Materials and Manufacturing

The selection of the material is an important step in the design of a

machine element.
Fracture Behavior
Ductile material – Significant plastic
deformation and energy absorption
(toughness) before fracture.
Characteristic feature of ductile
material - necking
Brittle material – Little plastic
deformation or energy absorption
before fracture.
Characteristic feature of brittle
materials – fracture surface
perpendicular to the stress.
Steel
Before and after fracture
In general:
•ductile materials are limited by their shear
strengths
•brittle materials (ductility< 5%) are limited
by their tensile strengths

The Concept of Stress

Uniaxial tensile stress: A force F is applied
perpendicular to the area (A). Before the
application of the force, the cross section
area was AO
Engineering stress or nominal stress: F
σ =
Force divided by the original area. A0
Engineering Strain or Nominal Strain: Change l − l0 Δl
ε= =
of length divided by the original length l0 l0
 True stress and strain
F Original cross sectional area!
Recall: Engineering Stress = σ=
Ao If no net volume change (i.e. Ai li = Ao lo)
Ai = instantaneous area
F li = instantaneous length
True Stress = σ T =
Ai
li
True Strain = ε T = ln
lo

Notice that past maximum stress point,

σ decreases.
Does this mean that the material is
becoming weaker?
Necking leads to smaller cross sectional
area!

Only true at the onset of σ T = σ (1 + ε )

necking
ε T = ln(1 + ε )
 Strain Hardening Parameter (n)

n
σ T = Kε T

Strain hardening parameter

0.02<n<0.5 for ductile metals.
Useful as a measure of the resistance to
necking
Compression Tests
A ductile sample will not fracture under compression. Brittle
materials will fracture when compressed. A material that has different
tensile and compressive strength are called uneven materials.
Torsion Test
•  Ductile material twist
•  Brittle material fractures
TL Grφ
φ= τ MAX =
I PG L
 Stress-Strain Behavior
of Ceramics
Flexural Strength: the stress at
fracture under the bending tests.
It’s also called Modulus of
rupture, fracture strength, or
the bend strength
3-point Bending tests

3F f L
σ fs = 2
2bd
Ff L
σ fs = 3
πR
Impact Test
(testing fracture characteristics
under high strain rates)
Notched-bar impact tests are Izod Charpy
used to measure the impact
energy (energy required to
fracture a test piece under
impact load), also called notch
toughness. It determines the
tendency of the material to
behave in a brittle manner.
Two classes of specimens have
been standardized for notched- h
impact testing, Charpy (mainly
h’
in the US) and Izod (mainly in
Energy ~ h - h’
the UK).
 Ductile-to-brittle transition
As temperature decreases a ductile
material can become brittle - ductile-
to-brittle transition.
FCC metals show high impact energy
values that do not change appreciably
with changes in temperature.

BCC metals, polymers and ceramic

materials show a transition
temperature, below which the material
behaves in a brittle manner. The
transition temperature varies over a
wide range of temperatures. For
metals and polymers is between -130
to 93oC. For ceramics is over 530oC.
 Charpy Test

High Carbon Steel Stainless Steel

 DESIGN STRATEGY: STAY ABOVE THE DBTT!

• Pre-WWII: The Titanic • WWII: Liberty ships

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad.
Discovery of the Titanic.) Sci., Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)

• Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.

16
 Hardness
Hardness: a measure of a material’s resistance to localized
plastic deformation (eg. Small dent or scratch).
Correlation between Hardness and
Tensile Strength

TS (MPa) = 3.45xHB
TS (psi) = 500xHB
Note:
No method of measuring
hardness uniquely
indicates any other single
mechanical property.
Some hardness tests seem to
be more closely associated
with tensile strength, others
with ductility, etc.
 Fatigue :Failure under fluctuating/cyclic stress
Under fluctuating / cyclic stresses, failure can occur at loads
considerably lower than tensile or yield strengths of material
under a static load: Fatigue
Estimated to cause 90% of all failures of metallic structures
(bridges, aircraft, machine components, etc.). Fatigue failure is
brittle-like (relatively little plastic deformation) - even in normally
ductile materials. Thus sudden and catastrophic!

Fatigue failure proceeds in three distinct stages: crack initiation in

the areas of stress concentration (near stress raisers), incremental
crack propagation, final catastrophic failure.
Cyclic stresses characterized by maximum, minimum and mean
stress, the range of stress, the stress amplitude, and the stress
ratio.
Fatigue limit occurs for some
materials (some Fe and Ti
alloys). S—N curve becomes
horizontal at large N. Stress
amplitude below which the
material never fails, no matter
how large the number of cycles
is. It has values between 0.4 to
0.25 the TS of the material
In most alloys (ex. FCC), S
decreases continuously with
N. Fatigue strength: stress at
which fracture occurs after
specified number of cycles
(e.g. 107). Fatigue life:
Number of cycles to fail at
specified stress level.
 Fabrication of Metals
•  Forming Operations
–  Forging
–  Rolling
–  Extrusion
–  Drawing
•  Casting
•  Powder Metallurgy
•  Welding
Classification of Metal Fabrication Techniques
 Temperature in Metalworking

•  Forming Operations ⎯ are those in which the shape of

a metal piece is changed by plastic deformation
•  Forming processes are commonly classified into hot-
working and cold-working operations.
Hot Working
Hot-working is defined as deformation under conditions of
temperature and strain rate such that recrystallization takes place
simultaneously with the deformation. Relatively high T
–  Recrystallization leads to very large deformation
–  Hot-working processes such as rolling, extrusion, or forging
typically are used in the first step of converting a cast ingot
into a wrought product
–  Deformation energy requirements are less than for cold work
–  Most metals experience some surface oxidation, which results
in material loss and a poor final surface finish.
 Cold Working
The deformation is carried out at low temperatures, where recovery /
recrystallization do not take place. Relatively low T
•  Cold-working operations are usually carried out in several steps, with
intermediate annealing operations introduced to soften the cold-
worked metal and restore the ductility
•  A higher quality surface finish and closer dimensional control of the
finished piece
•  Cold-working of a metal results in an increase in strength or hardness
and a decrease in ductility.
 Cold Working
Cold working: plastic deformation of a metal or alloy at a
temperature where dislocations are created faster than they are
annihilated
⎛ A0 − Ad ⎞
%CW = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ×100
⎝ A0 ⎠

Intermediate Annealing during Cold Working

•  When cold-working is excessive, the metal will fracture before

reaching the desired size and shape. In order to avoid such
difficulties, cold-working operations are usually carried out in several
steps, with intermediate annealing operations introduced to soften the
cold-worked metal and restore the ductility
•  This sequence of repeated cold-working and annealing is frequently
called the cold-work-anneal cycle
 Casting
•  Casting: a fabrication process whereby a totally molten metal is
poured into a mold cavity having the desired shape; upon
solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the mold but
experiences some shrinkage.
•  Casting techniques are used when
1.  The finished shape is so large or complicated that any other
method would be impractical
2.  A particular alloy is so low in ductility that forming by either
hot or cold working would be difficult
3.  In comparison to other fabrication processes, casting is the most
economical.
Classification of Casting
•  Sand Casting
•  Die Casting
•  Investment Casting (lost-wax casting)
•  Continuous Casting
 Sand, Investment, and
Lost Foam Casting
•  Use gravity to fill the mold
•  Mold is destroyed to remove casting
•  Metal flow is slow
•  Walls are much thicker than in die casting
•  Cycle time is longer than die casting
because of inability of mold material to
remove heat
 Aluminum Piston Mold

Schematic illustration of the

Aluminum piston for an internal
combustion engine. (a) As cast; permanent mold used to produce
(b) after machining. aluminum pistons, showing the
position of four cooling channels.
 Investment
Casting

•  Create Wax Pattern

•  Assemble Wax Tree
•  Coat with Ceramic
•  Melt out wax
•  Pour in molten
metal
•  Break off ceramic
 Die Casting
•  Liquid metal injected into
reusable steel mold, or die,
very quickly with high
pressures
•  Reusable steel tooling and
injection of liquid metal
with high pressures
differentiates die casting
from other metal casting
processes
Casting of Single Crystal Components

Jet engine turbine blades

Forging
•  Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape
by hammering/pressing. Forging is usually carried
out hot.
•  Forged articles have outstanding grain structures and
the best combination of mechanical properties.
•  Wrenches, and automotive crankshafts and piston
connecting rods are typical articles formed by
forging

Stages in the
forging of a
crankshaft
 A macroetched section through a
forging indicates that the grain
flow follows the contour of the
component, which often maximizes
strength in the direction of greatest
operating stress.
Grain (Metallurgy, by B. J. Moniz, American
Flow Technical Publishers, Inc., 1994)

Open Die Forging Closed Die Forging

Rolling
Rolling is the most extensively used metal forming process and its
share is roughly 90%
The material to be rolled is drawn by means of friction into the two
revolving roll gap
The compressive forces applied by the rolls reduce the thickness of
the material or changes its cross sectional area
The geometry of the product depend on the contour of the roll gap.
 Extrusion
A plastic deformation process in which metal is forced under pressure
to flow through a single, or series of dies until the desired shape is
produced.
(a) Direct (b) indirect (c) hydrostatic (d) impact
Drawing
Deep Drawing
•  Blank is allowed to
draw into the die, and
thickness is normally
unchanged.
•  Limiting Drawing
Ratio (LDR)
LDR=d0 max / Dp
•  Constraint of blank-
holder gives improved
process control and
quality
Stamping Failure Diagnosis using Grid Marks
 Hydroforming

(a)
Before (b)
Pressure Die Closing
Die Open (c)
1st Pressure
Stage
Die Closing
(d)
2ndPressure
Stage
Die Closed
 Automotive Structural Part
Stamped Dodge Dakota Hydroformed Dodge Dakota
Radiator Enclosure Radiator Enclosure
Stamped Radiator Closure Hydroformed Radiator Closure

17 components 8 components ( -9 )
36.4 Ibs/16.5 kg 25.4 lbs/11.5 kg (-11 Ibs, -30%)
Spin forming
 Powder Metallurgy
•  A fabrication technique that involves the compaction of powdered
metal, followed by a heat treatment to produce a more dense piece.
•  Competitive with processes such as casting, forging, and machining.
•  Used when (a) melting point is too high (W, Mo); (b) there is a
reaction at melting (Zr); (c) material too hard to machine; (d) very
large quantities are required. Near 70% of the P/M part production is
for automotive applications.
•  Good dimensional accuracy. Controllable porosity.
•  Size range from tiny balls for ball-point pens to parts weighing 100
pressure
lb. Most are around 5 lb.

heat

area
contact
densify

point contact densification

at low T by diffusion at
higher T
Examples of typical parts made by powder-metallurgy processes.

Main-bearing powder metal caps for 3.8 and 3.1 liter

General Motors automotive engines.

Upper trip lever for a commercial irrigation sprinkler, made by P/M.

This part is made of unleaded brass alloy; it replaces a die-cast
part, with a 60% savings.
 P/M Process
RAW OPTIONAL FINISHED
MIXING FORMING SINTERING
MATERIALS OPERATIONS PRODUCTS

Hot Compaction Optional

Manufacuring Steps
Isostatic Repressing
Extrusion Sintering Coning
Elemental or Die Compacting Sizing
Alloy Metal Spraying Atmosphere Repressing
Powders Pressureless- Vacuum Forging
Sintering High Temperature Rerolling
Metal Infiltration
Finished
Mixing Optional Products
Finishing Steps
Cold Compaction Machining
Heat Treating
Additives Die Compacting
Steam Treating
(graphite, die, Isostatic
lubricants) Plastic Impregnation
Rolling
Plating
Injection Molding
Tumbling
Slip Casting
Oil Impregnation
Shot Peening