Type of Substructure In High Rise Building CE-6115 - Tall Building

Introduction
A building or edifice is a man-made structure with a roof and walls standing more or less
permanently in one place, such as a house or factory.[1] Buildings come in a variety of shapes, sizes
and functions, and have been adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors,
from building materials available, to weather conditions, to land prices, ground conditions, specific
uses and aesthetic reasons. To better understand the term building compares the list of non building
structures.
Buildings serve several needs of society – primarily as shelter from weather, security, living space,
privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A building as a shelter represents a
physical division of the human habitat (a place of comfort and safety) and the outside (a place that
at times may be harsh and harmful).
The lowest artificially built the lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmits the load
of the structure to the soil lying underneath is called foundation. Types of sub-structure are

(i) Substructure or foundations

(ii) Superstructure.

Sub-structure or Foundation is the lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground
level, which transmits the loads of the super-structure to the supporting soil. A foundation is
therefore that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are
transmitted.

Super-structure is that part of the structure which is above ground level, and which serves the
purpose of its intended use. A part of the super-structure, located between the ground level and (he
floor level is known as plinth.

Plinth is therefore defined as the portion of the structure between the surface of the surrounding
ground and surface of the floor, immediately above the ground. The level of the floor is usually
known as the plinth level. The built-up covered area measured al the floor level is known as plinth
area.

Type of Foundation:

1) Shallow Foundations
Shallow Foundations are those which transfer the load to the soil at a level close to the lowest floor
of the building. This type of foundation includes:
1.1 Strip footings and pads
 Wide strip foundation
 Isolated column foundations
 Continuous column foundation
 Cantilever foundation
 Balance base foundation
1.2 Raft foundations:
 Solid slab raft
 Beam and slab raft
 Cellular raft

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2) Deep Foundations
Include piles and various types of piers which transfer their load to the soil at a considerable
distance below the underside of the structure.
Unless conditions make the use of deep foundations essential, shallow foundations are used as these
invariably are the most economic. An exception is possibly the use of short bored or short driven
piles instead of a strip foundation in shrinkable clays.

Column Pad & Column Reinforcement

Columns are next built on top of the bases. These will be reinforced to counteract bending,
shearing and direct compression failure.

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Shallow Foundations: Strip Foundations & Pads

Isolated Column Foundations:

This is the most common type of spread foundation use in framed structures and usually takes the
form of a reinforced concrete pad.
• The plan area is dependent of the soil strength.
• The thickness is dependent on the column loading.
• The upper surface can be flat, stepped or sloping.
• The reinforcing is placed to compensate for the low tensile strength of the concrete

Continuous Strip Foundations:

Strip footings are placed under a continuous wall carrying a uniformly distributed load. The required
area is related to the imposed load and the bearing capacity of the soil. The strip footing may be
stepped on a sloping site to minimize trenches and the amount of walling in the soil.

Continuous Column Foundations:

This form of foundation supports a line of columns instead of a continuous wall. Such a footing

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would be more substantial in cross sectional area than a strip footing, as it has to resist transverse and
longitudinal bending due to the beam action between the columns. It may be used where loadings are
very heavy and the use of isolated pads would be such that they would be uneconomically close
together. Alternatively, continuous column foundations may be employed where restrictions exist on
the spread of the slab foundation at right angles to a line.

Combined foundations
These are less common spread type foundations and are designed to overcome particular restrictions,
such as near site boundaries.

Balanced foundation
To minimize the overturning moment when a
column is eccentrically placed on its isolated
foundation pad the foundation pad may be
directly tied to another isolated foundation pad.

Cantilever Foundation

When an obstruction at the column position

prevents an adequate foundation being placed
directly under the column, a cantilever
foundation is used. For example, when the
column is close to the wall to the wall of an

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adjoining building , or when a sewer passes within 1 m of a column. These consist of a ground beam
cantilevering a short distance beyond the base of the obstructed column to an isolated pad, which is
also tied by the ground beam (tie beam) to another column and isolated foundation pad.

Raft foundations
A raft foundation is fundamentally a large combined foundation that covers the whole or a large part
of the building site. It may be used when the weak soil strata exist to a depth beyond where the use of
piles would be economic. Under such conditions, alternative treatments to the soil (such as vibration
compaction of sandy soils) may yield an acceptable bearing capacity for a large raft foundation.
Design considerations include how flexible or rigid to make the raft, as well as the design of
drainage and service pipes passing through the raft.
Raft types are:
• Solid slab
• Beam and slab
• Cellular raft
The solid slab would generally be used for lightweight
structures. Often the slab would be ringed with a
perimeter downstand beam to limit the weathering of
the soil under the perimeter of the raft. As the loads
increase design factors would favour the use of an
inverted floor consisting of beam and slab. Where
stresses on the raft are high and when great rigidity is
required necessitating very deep beams then a cellular
type raft structure may be economic.

Solid Slab Raft Foundation

This type of raft consists of a solid slab of concrete
reinforced in both directions. The perimeter of the
foundation and any load bearing areas of the slab are
thickened and more reinforcing added.

Beam and Slab Raft

When loading or requirements of rigidity necessitate a
slab thickness greater than about 300mm it may be more
economical to use a beam and slab construction. This
may be visualised as a floor slab bearing directly on the
ground and the beams projecting above it. The slab on
the bottom of the beams, which will be in the
compression zones of the negative bending moment
between the beams.
On sites where the weak strata is overlaid by a thin layer
Of comparatively stiff soil at building level, economy in
construction could be effected by placing the beams
below the floor slab rather than above. The beams could
then be cast in excavated trenches without the use of

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shuttering and the necessity of a sub floor would be avoided.

Cellular Raft
When stresses in the raft are high and particularly when great rigidity is required, the beams
must be deep and when the overall depth is likely to exceed 900mm a cellular form of
construction is adopted.
This consists of top and bottom slabs with edge and intermediate beams in both directions
forming a hollow cellular raft.
When such a raft is extensive in area and great rigidity is required the depth may be
as much as a full basement storey using reinforced concrete cross walls with monolithic
floors.

Deep Foundations

Pile Foundations
Piles are long slender structural elements that transfer loads to bearing ground by means of pile
"columns" on which the building rests. Piles are used to transmit the loads though soft soils,
reclaimed or backfilled material to a more stable layer present at a deeper level. The surrounding
soil also provides lateral restraint to the pile column, thus preventing sideways movement of the
building. The main components of this foundation system are a range of pile types and the pile
caps. In most all cases, the choice between using conventional strips or pads and adopting a piling
solution will be fairly obvious.
Piles will normally be adopted:
 In deep deposits of soft or compressible soils, especially if loading is uneven.
 Where a firm bearing does exist, but at such a depth as to make conventional footings
uneconomical (that is at depths of 3 - 4.5m).
 Work in or over water, when pumping would be costly or difficult
 In shrinkable clay soils, as a means of founding below the zone of seasonal moisture
change in the soil.
The main types of materials used for piles are timber, steel and concrete. Piles made from these
materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and connected to pile caps. A detailed
analysis of soil, load transmitting, costs will establish the preferred system.
As with other types of foundations, the purpose of pile foundations is:
 to transmit a foundation load to a solid ground
 to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load
Further, a cost estimate will confirm when piling is more cost effective than, say, ground
improvement or stabilisation costs.
In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that the bearing capacity of the shallow soil will not
be satisfactory, and the construction should be built on pile foundations.

Pile Types

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There are two methods of classifying piles:

• by the way in which they transmit their load to the ground; and
• by the way in which they are installed.

Classification by Method of Load Transmission

The load of a structure may be transmitted to the ground by:
• End Bearing Piles, or
• Friction Piles.

Classification by Method of Installation

The Method of Installation Are:
• Displacement Piles, or
• Replacement Piles.

Types of Piles (by Method of Load Transmission):

Friction & Bearing Piles

Under this classification system the installation method is immaterial
and thus may include both displacement and replacement methods. Thus
these of piles may be bored, reinforced in- situ concrete piles or driven
timber or proprietary precast concrete or steel piles (or even standard
steel Universal Columns. All steel reinforcing in concrete piles is tied
into the pile cap to ensure that the entire foundation acts as one.
Bored piles are usually end bearing: they carry the load through the
softer upper stratum and transfer it to a firm stratum on which the ends
of the piles rest. However, the large majority of piles carry loads by a
combination of friction and end bearing.

Friction Piles (Cohesion piles)

These transfer their loads to the surrounding soil by means of friction
between their surfaces and soil, there is always some end bearing.

End Bearing Plies (Point Bearing piles)

These carry their loads through weaker strata down to firm bearing, as columns with lateral support
horn the soil through which they pass.

Types of Piles (by method of installation) :

Displacement piles and Replacement piles

Driven Piles (Displacement)

Driven preformed piles include:
• Steel H Piles.
• Steel Tube Piles.

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• Timber Piles.
• Pre-stressed concrete Piles.
• Hollow Spun concrete Piles.

Mat with Piles

The two reinforced concrete cellular ribbed mats described in this paper were used as solution for
the foundations of two seismic resistant reinforced concrete tall buildings built in heavy seismic
zones of Venezuela. Both structures were designed by the author to withstand the seismic provisions
prescribed by Venezuelan Seismic Regulations [1]. In both cases, mats were selected as foundation
system for those buildings, as the best choice to accomplish their structural design with resistant soil
conditions, dynamic responses and economical advantages. Built buildings are shown in Fig. 1 and
Fig. 2. Other foundation solutions were also studied, but mats resulted the most advantageous. Lines
of resistance of both buildings are reinforced concrete seismic resistant ductile frames placed
regularly in two orthogonal directions. Structural system of resistant frames resists gravity and
seismic loads acting on both structures.

F Fig 1. View of Building 80 meters height Fig.2.ViewofBuilding 60 meters high.

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Building’s cellular ribbed mats of both buildings were executed as it is usual for this kind of structural
element: 1) by placing a bottom reinforced concrete solid slab in direct contact with the resistant soil
stratum; 2) using reinforced concrete rectangular stiff ribs, orthogonaly placed in plan, forming an
horizontal grid, whose axis corresponds to the structure upper axis in which are placed the resistant
frames, (ribs were put inverted in these cases in order to set the bottom slab directly against the ground
on a horizontal plane); and 3) by placing the upper reinforced concrete slab, supported on top of the
inverted ribs, slab which in turn forms the lower floor basement of the building. These components
made the mats stiff enough, giving excellent structural behavior and support to buildings. Vertical axis
of building column’s coincides and are placed at the intersections of horizontal mat ribs axis.

MAT BUILT EXAMPLES

First example. Rectangular Mat. Building 80 meters high.
Corresponds to the 80 meter high building shown in Fig. 1. It has a
reinforced concrete seismic resistant structure, founded on a
rectangular cellular ribbed mat of 21.60 x 50.75 meters. Bottom
slab in direct contact with soil resistant stratum is 55 centimeters
thick. Stiff inverted rectangular ribs of 2.50 meters wide by 2.60
meters high were placed in a rectangular grid with panels of 8.10
by 9.07 meters, dimensions which corresponds to the separation
between structure’s upper axis of the seismic resistant ductile
frames. In Fig. 3. it is shown the schematic mat plan, and Fig. 4.
shows its transverse section. Note in this figure the place and
shape defined for the inverted rib construction joints. Building
built in the 80's has overcame minor and medium earthquakes
events without any damages, it is located in Barquisimeto,
Venezuela, city of intense seismic activity.

8'-6

Fig. 4. Section of rectangular mat. Building 80 meters high.

Second example. Square Mat. Building 60 meters high.
Corresponds to the 60 meters high building shown in Fig. 2. It has a reinforced concrete seismic
resistant structure, founded on an almost square cellular ribbed mat of 47.40 by 45.40 meters. Bottom
slab in direct contact with soil resistant stratum is 60 centimeters thick. Stiff inverted rectangular ribs
of 2.75 meters wide by 3.50 meters high, were placed in a square grid with panels of 10.60 by 10.60
meters, dimensions which corresponds to the separation between structure’s upper axis of the seismic
resistant ductile frames. In Fig. 5. it is shown the schematic mat plan and Fig. 6. shows its section. In
this mat, some of the interior spaces (voids) between ribs and slabs were used as storage water tanks
needed for the building operation.

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Fig. 6. Section of square mat. Building 60 meters high.

The analysis of both mats were carried out assuming linear distribution of the soil reaction pressure,
assumption justified in both cases by the high value of the soil coefficient of sub-grade reaction (soil
reaction modulus) of more than 20,000 metric ton per cubic meter (1250 kips per cubic foot) and by
the mat’s structural stiffness. According to the procedure suggested by ACI Committee 436 (1966)
[2], the value of “A,”, as defined by the Formula Number 6 of that procedure, resulted in both cases
larger enough than needed. Due to these structural properties, mat behavior in both building examples,
were considered for analysis as rigid in both directions.

Structural Analysis
Conditions of equilibrium and geometrical compatibility of the entire mat were taken into
consideration by means of a mathematical model that represented the grid formed by the orthogonal
inverted ribs supported at their points of intersections with column vertical axes. Model considered
full structural interaction in both directions between orthogonal stiff ribs.
To work out forces for design grid elements, the spans of the inverted ribs were loaded with an
upward load equivalent to the tributary load on the panels that results when 45° diagonal lines are
drawn in the horizontal plane from column centers at each panel, rectangular or square, between ribs.
By this way, upward soil reaction load has a triangular or trapezoidal shape, whose maximum value is
equal to the product of the height of the triangular or trapezoidal tributary load times the soil unitary
upward reaction.

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Basic Structural concept used for design

In the structural analysis some of the upward reactions of the grid at some of its nodes, resulted larger than
column downward loads; meaning that the assumptions made for grid support at column axis, were valid for
these nodes, but insufficient grid support were provided, at nodes where the upward reactions of the grid
resulted lower than the downward loads of columns.

Fig. 7. Reinforcing steel of rectangular mat. Fig 8. Detail of inverted

shear-key joint.

Structural Compatibility
In order to account for insufficient support at nodes where the grid upward reaction were lower than
downward column loads, a new grid analysis was made, assuming the mat grid supported only at nodes where
the grid upward reactions were equal or larger than the column downward loads. Each of the nodes with
insufficient grid support was loaded with a load equal to the difference in that node, between the bigger
downward load of column, and the lower upward reaction of grid. No other loads were considered in this
compatibility analysis. Design forces for ribs placed at corners of the mat were particularly influenced by the
result of this compatibility analysis. Structural components of the mats were designed for the superposition of
the results of the two analysis described.

Nominal Pressures on the Soil. Rectangular Mat. Building 80 meters high.

The total weight of the building of first example -rectangular mat- is about 29,100 metric tons (64,100 kips),
being the weight of the mat itself about 4,400 metric tons (9,698 kips). With this values the nominal uniform
pressure transmitted to the soil is 30.56 metric tons per square meter (44 psi). When seismic actions are
considered in transverse direction of the mat (shortest dimension), the nominal uniform pressure caused by
the action of vertical loads changes to a maximum nominal pressure of 42.78 metric tons per square meter (61
psi) in one side of the mat, and to a minimum of 18.34 metric tons per square meter (26 psi) in the other side.
Nominal Pressures on the Soil. Square Mat. Building 60 meters high.
Nominal pressures on the soil exerted by building of the second example -square mat- resulted of the same
order of magnitude that the pressures exerted by the building’s mat of the first example.
Economic Considerations
When structural and soil properties permit the use of a mat instead of groups of high capacity piles as
possible alternatives for foundations of seismic resistant tall buildings, the selection becomes a matter of
economical advantages offered by each solution. Cost of caps, tie-beams and slabs needed for foundations
Seismic
integrated Design equals
by piles, of Cast-in-Place Concrete Diaphragms,
approximately the costChords,
of anand Collectors: Aribbed
equivalent Guide format.
Practicing Engineers
In few words, the reinforced
11
concrete elements of the two alternative solutions cost more or less the same. Differences which make mats
economically favorable in many cases arise from the cost of the high capacity piles.
 Types of Substructure In High Rise Building CE-6115 - Tall Building

Fig. 9. Construction advancement rectangular mat. Note inverted shear-key

joints. Building 80 meters high.

Fig. 10. Construction advancement square mat. Note inverted shear-key joints.
Building 60 meters high.

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Diaphragms in Structure
Building structures generally comprise a three-dimensional framework of structural elements
configured to support gravity and lateral loads. Although the complete three-dimensional system acts
integrally to resist loads, we commonly conceive of the seismic force-resisting system as being
composed of vertical elements, horizontal elements, and the foundation (Figure 1-1). The vertical
elements extend between the foundation and the elevated levels, providing a continuous load path to
transmit gravity and seismic forces from the upper levels to the foundation. The horizontal elements
typically consist of diaphragms, including collectors. Diaphragms transmit inertial forces from the
floor system to the vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting system. They also tie the vertical
elements together and thereby stabilize and transmit forces among these elements as may be required
during earthquake shaking. Diaphragms are thus an essential part of the seismic force-resisting
system and require design attention by the structural engineer to ensure the structural system
performs adequately during earthquake shaking.

diaphra
gms

momen
t-
resistin
g
frame
gravity
frame
founda
tion

Figure 1-1 - Isometric view of a basic building structural system comprising

horizontal spanning elements (diaphragms), vertical spanning elements (walls
and frames), and foundation.
required to be designed as part of the seismic force-resisting system of every new building assigned
to Seismic Design Category B, C, D, E, or F of the International Building Code (IBC 2009, referred
to here as the IBC). Although horizontal elements can consist of truss elements or horizontal
diagonal bracing, in most cases diaphragms are constructed as essentially solid, planar elements
made of wood, steel, concrete, or combinations of these. Concrete diaphragms can be conventionally
reinforced or prestressed, and can be cast-in-place concrete, topping slabs on metal deck or precast
concrete, or interconnected precast concrete without topping, though the last system is seldom used
in structures assigned to Seismic Design Categories D, E, or F. The scope of this Guide is restricted
to cast-in-place concrete diaphragms, either conventionally reinforced or prestressed. However,
many of the concepts that are presented here apply equally to other diaphragm types.
The design requirements for concrete diaphragms are contained in the IBC, which establishes
general regulations for buildings, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures
(ASCE/SEI7-10) (ASCE 2010, referred to here as ASCE 7), which focuses on determination of
design forces, and Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI318-08) and
Commentary (ACI 2008, referred to here as ACI 318), which focuses on proportioning and detailing
requirements. In this Guide we refer to these editions, even though some of them may not be adopted

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in all jurisdictions, and some may refer to earlier editions of the other codes. In general, these three
documents are well coordinated regarding terminology, system definition, application limitations,
and overall approach.
By comparison with requirements for vertical elements of the seismic-force-resisting system, code
provisions for diaphragms are relatively brief. Consequently, many aspects of diaphragm
design are left open to interpretation and engineering judgment. The writers of this Guide consulted
widely with code writers and practicing engineers to gather a range of good practices applicable to
common diaphragm design conditions.
This Guide was written for practicing structural engineers to assist in their understanding and
application of code requirements for the design of cast-in-place concrete diaphragms. The material is
presented in a sequence that practicing engineers have found useful, with general principles
presented first, followed by detailed design requirements. Although this Guide is intended especially
for the practicing structural engineer, it will also be useful for building officials, educators, and
students.

The Roles of Diaphragms

Diaphragms serve multiple roles to resist gravity and lateral forces in buildings. Figure 2-1 illustrates
several of these roles for a building with a podium level at grade and with below- grade levels. The
main roles include:
• Resist gravity loads - Most diaphragms are part of the floor and roof framing and therefore
support gravity loads.
• Provide lateral support to vertical elements - Diaphragms connect to vertical elements of the
seismic force-resisting system at each floor level, thereby providing lateral support to resist
buckling as well as second-order forces associated with axial forces acting through lateral
displacements. Furthermore, by tying together the vertical elements of the lateral force-resisting
system, the diaphragms complete the three-dimensional framework to resist lateral loads.
• Resist out-of-plane forces -
Exterior walls and cladding
develop out-of-plane lateral
inertial forces as a building
responds to an earthquake.
Out-of-plane forces also
develop due to wind pressure
acting on exposed wall
surfaces. The diaphragm-to-
wall connections provide
resistance to these out-of-
plane forces.
• Resist thrust from inclined
columns - Architectural
configurations sometimes
require inclined columns,
which can result in large
horizontal thrusts, acting
within the plane of the

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diaphragms, due to gravity and overturning actions.

The thrusts can act either in tension or compression, depending on orientation of the column and
whether it is in compression or tension. The diaphragm or components within it need to be
designed to resist these thrusts.
Transfer lateral inertial forces to vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting system - The floor
system commonly comprises most of the mass of the building. Consequently, significant inertial
forces can develop in the plane of the diaphragm. One of the primary roles of the diaphragm in
earthquake-resistant buildings is to transfer these lateral inertial forces, including those due to
tributary portions of walls and columns, to the vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting
system.
Transfer forces through the diaphragm - As a building responds to earthquake loading, lateral shears
often must be transferred from one vertical element of the seismic force-resisting system to another.
The largest transfers commonly occur at discontinuities in the vertical elements, including in-plane
and out-of-plane offsets in these elements. Figure 2-1 illustrates a common discontinuity at a podium
slab. The tendency is for a majority of the shear in the structural walls above grade to transfer out of
those walls, through the podium slab, and to the basement walls. Large diaphragm transfer forces
can occur in this case.
Support soil loads below grade - For buildings with subterranean levels, soil pressure bears against
the basement walls out-of-plane. The basement walls span between diaphragms, producing
compressive reaction forces at the edge of the diaphragms.

MODELS OF BUILDING ANALYSES

For building analyses under the rigid-floor assumption, master and slaved nodes are used (Bathe et
al. 1973; Ju 1997).
Each rigid floor contains a master node with three degrees of freedom at the mass center of the floor
to control the two inplane translations and one out-of-plane rotation of all the slaved nodes in this
rigid floor. The slaved nodes include three additional degrees of freedom-two in-plane rotations and
one out-of-plane translation. Thus, the total number of degrees of freedom is equal to three times the
total number of slaved nodes and master nodes in the mesh for a three-dimensional (3D) building
analysis. The numerical model of the masterslaved- node algorithm can be performed using a
constraint matrix (Ju 1997).
For building analyses under the flexible-floor assumption, each node contains six degrees of
freedom- three translations and three rotations. Thus, the number of degrees of freedom for the
flexible-floor mesh is about twice as large as that for the rigid-floor mesh. In addition to using 3D
beam elements to model the members in the building, four-node membrane elements with
incompatible modes (Cook et al. 1989) and plate elements (Clough and Felippa 1968) were used to
model the floor slabs. The membrane elements were also used to model the shear walls of the
buildings under the rigid- or flexible- floor assumption.
In the analysis of building structures, the stick model which has 3 in-plane DOF's per floor is usually
used in commercial software, such as ETABS, by applying the rigid diaphragm assumption. But if
the rigid diaphragm assumption is applied, the story shear forces in the basement may be
significantly overestimated since the flexibility of the floor systems is ignored.

1. EFFECT OF FLOOR SLABS ON SEISMIC RESPONSE

Plan types were analyzed with 5, 10 and 15 story structures. In order to emphasize the differences,
the gross section of the slab was used for slab stiffness in this comparison.

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Equivalent static analysis and response spectrum analysis were performed with the framed structures
and the shearwall structures to investigate the effect of floor slabs on seismic response. In these
analyses, two models were used for each plan type (frame and shearwall buildings). Model R uses
rigid diaphragms (conventional procedure) not including the flexural stiffness of slabs as shown.

1.1. Analyses of frame buildings

Dimensions frame buildings shown in figure. 1.1.1 are 23,48m in length and 10,06m in width with 5,
10, and 15 stories defined in Table 2.1. were analyzed. These buildings contain 8 by 3 column lines,
the height of story is 3.06m.
For each structure, the slabs were modeled using different methods: the rigid diaphragm method and,
the refined mesh method figure 1.1.2.

Figure 1.1.1 Plan view of frame buildings.

Figure 1.1.2 Rigid and flexible diaphragm of frame buildings.

(a) 5-story building

Floor Column size (cm) Beam size (cm) Slab (cm)
1-3 45x45 35x45 20
4-5 35x45 35x45 20
(b) 10-story building
Floor Column size (cm) Beam size (cm) Slab (cm)
1-3 60x60 35x45 20

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4-7 50x50 35x45 20

8-10 40x40 35x45 20
(c) 15-story building
Floor Column size (cm) Beam size (cm) Slab (cm)
1-4 70x70 35x45 20
5-8 60x60 35x45 20
9-12 50x50 35x45 20
13-15 40x40 35x45 20

1.2 Dynamic Response of Buildings and Diaphragms

From fundamental studies of structural dynamics (e.g., Chopra 2005) we know that the dynamic
response acceleration of an oscillator subjected to earthquake ground motion varies with time and
that the peak value will be a function of the vibration
period. The smooth design response spectrum of ASCE 7 (Figure 1-2.1) represents this period-
dependency.

Period, T (sec)
Figure 1-2.1 - ASCE 7 design response spectrum showing spectral response acceleration as a function of vibration
period.
In Figure 4-1, the term SDS represents the design spectral acceleration for short-period structures. The
peak ground acceleration, which is the spectral acceleration at T = 0, has a value of 0.4Sds. The ratio
of the peak response acceleration to the peak ground acceleration is called the response acceleration
magnification. Its value for short-period structures is 2.5 in this design spectrum.
The behavior of multi-story buildings is similar. Studies of
building responses (e.g., Shakal et al. 1995; Rodriguez et al. 2007) show response acceleration
magnification also is around 2.5 for buildings responding essentially elastically. For buildings
responding inelastically, a lower response acceleration magnification generally is obtained.
One important observation about multi-story buildings is that, because of higher-mode effects, the
different floors trace out different acceleration histories. Each floor should be designed to resist the
inertial force corresponding to the peak response acceleration for that floor. It would be overly
conservative to design the vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting system for the sum of all
the individual peaks, however, because each floor reaches its peak response at a different time during
the dynamic response. Thus, two different sets of design forces commonly are specified for design,
one for the design of the seismic-force resisting system and another for the diaphragms (Figure 1-
2.2):
One set of design forces, F, is applied to the design of the vertical elements of the seismic force-

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resisting
system.
A second set of design forces, Fx, is applied to the design of the diaphragms.

(a) Structure (b) Model (c) Forces for vertical (d) Forces for element design diaphragm design

Figure 1-2.2 - Design forces for vertical elements and diaphragms.

In addition to resisting inertial forces (tributary mass times floor acceleration), diaphragms also must
be able to transfer forces between different vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting system.
For example, frames and walls acting independently have different displacement profiles under
lateral loads; if interconnected by a diaphragm, the diaphragm develops internal forces as it imposes
displacement compatibility (Figure 1-2.3). Almost all buildings have force transfers of this type that
should be investigated and considered in design. Considering only diaphragm actions due to Fpx is,
in general, not sufficient.

(b) Frame and wall connected by

(a) Isolated frame and wall floor diaphragm
Figure 1-2.3 - Diaphragms develop transfer forces by imposing displacement compatibility between different
vertical elements of the seismic-force-resisting system.

Sometimes the largest diaphragm transfer forces are at offsets or discontinuities of the vertical
elements of the seismic force-resisting system. Figure 1-2.4 shows a common example involving
vertical discontinuities at (a) a setback in the building profile and (b) a podium level at grade. If the
diaphragm is modeled as a rigid element in a computer analysis of the building, unrealistically large
transfer forces might be calculated at the levels of the discontinuities.

locations, and sometimes for one or several floors below the discontinuity, modeling diaphragm
flexibility can produce
more realistic estimates of design forces in the diaphragms and the vertical elements.
A typical configuration in parking structures uses the diaphragm as parking surface and ramp, with
the diaphragm split longitudinally. Other considerations typically result in long distances between

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vertical elements of the seismic force- resisting system. Consequently, diaphragm segments tend to
be relatively long and narrow. Lateral deformations in these flexible diaphragms contribute to
dynamic response and can result in diaphragm displacements significantly exceeding displacements
of the vertical elements (Fleischman et al., 2002). Design of gravity columns needs to accommodate
the increased displacements. In addition, the inclined ramps can act as unintended diagonal braces
that interrupt intended framing action of the vertical elements and result in considerable axial load in
the diaphragm. Expansion joints can relieve this action if provided at every level. See SEAOC
(2009).
1.3 Intended and Observed behavior

One of the principles of earthquake-resistant design is to maintain a relatively stiff and damage-free
diaphragm that is capable of tying together the vertical elements of the seismic force-resisting
system. Thus, diaphragms are designed for essentially linear behavior; that is, minor nonlinearity
may be acceptable but significant inelastic response, if it occurs at all, will be restricted to the vertical
elements. To achieve this goal, seismic design of a diaphragm should clearly identify the load paths
to the vertical elements, and should aim to provide diaphragm strength along that load path at least
equal to the maximum force that can be developed by the vertical elements.
Design approaches for cast-in-place diaphragms have been relatively effective in limiting diaphragm
damage, with few
cases of observed damage following earthquakes. Some cases of fracture of diaphragm connections
to shear walls have been observed (Corley et al. 1996), leading to code changes for collector design.
Other types of concrete diaphragms, especially precast diaphragms with or without topping slabs,
require greater attention to proportions and details to achieve the goal of essentially elastic behavior.

Shear Wall
Shear Walls Shear walls are plane elements made up of reinforced concrete thin walls having
length and thickness providing lateral stiffness. The shear and overall flexural deformations are
design constraints, along with the stress levels, axial and bending. Concrete shear walls may be
cast in place or pre-cast. Precast panel walls are also used within a concrete or steel frame to
provide lateral resistance. The ductile shear walls used in earthquake resistant design have to be
detailed carefully. Coupling beams should have diagonal reinforcement to develop shear
resistance. Steel shear walls are also used sometimes, by connecting them to framework by
welding or high strength bolts. Masonry shear walls are also used, with solid walls and grouted
cavity masonry to carry shears and moments, with reinforcements encased.

Structural buckling depends on many factors and parameters, including those defining the
structural deformation characteristics, the structural geometry, the material properties, the
support and restraint conditions and the external load action. Thus, the appropriate selection of
mathematical model for structural buckling analysis should be made based on these factors and
parameters mentioned above. Full-scale measurements of buildings (e.g. [1–4]) have shown
that for a multi-story shear-wall building with narrow rectangular plane con- figuration (which
is called narrow building in this paper), e.g. B/L 1 4 , where B and L are the width and length
of the rectangular plane, respectively, a relative motion among transverse shear-walls is
parallel, since the main deformation of each floor in-plane is shear deformation, and a relative
motion among floors is not parallel, because the dominant deformation of shear-wall structures
is flexural deformation. Thus, the behavior of transverse deformation of a narrow building with

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shear-walls is similar to that of a cantilever flexural-shear plate. That is, the shear deformation
is dominant in the longitudinal direction (the x-direction in Fig. 1) and the flexural deformation
is dominant in the transverse direction. Hence, it is reasonable to treat a narrow building with
shear-wall structures as a cantilever flexural-shear plate for buckling analysis. In general, the
distribution of flexural stiffness of shear-walls is stepwise variation or continuos variation
along the height of the building, thus, a narrow building with shear-wall structures should be
modeled as a cantilever flexural-shear plate with variably distributed stiffness for buckling
analysis. In general, it is difficult to find the exact analytical solution for the buckling of a non-
uniform column or plate subjected to complicated loads. Simple cases, such as

Fig. 1. A flexural-shear plate with varying cross-section.

a non-uniform column subjected to a concentrated axial load, a uniform column subjected to
uniformly distributed axial loads or a cuneiform column under its own weight, were studied by
Timoshenko [5], Karman and Biot [6], Genik [7] and others. The exact analytical solutions of a
one-step column and a multi-step column with varying cross-section under concentrated and
variably distributed axial loads were found by Li et al. [8,9] and Li [10] for several types of
non-uniform columns. In fact, there are very few equations for buckling of plates with variable
cross-section where exact solutions can be obtained. These exact buckling solutions for shear
plates or flexural plates are available only for certain plate shapes and boundary conditions. For
example, Kobayashi and Sonoda [11] presented an exact method to solve analytically the
buckling problem of uniaxially compressed rectangular plates with linearly tapered thickness.
Liew et al. [12] derived analytical buckling solutions for Mindlin plates involving free edges. It
should be mentioned that the exact solution for buckling of flexural-shear plates with varying
cross-section has not been proposed yet in the literature. Apart from the several analytical
methods for analyzing limited classes of plates, many approximate methods have been
developed. These include the Ritz method, the finite strip method (FSM) and the finite element
method (FEM). In general, the Ritz method can provide accurate solutions, however, it depends
on the choice of global admissible functions. Liew and Wang [13] conducted a buckling
analysis of plates with straight/curved internal supports under uniform compression using the
pb-2 Rayleigh–Ritz method. Wang et al. [14] presented numerical buckling solutions for
isotropic inplane loaded Mindin plates of regular polygonal, elliptical, semicircular and annular
plates. The FEM and FSE have been successfully developed and applied to buckling analysis of
various plates over the years. Compared with FEM, the main advantage of FSE is its efficiency,
in particular for plates with regular geometry. In this paper, an attempt is made to establish and
to solve the governing differential equation for buckling of a flexural-shear plate with varying
cross-section. Exponential functions and power functions are adopted to describe the
distribution of flexural stiffness along the plate height, and the exact analytical solutions of the
governing differential equation are derived by means of Bessel functions and triangular
functions. The main purpose of this work is to present exact analytical solutions and to propose
an efficient method for the buckling analysis of flexural-shear plates with varying cross-
section. The present exact solutions could provide adequate insight into the physics of the
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problem and the proposed method can be easily implemented. Meanwhile, the availability of
the exact solutions will help in examining the accuracy of the approximate or numerical
solutions.

Fig. 2. A element of the plate.

Analyses of shear walls buildings

A computer program ETABS was used for the analysis of those structures. With the same plan,
three different structures were analyzed: Shear wall buildings with 5, 10, and 15 stories, as
shown in figurewith a dimension of 23,48m in length and 10,06m in width. The thickness of
the longitudinal shear wall is 16cm and transverse is 20cm

Figure 2.3. plan view of shearwall buildings.

For each structure, the slabs were modeled using different methods: the rigid diaphragm
method, the refined mesh method figure 2.4.

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Figure 2.4. Rigid and flexible diaphragm of shearwall buildings.

Ground anchors
Ground anchors (also called rock anchors) arc useful for testing piles which are end bearing
on rock. It is achieved using sufficient number of anchor piles to provide adequate reactive
capacity and a clear distance from the test pile. The principles arc similar to that of tension
piles. round anchor and soil nail retaining systems are designed to stabilize and support
natural and engineered structures and to restrain their movement using tension-resisting
elements. The basic design concept consists of transferring the resisting tensile forces
generated in the inclusions into the ground through the friction (or adhesion) mobilized at the
interfaces. These systems allow the engineer to efficiently use the in-situ ground in providing
vertical or lateral structural support. They present significant technical advantages over
conventional rigid gravity retaining walls or external bracing systems that result in substantial
cost savings and reduced construction period. Therefore, during the past few decades, ground
anchors, and more recently soil nails, have been increasingly used in civil engineering
projects.

The use of these systems in permanent structures requires careful evaluation of the durability
of the structural elements and assessment of the long-term system performance. A variety of
inclusions, corrosion-protcction systems, and installation techniques have been progressively
developed by specialty contractors. This chapter briefly describes the construction process
and the main structural elements. It presents the main aspects of ground- inclusion
interaction, illustrates the observed behavior of instrumented structures, and outlines
durability considerations, performance criteria, and design approaches that have been
developed to ensure the internal and external stability of these composite retaining systems.

Permanent Ground Anchors

Permanent ground anchors are prestressed cemcnt-groutcd tendons used in soils or rock to
restrain and control the displacements of structural elements such as walls or slabs. They
have been developed mainly by specialty contractors involved in temporary excavation
support systems and in some cases arc proprietary. The anchors are installed in drilled holes
and prestressed to the design load in order to mobilize and transfer the required resisting
force from the ground to the structural element. Temporary ground anchors are used for a
specified construction period and their service life is generally less than 2 years. Permanent

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ground anchors arc corrosion- protected to insure their long-term performance throughout the
design service life of the structure.

Figure shows a schematic diagram of a permanent ground anchor. The basic components of
the ground anchor arc:
• The tendon is made of prestressing steel wires, strands, or bars and includes:
• The anchor bond length—where the tendon is fixed in the primary grout bulb and
transfers the tension force to the surrounding ground. The anchor bond length is designed to
provide the required load pull-out capacity of the anchor.

• The unbonded length—where the tendon is free to elongate elastically transferring

the resisting force from the anchor bond length to the structural element (i.e., wall face, slab,
etc.). It is designed to reach the underlying substratum or, in homogeneous soils, to locate the
anchor bond length beyond the potentially unstable soil mass adjacent to the structural
element.
• The anchor grout, also called primary grout, is generally a Portland cement-based
mixture or a polymer resin and is used to transfer the anchor force to the ground. Secondary
grout can be injected into the drilled hole after stressing to provide corrosion protection for
unsheeted tendons.
• The anchorage is a device attached to the tendon that consists of a plate and an
anchor head (or threaded nut) and permits stressing and lock-off of the pre strcssing steel.

During the past 50 years, permanent ground anchors have been extensively used by
contractors to provide vertical and lateral support for natural and engineered structures.
Typical applications of ground anchors are illustrated in Figure 26.2. They have found
widespread acceptance in a variety of civil engineering projects including cut slope retaining
systems, ticd-back diaphragm or soldier pile walls, bridge abutments, stabilization of natural
slopes and cliffs, tunnel portals, underpinning, repair or reconstruction of quay walls, dam
spillways, loading ramps, hangars, etc. They have also been frequently used as tiedown
supports for dams, transmission towers, and waterfront structures, primarily to resist uplift
water pressures and rotational loadings.
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Ticbacks were first used to anchor structures in rock. The earliest permanent rock tiedowns
were installed by the French engineer Coyne for anchoring the Jumcnt lighthouse (1930) and
raising the Cheurfas Dam, Algeria (1934). By the late 1950s, use of permanent rock tiedowns
had become common practice in renovation and construction of dams (Evans, 1955; Morris,
1956; Middleton. 1961) and towers (Wcathcrby, 1982). In the 1950s contractors began to use
tiebacks for temporary supports f deep excavations. The first permanent soil tiebacks in the
United States were installed in 1961 in a very stiff silty clay for the construction of retaining
walls for the Michigan expressway (Jones and Kcrkhoff, 1961). However, in spite of long-
term European experience, permanent ground anchors had not been in common use in the
United States until the late 1970s, mainly because of engineering concerns with regard to
long-term performance, potential time-dependent (creep) movement, corrosion protection of
the tendon, and the need to establish reliable quality control testing procedures to verify the
short- and long-term holding capacity. Technological efforts have been continuously invested
by specialty contractors to overcome these limitations, develop efficient corrosion-protection
systems, improve grouting methods and installation procedures, and increase the tension
capacity of the prestrcsscd tendons.

The rapid acceptance and growing use of ground anchors can be attributed mainly to
significant technical advantages resulting in substantial cost savings and reduced construction
period. Specifically, in urban areas the use of ground anchors often allows significant
reduction in right-of-way acquisition and permits the elimination of temporary support
systems, external bracings, or the need for underpinning existing structures near to excavation
sites. The increasing confidence in ground anchor use for permanent structures is primarily
due to reliable quality control procedures that involve routine performance and proof testing
of all production anchors under loads exceeding the design load. Performance specifications
and codes of practice, based on experience and long-term observations of permanent anchor
installations, have been developed in European countries (French Recommendations, Bureau
Securitas, 1977; FIP Rules. 1974; German Standards, DIN, 1972, 1976; PTI
Recommendations, 1980) and more recently in the United States (FHWA; see Cheney, 1984)
to specify design, construction, and monitoring procedures.

Conclustion:
aving presented briefly some of the major structural forms systems employed in tall building
structures, a fair conclusion can be drawn on their importance in the performance of tall
building structures. Since, tall buildings enjoys rapid evolution and new innovations and with
the development of increasingly taller buildings structures serviceability issues like lateral

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sway, floor vibration, and occupant comfort need to be given more attention. As the height of
the building increases, lateral forces plays a dominant role. Therefore, certain provisions shall
be made in order to resist these lateral forces so that building performance under the effect of
lateral loadscan be improved.

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