the ways space is paving the way Earth in colour: pictures taken by the taken so far by astronauts from the
for cities to get smarter. astronauts aboard the International Space Station to identify cities. The
Space Station. end result of Cities at Night will be
Doorbells, refrigerators and a map of Earth that is accessible to
toothbrushes are everyday City lights are disruptive not only anyone.
devices that are now controllable, for the lives of nocturnal animals,
customisable and designed to make who suffer from disorientation Researchers want to use the map to
your life run more efficiently by and behavioural and physiological locate energy inefficiencies in urban
collecting and relaying data using changes, but also for people. An cities to urge dimming of the lights. A
telecommunications satellites. excess of artificial light before bedtime case in point is the city of Milan, which
reduces melatonin production, replaced its orange sodium lamps with
Other space technology is helping a hormone linked to sleep. This white LEDs. Comparisons of Milan
to collect valuable data that can suppression can lead to negative from night as seen from space before
result in larger scale changes for effects on our health, including breast and after this change has shown that
cities. Take one of humankind’s and prostate cancer. the white light is worse for the local
greatest achievement in space so environment.
far, the International Space Station. In addition, street lights account for
Astronauts routinely snap photos of a large chunk of a country’s energy The data retrieved from these images
Earth from this orbital outpost, like this consumption. As the world grapples is vital for the drawing up of risk maps
one of northern Italy, taken by ESA with climate change and cleaner for artificial lighting that can help to
astronaut Luca Parmitano during his sources of energy, how that energy is guide city officials in these types of
2013 mission, provide vital data about put to use is a bright topic. decisions. And that’s just smart.
city efficiency and sustainability. Copyright ESA/NASA

12 www.geo-web.org.uk
 Apollo 11 Launchpad
European Space Agency

Copyright: contains modified Copernicus Sentinel data (2019), processed by ESA, CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO

Celebrating 50 years since Apollo 11 blasted off A few minutes later he was joined by Buzz Aldrin.
with the first humans that would walk on the Moon, They took photographs, planted the US flag, spoke
Copernicus Sentinel-2 captures the historic launch to President Richard Nixon via radio transmission
site at Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral, and spent a couple of hours walking and collecting
Florida, US. dust and rocks. The two men returned to the lunar
module, slept that night on the surface of the moon:
On 16 July 1969, the Saturn‑V rocket carrying then Eagle began its ascent back to rejoin the
Apollo 11 began its momentous voyage to the Moon. command module, which had been orbiting the Moon
It lifted off from launch pad 39A—which can be seen with Michael Collins. Apollo splashed back down
in this image acquired on January 29, 2019. Launch safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24.
pad 39A is the second pad down from the top (the
launch pad at the far top is 39B). The Moon has again captured the attention of
space agencies. ESA and international partners
The crew—Neil Armstrong, mission commander, are now looking forward to the next era of human
Michael Collins, command module pilot and Edwin exploration, and to understand better the resources
‘Buzz’ Aldrin, lunar module pilot—were embarking available on the Moon to support human missions
on a milestone in human history. longer-term. While Apollo 1 touched down for the
first time on the near side of the Moon 50 years ago,
Just four days later, the lunar module, Eagle, it is time to explore the far side, examine different
touched down. Watched on television by millions types of lunar rocks there, to probe deeper into
around the world, Neil Armstrong was the first to set the Moon’s geological history and to find resources
foot on the Moon, famously saying, ‘That’s one small like water-ice that are thought to be locked up in
step for man, one giant leap for mankind.’ permanently shadowed craters near the Moon’s
south pole.

www.geo-web.org.uk 13
 Raikoke Erupts
NASA Earth Observatory
Story by Adam Voiland, with information from Erik Klemetti (Denison University),
Simon Carn (Michigan Tech), and Andrew Prata (Barcelona Supercomputing Center).

Unlike some of its perpetually active neighbours on

the Kamchatka Peninsula, Raikoke Volcano on the
Kuril Islands rarely erupts. The small, oval-shaped
island most recently exploded in 1924 and in 1778.
The dormant period ended around 4 am local time
on June 22, 2019, when a vast plume of ash and
volcanic gases shot up from its 700-metre-wide
crater. Several satellites—as well as astronauts on
the International Space Station—observed as a thick
plume rose and then streamed east as it was pulled
into the circulation of a storm in the North Pacific.

On the morning of June 22, astronauts shot figure 1,

showing the volcanic plume rising in a narrow
column and then spreading out in an the umbrella
region; the area where the density of the plume and
the surrounding air equalise and the plume stops
rising. The ring of clouds at the base of the column
appears to be water vapour.

‘What a spectacular image. It reminds me of the

classic Sarychev Peak astronaut photograph of an
eruption in the Kuriles from about ten years ago,’
stated Simon Carn, a volcanologist at Michigan Tech.
‘The ring of white puffy clouds at the base of the
column might be a sign of ambient air being drawn
into the column and the condensation of water vapour.
Or it could be a rising plume from interaction between
magma and seawater because Raikoke is a small
island and flows likely entered the water.’

The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

(MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite acquired the image
in figure 2 on the morning of June 22. At that time, Figure 1 - Raikoke erupts, viewed from the ISS
the most concentrated ash was on the western edge Astronaut photograph ISS059-E-119250 is provided by the ISS
Crew Earth Observations Facility and the Earth Science and
of the plume, above Raikoke. Figure 3, an oblique, Remote Sensing Unit, Johnson Space Center. The image was
composite view based on data from the Visible taken by a member of the Expedition 59 crew.
Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on Suomi
NPP, shows the plume a few hours later. After an
initial surge of activity that included several distinct Raikoke produced a concentrated plume of sulphur
explosive pulses, activity subsided and strong winds dioxide (SO2) that separated from the ash and
spread the ash across the Pacific. By the next day, swirled throughout the North Pacific as the plume
just a faint remnant of the ash remained visible to interacted with the storm.
MODIS.
‘Radiosonde data from the region indicate a
Since ash contains sharp fragments of rock and tropopause altitude of about 11 kilometres, so
volcanic glass, it poses a serious hazard to aircraft. altitudes of 13 to 17 kilometres suggest that the
The Tokyo and Anchorage Volcanic Ash Advisory eruption cloud is mostly in the stratosphere,’ said
Centers tracked the plume closely and issued several Carn. ‘The persistence of large SO2 amounts over the
notes to aviators indicating that ash had reached an last two days also indicates stratospheric injection.’
altitude of 13 kilometres. Meanwhile, data from the
CALIPSO satellite indicated that parts of the plume Volcanologists watch closely for plumes that
might have reached as high as 17 kilometres. reach the stratosphere because they tend to stay
aloft for longer than those that remain within the
In addition to tracking ash, satellite sensors can also troposphere. That is why plumes that reach the
track the movements of volcanic gases. In this case, stratosphere typically have the greatest effects on
aviation and climate.

14 www.geo-web.org.uk
 Figure 2 Figure 3
NASA Earth Observatory image by Joshua Stevens, using MODIS NASA Earth Observatory image by Joshua Stevens, using VIIRS
data from NASA EOSDIS/LANCE and GIBS/Worldview data from the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership

Deciphering the Maud Rise Polynya

NASA Earth Observatory
Story by Kathryn Hansen

By the end of austral winter, the seas around contrast, open-ocean polynyas like the one near
Antarctica are blanketed with up to 18 million Maud Rise grow amid the ice far from shore. This
square kilometres of ice—an area about twice the type of polynya is somewhat more complex, with
size of the continental United States. But that vast circulation in the atmosphere and ocean both
span of ice is not always continuous. Cracks can playing a role in creating and sustaining them.
open up and expose the seawater below. These openings can be large and long-lived.

Sometimes, state-sized areas of ice go missing The Maud Rise polynya—named for the
from the middle of the ice pack. This phenomenon submerged mountain-like feature over which
is known as a polynya, and scientists have been it grows—routinely occurs in early spring and
investigating these features for decades. The occasionally in winter. According to Joey Comiso,
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer an emeritus scientist at NASA’s Goddard Space
(MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite acquired these Flight Center, the shape of the sea floor ‘causes
images of the Maud Rise polynya in the eastern the ocean current driven by the Weddell Gyre to
Weddell Sea on September 25, 2017. Figure 1 is bring warm water up to the upper layer of the
natural colour and Figure 2 is in false colour to ocean and causes the sea ice to melt.’
afford better differentiation between areas of ice
(blue) and clouds (white). In winter 2017, the Maud Rise polynya was
especially large, growing from 9,500 km2 in mid-
Coastal polynyas form when strong offshore September to about 80,000 km2 by late October
winds move sea ice away from the continent. In (nearly the same size as South Carolina). The
continued overleaf
www.geo-web.org.uk 15
polynya was among largest in this
area since the famous Weddell
polynyas that formed in 1974, 1975,
and 1976, which reached areas
larger than the size of California.

How polynyas can form, grow,

and persist during Antarctica’s
cold winter has long been a
topic of investigation. Recent
research points toward strong
cyclonic winds—some as strong as
hurricanes—as the trigger for open-
ocean polynyas. Diana Francis, a
scientist at New York University
Abu Dhabi and leader of that study,
explained that cyclonic winds ‘drag
the floating sea ice in opposite
directions around the cyclone centre,
creating the opening.’

In some winters, atmospheric

circulation moves a significant
amount of heat and moisture from
mid-latitudes to Antarctica, allowing
large cyclones to develop over the
sea ice. For example, a cyclone
passed over the sea ice in winter Figure 1 - The Maude Rise polynya, imaged on September 25, 2017 by NASA’s Terra satellite
2016 before a small, short-lived NASA Earth Observatory images by Lauren Dauphin,
using MODIS data from NASA EOSDIS/LANCE and GIBS/Worldview
polynya formed.

Compared to 2016, the movement

of heat was stronger and more
consistent in 2017, according to
Francis. ‘The result was more
frequent and intense cyclones,
making the 2017 event bigger and
keeping the polynya open for a
longer period.’

Comiso agrees that the atmosphere

plays an important role, especially
in initiating polynyas. ‘But the
oceanographic contribution is just as
important in sustaining the polynya,’
he said.

Indeed, conditions in the ocean

and atmosphere most likely work
together. ‘I think the atmospheric
conditions play the role of the
trigger for the initial opening,’ stated
Francis. ‘Once the area is free of
ice, ocean dynamics bring warmer
water near the surface and prevent
the formation of new ice and sustain
the polynya over longer period of
time. Satellite images are a powerful
tool to help us understand such a
complex system where interactions
between atmosphere-ice-ocean take Figure 2 - The Maude Rise polynya, imaged on September 25, 2017 by NASA’s Terra satellite
on full meaning.’ NASA Earth Observatory images by Lauren Dauphin,
using MODIS data from NASA EOSDIS/LANCE and GIBS/Worldview

16 www.geo-web.org.uk
Norbert Pütz acquired this splendid Meteor M2-2 image of the Black Sea at 13.57 Ut on July 27, 2019

www.geo-web.org.uk 17
 André T’Kindt captured this evening APT image from NOAA 18 at 21:59 UT on July 25, 2019. It graphically illustrates
the rash of powerful thunderstorms that erupted over Europe in the wake of record-breaking heatwave temperatures.

18 www.geo-web.org.uk
This is another NOAA 18 APT image sent in by André T’Kindt. Acquired on August 16, 2019, it
depicts a weather front that brought intensive rainfall over most of the British Isles.

www.geo-web.org.uk 19
 Okjökull Remembered
NASA Earth Observatory

The glacier atop Iceland’s Okjökull

volcano was declared dead in
2014. Satellite images show the
latter stages of its decline.

On August 18, 2019, scientists will

be among those who gather for a
memorial atop Okjökull volcano in
west-central Iceland. The deceased
being remembered is Okjökull—a
once-iconic glacier that has melted
away throughout the 20th century and
was declared dead in 2014.

A geological map from 1901

estimated Okjökull spanned an
area of about 38 square kilometres
(15 square miles). In 1978, aerial
photography showed the glacier was
3 square kilometres. Today, less
than 1 square kilometre remains. Okjökull glacier, pictured during the latter part of its decline, on
September 14, 1986 by Landsat 5’s Thematic Mapper.
The satellite images above show
the glacier during the latter part of
its decline, on September 7, 1986,
(top) and August 1, 2019 (bottom).
The images were acquired with the
Thematic Mapper (TM) on Landsat
5, and the Operational Land Imager
(OLI) on Landsat 8, respectively.

The dome-shaped glacier appears

in the 1986 image as a solid-white
patch, just north of the snow-filled
crater. Snow is also visible around
the glacier’s edges. In the August
2019 image, only a spattering of thin
ice patches remain. Notice the areas
of blue meltwater, which are likely
associated with the mass of warm
air that hit Iceland as it moved from
mainland Europe to Greenland in late
July.
Okjökull glacier, pictured during the latter part of its decline, on
August 1, 2019 by Landsat 8’s Operational Land Imager
The glacier’s demise is not just a
matter of shrinking area. Glaciers Langjökull group—one of Iceland’s before, although perhaps none
form from snow that becomes eight regional groupings of glaciers. as ceremoniously as Okjökull.
compacted into ice over time. The Ice covers about 10 percent of the Anthropologists from Rice University
ice then creeps downslope under island, making it an integral part of produced a film about the glacier’s
its own weight, helped along by the landscape. Loss of glacial ice demise, and a plaque is set to be
gravity. Okjökull has thinned so much, has wide-ranging effects, with the installed on the site of the former
however, that it no longer has enough potential to impact water resources, glacier.
mass to flow. According to some infrastructure, and even the rising of
definitions, a stagnant glacier is a the land as it rebounds under a lighter
dead glacier. load of ice. NASA Earth Observatory images by Joshua
Stevens, using Landsat data from the U.S.
Geological Survey.
Okjökull, also called Ok (jökull is Scientists have noted that glaciers Story by Kathryn Hansen.
Icelandic for “glacier”), was part of the have disappeared from Iceland
20 www.geo-web.org.uk
20
 This is another Meteor M2-2 image sent in by Norbert Pütz, one that he described as his best ever.
It was received on August 2 this year using a Russian style inverted V-antenna, pre amp and FUN Cube Pro+ dongle.

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22 www.geo-web.org.uk
 André T’Kindt provided us with this almost surreal but beautiful WXtoImg HVC image—with precipitation overlay—that he
created from the 17.59 UT pass of NOAA 19 on August 12, 2019. Glint from the setting sun is evident on the still waters of the
Bay of Biscay while a band of intense rainfall, with thunderstorms, crosses the British Isles.

www.geo-web.org.uk 23