10.1.

0 Materials, Processes and Workshop Technology

Course Outline
10.1.1 Workshop Safety
 General workshop safety
 Causes of accidents
 Industrial safety
 Classification of fires
 Electrical safety
 Workshop layout
10.1.2 Materials and Processes
 Metals, non-metals and alloys
 Properties of materials
 Extraction processes
 Finishes and decorative process
 Electrical materials and applications
 Metal forming processes
10.1.3 Metal Shop Tools and Measurements
 Term used in measurement
 Marking out techniques
 Workshop hand tools
10.1.4 Joining of Metals
 Mechanical joining of metals
 Thermal joining
10.1.5 Workshop Machines and Applications
 Workshop machines
 Operation of different types
 Safety precautions while using various machines
10.1.6 Sheet Metal Work
 Common sheet metals
 Uses of tools
 Forming in sheet metal
 Edge treatment of joints
 Fabrication machines

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LECTURE NOTES

10.1.1 Workshop Safety

What is a workshop?
A workshop is a place where skills can be developed. It helps to bridge the gap between theoretical and
practical concepts taught in class. Workshop contains many potential safety hazards. However, with
proper safety precautions, these hazards can be eliminated.

(a) General workshop safety

 Ensure that personal clothing is suitable to the workshop conditions, e.g don’t wear gloves, loose
cloths, baggy sleeves, dangling jewelry, or neck ties near rotating parts
 Safety footwear must be worn when working in the workshop
 Always wear eye protection when using power operated hand or machine tools, or while
performing physical tests that could lead to eye damage.
 Do not remove machine guards.
 Keep shop clean and tidy.
 Long hair must be tied back or kept short
 When not in use, store tools, equipment, and supplies properly in their place.
 The floor should be kept clean and clear of metal chips or curls and waste pieces.
 Benches are to be kept clean and free from chemicals and apparatus that are not being used.
 Aisles and exits are to be kept free from obstructions.
 Bottles and glassware are to be kept off the floor.
 Access to all emergency equipment (fire extinguishers, first aid kits) should not be obstructed.
 Work areas and equipment are to be thoroughly cleaned after use.
 If last to leave the workshop, make sure all equipment is turned off.
 Be familiar with the ‘stop’ button and any emergency stop buttons on the machines

(b) Causes of accidents

An accident in instructional workshops is seen as any hazard which may lead to injury or death to any
person involved. The workshop can be dangerous if not well handled. Numerous factors can cause
accidents;
 Lifting heavy objects; can sprain, strain or tear a muscle by virtue of lifting a heavy object.
 Poor Lighting; Inadequate lighting is responsible for a number of accidents each year.
 Hazardous Materials; Improper handling of hazardous materials or not wearing personal
protective equipment (PPE) is another common cause of accidents in the workshop. Material safety
data sheets should be provided.
 Slippery floors; trips and fall due to slippery floors can cause accident. Improper footwear may
also contribute to these accidents.
 Failure to observe safety rules; careless handling of tools, machines and self in the workshop may
result to accidents, not using protective clothing
 Use of defective machines or tools; Accidents may also result from the use of obsolete or faulty
workshop machines
 Rotating machines; if not safely handled, rotating machines and parts may cause accidents
 Poor workshop layout; for example, obstruction in the gang ways may cause accident

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  Use of machines without guards; using machines without guards or improper guards leave
somebody prone to accident
 Bear live cables; loose and bear electrical cables may cause electric shock or sparkle a fire
 Horse play: rough games in the workshop
 Fatigue and dehydration; failing to take a break to recover from grueling manual labor and failing
to drink enough water causes heat stroke or cardiac conditions.

(c) Industrial safety

Industrial safety refers to the management of all operations and events within an industry in order to
protect its employees and assets by minimizing hazards, risks, accidents, and near misses. In Kenya, the
Industrial safety is overseen by laws and regulations. Such include; the Factory’s and other places of work
Act 1951 (repealed) and The Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007
The objectives of industrial safety
 To increase production as a means to a higher standard of living
 To reduce the cost of production
 To conserve and make the best use of labor available
 To reduce needless suffering and human wastage
 To have better human relations in the industry
 To have better morale of employees
Factory’s and other places of work Act 1951
It is an Act of Parliament to make provision for the health, safety and welfare of persons employed in
factories and other places. It was enacted on 1st September, 1951. Pursuant to the Factories Act, Chapter
514, sets forth safety standards for the construction, installation and maintenance of electrical fixtures and
apparatus in factories. The Factories Act has since been repealed by article 129 of the Occupational
Safety and Health Act, 2007 (Act No. 15 of 2007), which becomes the new basic text for this Regulation.
The act provides what should be met when it comes to workshop cleanliness, overcrowding, ventilation,
lighting, drainage of floors and sanitary conveniences among others.
The salient provisions relating to safety in this Act include;
 Fencing of machinery; moving part, flywheel etc. should be fenced
 Work or near the machinery in motion; examination of a machine in motion should only be
carried out by a qualified person
 Striking gear and devices for cutting off power; suitable devices for cutting off power in
emergences from running machines should be provided and maintained
 Casing of new machinery; any revolving member should be encased to effectively guard against
danger
 Hoists and lifts; should be of good mechanical construction, sound material and adequate strength
 Lifting machinery, chains, ropes and lifting tackles; all parts like working gear, chain, rope or
lifting tackle should be of good construction, sound material and adequate strength
 Revolving machinery; ensure working peripheral speed is not exceeded
 Pressure plant; not operated at a pressure higher than the specified safe working pressure
 Precautions against dangerous fumes; manhole of adequate size or other effective means of
ingress should be provided
 Explosive or inflammable dust, gas, etc.; all practical measures should be taken to prevent
explosion of dust, gas, fume or vapor in a manufacturing process that produce such

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  Precaution in case of fire; precaution such as maximum number of workers, visible warning of
fire, exit doors and outward opening doors should be observed
The Occupational Safety and Health Act 2007
The Occupational Health and Safety Act (OSHA) provide for the health, safety and welfare of persons
employed, and all persons lawfully present at workplaces and related matters. It repealed the Factories
Act, cap 254 of the laws of Kenya. The Acts main purpose is to provide for the safety, health and welfare
of workers and all persons lawfully present at workplaces, to provide for the establishment of the National
Council for Occupational Safety and Health and for connected purposes.
The goal of the act is to:
- Secure a safe and health working environment
- Prevent child labor especially where the child’s health is exposed to risk
- Set standards in regard to safety and health at the working environment
- Develop a safety and health conscious culture in the work place
- Encourage reporting of injuries and accidents at the work place.
The act seeks to achieve its purpose through three main ways;
- creation of preventive measures
- institutional frameworks that shall enforcement its objectives
- punitive measures
The duty of the employer according to the act is also stemmed upon the common law principle of duty of
care. However under the Act, the duty of care is not only placed on employers but also extended to
occupier, the employees, designers, manufacturers, importers. Thus the act catches a broader perception
of the duty of care. The Act clearly defines an occupier and state his duties.
According to this Act, the duties of every employer shall include;

 the provision and maintenance of plant and systems and procedures of work that are safe and
without risks to health;
 arrangements for ensuring safety and absence of risks to health in connection with the use,
handling,
 storage and transport of articles and substances;
 the provision of such information, instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to ensure
 the safety and health at work of every person employed
 the maintenance of any workplace under the occupier's control, in a condition that is safe and
without risks to health and the provision and maintenance of means of access to and egress from
it that are safe and without such risks to health;
 the provision and maintenance of a working environment for every person employed that is, safe,
without risks to health, and adequate as regards facilities and arrangements for the employees’
welfare at work;
 informing all persons employed of;
 any risks from new technologies
 imminent danger
 ensuring that every person employed participates in the application and review of safety and
health measures.

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According to this Act, the duties of every employee shall, while at the workplace include;

 ensure his own safety and health and that of other persons who may be affected by his acts
or omissions at the workplace;
 co-operate with his employer or any other person in the discharge of any duty or requirement
imposed on the employer or that other person by this Act or any regulation made hereunder;
 at all times wear or use any protective equipment or clothing provided by the employer for the
purpose of preventing risks to his safety and health;
 comply with the safety and health procedures, requirements and instructions given by a person
having authority over him for his own or any other person’s safety;
 report to the supervisor, any situation which he has reason to believe would present a hazard and
which he cannot correct;
 report to his supervisor any accident or injury that arises in the course of or in connection with his
work; and
 with regard to any duty or requirement imposed on his employer or any other person by or under
any other relevant statutory provision, co-operate with the employer or other person to enable that
duty or requirement to be performed or complied with.
Hazardous areas
In electrical engineering, a hazardous area (potentially explosive atmosphere) is defined as an
environment that consists of any concentrations of flammable gases, vapors, mists or combustible dusts.
Here, all electrical equipment installed are specially designed and tested to meet a range of requirements
that together ensure the safety of personnel and avoid potentially dangerous situations resulting from the
equipment’s reaction to its surroundings.
Situations which involve the processes of production, transformation, delivery and stocking of flammable
substances commonly produce potentially explosive environments. Whether the application be chemical
and petrochemical plants, mining, oil and gas or food processing and grain handling, when these
flammable substances come into contact with the oxygen in the air, they can create an explosive
atmosphere. If this atmosphere is ignited, the deriving explosion can provoke serious damage to people
and the environment.
Common locations of hazardous areas include oil refineries, chemical plans, LNG plants, paint
manufacturers, sewerage treatment plants, distilling, wharves and offshore drilling rigs.
d) Classification of fires

 Classes of Fires and Extinguishers

Class A fires; involve ordinary combustibles, like wood, paper, cloth, trash, and plastics. They do
not contain metals, combustible liquids, or electricity. (Class A fires generally leave Ashes.)
Class A fires can be extinguished with water. A Class A extinguisher is typically either a
pressurized can of water that can be sprayed on a fire or a container of water with a pump
mechanism. Class A extinguishers are for use only on Class A fires. A Class A fire extinguisher
is marked with a green triangle containing the letter A. An alternative method of extinguishing a
Class A fire is to smother it with a blanket, a gloved hand, or other material.

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 Class B fires; involve flammable liquids. Typical flammable liquids are gasoline, oil, grease,
paint, and acetone. Class B fires can be very difficult to control because they involve burning
nonmetals in a liquid state. This classification also includes flammable gases. (Class B fires
generally involve materials that Boil or Bubble.) Electricity is not present in Class B fires. A
Class B fire is extinguished with carbon dioxide (CO2) contained in a heavy cylinder and under
pressure. CO2 is very cold when under pressure and displaces the oxygen around the fire, causing
the fire to be extinguished. It should not be sprayed on people or animals. The use of a Class B
extinguisher usually results in very little mess and no damage to property. However, avoid
breathing CO2. Class B extinguishers may be used to extinguish both Class A and Class B fires.
A Class B fire extinguisher is marked with a red square containing the letter B.

Class C fires; involve electrical equipment. Thus, electricity is always present. It is often
combined with combustible materials. An additional hazard of a Class C fire is the potential for
electric shock while fighting the fire. If possible, always turn off the source of electricity before
fighting an electrical fire. The fire may be extinguished, but if the electricity is not turned off, the
fire may rekindle. (Class C fires deal with electrical Current.) A Class C fire is extinguished with
a dry chemical, which does not conduct electricity. The chemical is a very fine powder that
smothers the fire when applied. A disadvantage is the mess the chemical makes when ejected
from the extinguisher. Avoid breathing dry chemical extinguisher powder. Class C extinguishers
may be used to extinguish Class A, Class B, and Class C fires. A Class C fire extinguisher is
marked with a blue circle containing the letter C.

Class D fires; involve combustible metals. Potassium, sodium, aluminum, and magnesium burn
at extremely high temperatures. Unless you work in a laboratory or in an industry that uses these
materials, it is unlikely you’ll have to deal with Class D fires. They are uncommon in agriculture.
Burning metal is very difficult to extinguish, and only Class D extinguishers are recommended on
burning metal. Class D fire extinguishers are not used on any other class of fire. The material in a
Class D extinguisher is a foam product that puts out the fire by replacing the oxygen near it. Class
D fire extinguishers are the most expensive. Class D extinguishing equipment is marked with a
yellow star containing the letter D. As extinguishers progress from A to D, they become more
expensive to use. Water is generally the cheapest material for extinguishing a fire. However,
water works well on Class A fires only. Water should not be used on Class B fires. Doing so may
actually cause them to spread, as many flammable liquid fires involve petroleum products that
float on water. Water must never be used on a Class C electrical fire, as the firefighter could be
electrocuted. Water is not of value in fighting the burning metal of Class D fires. The
temperatures are generally too high for water to be effective.

Class K fire; are fires that involve vegetable oils, animal oils or fats in cooking appliances. This
classification is for commercial kitchens. Some large facilities may have kitchens that are
classified as commercial. A Class K fire extinguisher uses a fine wet mist consisting of an
alkaline mixture, such as potassium acetate, potassium carbonate, or potassium citrate that forms
a soapy foam as it is applied to the cooking oil or other substance, quenching the steam, vapors,
and the fire's risk of re-ignition. Class K extinguishing equipment is marked with a black
hexagonal containing the letter K.

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 Fire extinguishers are clearly marked with the classes of fires they will extinguish safely. Some
are suitable for more than one type of fire. A common type is the A-B-C extinguisher, which is
for use in fighting Class A, B, and C fires. Put fire extinguishers close to where they might be
needed. Class A extinguishers should be located in areas where paper, wood, and other ordinary
combustibles are used. Class B extinguishers should be located where flammable liquids are
present. Class C extinguishers should be placed where they would be easily accessible for
electrical fires. Extinguishers labeled A-B-C are good for general use because they contain a dry
chemical and are effective in fighting Class A, B, or C fires. Fire extinguishers should be located
in clean, dry areas that are easy to access. They should be hung so the top is between 31/2 and 5
feet above the floor and must be quick and easy to remove. Their locations should be clearly
marked, and everyone familiarized with their locations and use.

 Firefighting procedure
Rescue: Remove those in immedate danger if there is a fire or smoke in one area of the facility,
remove the residents in that area first. Ask for help if you need assistance in removing residents from
the immediate area.
Activate alarm: Notify the fire department and others in the facility, pull the alarm to ensure that
everyone is notified of the emergency. If the facility does not have a system that automatica;lly
notifies the fire department, dial 911 and report the emergency.
Control: Prevent the fire from spreading. Compartmentalize the fire. On your way out, close the
doors between you and the fire, but DO NOT lock them. Confining a fire to one area is the most
effective method of limiting the spread of smoke and the fire in a building
Evacuate: Evacuate everyone from the building or past a firewall according to your facility plan.
Extinguish: If it is safe to do so, use a fire extinguisher to put out the fire. You should have
experience handling a fire extinguisher before attempting this step. The fire can be extinguished by;
 Cool (spraying water on burning wood)
 Cut off the oxygen supply (covering a container of burning material until all the oxygen is
consumed)
 Remove the fuel (turning off the fuel valve on an oxy-acetylene torch)

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e) Electrical safety

 Introduction
The voltage of the electricity and the available electrical current in regular businesses and homes has
enough power to cause death by electrocution. Even changing a light bulb without unplugging the lamp
can be hazardous because coming in contact with the "hot", "energized" or "live" part of the socket could
kill a person.
People are injured when they become part of the electrical circuit. Humans are more conductive than the
earth (the ground we stand on) which means if there is no other easy path, electricity will try to flow
through our bodies.
There are four main types of electrical injuries: electrocution (fatal), electric shock, burns, and falls.
These injuries can happen in various ways:
 Direct contact with exposed energized conductors or circuit parts. When electrical current travels
through our bodies, it can interfere with the normal electrical signals between the brain and our
muscles (e.g., heart may stop beating properly, breathing may stop, or muscles may spasm).
 When the electricity arcs (jumps, or "arcs") from an exposed energized conductor or circuit part
(e.g., overhead power lines) through a gas (such as air) to a person who is grounded (that would
provide an alternative route to the ground for the electrical current).
 Thermal burns including burns from heat generated by an electric arc, and flame burns from
materials that catch on fire from heating or ignition by electrical currents or an electric arc flash.
Contact burns from being shocked can burn internal tissues while leaving only very small injuries
on the outside of the skin.
 Thermal burns from the heat radiated from an electric arc flash. Ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR)
light emitted from the arc flash can also cause damage to the eyes.
 An arc blast can include a potential pressure wave released from an arc flash. This wave can cause
physical injuries, collapse your lungs, or create noise that can damage hearing.
 Muscle contractions, or a startle reaction, can cause a person to fall from a ladder, scaffold or
aerial bucket. The fall can cause serious injuries.

 Preventive measures
 Never touch anything electrical with wet hands or while standing in water. Wear rubber shoes in
wet areas.
 Never touch a downed power line or climb a utility pole.
 Do not block access to panels and circuit breakers or fuse boxes
 Do not touch a person or electrical apparatus in the event of an electrical incident. Always
disconnect the power source first.
 Always use ladders made with non-conductive side rails when working with or near electricity or
power lines
 All metallic parts, externally accessible must always be earthed.
 No inflammable materials are kept near electrical appliances, electric line wires or
 electric control panels.
 Electric safety devices like fuse, circuit breakers over-tripping must be always used where ever
required.
 All defective and worn-out electric fittings must be replaced.
 No untrained persons should be allowed to repair electrical faults.

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  Safety belts, helmet, rubber gloves, boots with rubber soles, and other safety items always are
used by electrician while dealing or working with high voltage. These appliances should be
provided to all electric mechanics.
 Overloading of any electric circuit must be avoided.
 The electric appliances when not in use must be dis-connected from main supply.

 Treatment of electric shock

First Aid
Involves giving the victim preliminary treatment before being shifted safely to the nearby hospital
through the ambulance.

Items of a First-Aid Box

Items Name Quantity
1 Pair of scissors 1
2 Large size sterilized dressings 12
3 Medium size sterilized dressings 12
4 Small sized sterilized dressings 24
5 Large size burn dressings 12
6 Packets of sterilized cotton wool 2
7 Rolled bandages 10 cm wide 12
8 Rolled bandages 5 cm wide 12
9 Bottle (4 oz) of salvolative having the doze and 1
made of administration indicated on label
10 Safety pins 2 packets
11 Eye drops 1 small bottle
12 Adhesive plaster 2 roller
13 4 oz bottle containing KMnO4 crystals, etc. 2
14 4 oz bottle containting a 2% alcoholic solution 1
15 Betadine ointment (50mg) 1
16 Saframycine ointment (50mg) 1
17 Detol 1

Electric Shock
Electric shock occurs when electric current passes through the body. Generally, 50 mA (milliamps) or
(0.05amps) can kill a person. Above 50 mA the muscles contract or freeze and we are unable to break
contact. Burns to parts of the body in contact can occur. Burns to internal organs and loss of breathing can
also occur.

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The first aid for electric shock.
1. If the casualty is in contact with or in close proximity to the ‘live’ apparatus or line DO NOT
TOUCH him until the electric supply has been isolated or switch off electric supply. If this is not
possible, protect yourself with DRY insulating material and pull or push the casualty clear of the
apparatus or line.
2. Then send for qualified medical assistance, and in the meantime, give first-aid treatment to the
casualty as follows:
 Make the casualty as comfortable as possible.
 Loosen any tight clothing.
 Given tactful reassurances.
 DO NOT give any liquid to drunk.

3. If the casualty is stopped breathing, mouth-to-mouth resuscitation (Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation

(CPR)) must be started immediately.
 Clear the throat of fluid or any other item by sweeping around the mouth with finger
 Place the head in the extended neck position.
 Close the nostrils by pinching lightly with thumb and forefinger.
 Take a deep breath and then make an air tight seal with your mouth over the casualty’s mouth and
breathe into the casualty. Watch the chest rise.
 Remove your mouth, and watch the chest fall.
 Repeat as in (iv) and (v) above about 12 times every minute until casualty begins to breath.
4. If mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is not practicable, use ‘Holger Nielson Method’ as follows:
 Lay the casualty face downwards, head to one side, forehead resting on the hands, placed one
above the other.
 Remove any artificial teeth of other matter from the mouth.
 Kneel on one knee by the casualty’s head, one foot by causality’s elbow.
 Place the palm of your hands on the casualty’s shoulder blades. Lean forward until your arms are
vertical. Press lightly; force of about 10 to 14 kg is sufficient for about two and a half seconds.
 Release the pressure by allowing your hands to slide along the casualty’s arms to his elbows
(taking one second), then raise the causality’s arms and shoulders slightly, pulling at the same
time by facing yourself backwards (taking two and a half seconds). Lower the casualty’s arms
and return your hands to the casualty’s shoulder-blades.
 Repeat the movements, taking seven-seconds for each complete respiration, until the casualty
breathes of his own or qualified medical help arrives.
First Aids for burns, cuts, falls, contact with chemicals and toxic fumes
 Burns: Rinse or place burnt area in cool water (15-30 minutes). Treat for shock. Do not remove
burnt clothing. Do not apply oils/grease to burns. Cover burns with clean dry cloth. Send/call for
medical help if burns are severe.
 Cuts and scrapes: Wash small cuts and apply dressing. Apply pressure to deep cuts to stop
bleeding. Treat for shock. Send/call for medical help.
 Falls: Make person lie still. Check for broken/sprained limbs. Treat for shock. Send/call for
medical help.
 Contact with chemicals: Wash affected area with water, cover with dry dressing. Get person to
hospital.
 Contact with deadly/toxic fumes: Remove person from the area. Loosen tight clothing. Apply
resuscitation if breathing has stopped.

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f) Plant and Workshop layout
Workshop layout specifies the position of the overall arrangement of the various facilities such as
equipment, material, manpower, materials handling, service facilities, and passage required to facilitate
efficient operation of production system within the floor.

 Objectives of good workshop layout

a. To ensure economical and effective utilization of workshop space
b. To minimize the investment cost in equipment
c. To minimize the transportation and handling of materials
d. To ensure the flow of material is smooth and rapid
e. To optimally utilize employees and machine
f. To provide adequate safety, health and comfortable working conditions to employees

 Advantages of a Good Plant Layout

a. Provides better health and safety of employees
b. Reduced men and machine hours per unit of production,
c. Work flow is smooth and continuous
d. Production control is better
e. Manufacturing time is less
f. Relatively less floor area is required
g. Material handling is less.

 Factors to consider for good workshop layout

 Location
The workshop should be easily accessible. The workshop should have direct entrance from the
outside (not from the house), because it will often be necessary to carry in or out some large, heavy or
dirty things, and a lot of waste as well. It may require access for the freight vehicle. Besides that,
various works that produce noise, dust or unpleasant smells will be often made in the workshop, so
it's good that the workshop is not located in the immediate area of the buildings where the people live

 Material handling
Movements of production personnel and material handling should be minimized. The handling of raw
material, semi-finished and finished product should be should be tackled optimally and effectively

 Storage
The space should be adequate for storing materials for processing, and the storage of finished
products. This is very important when planning the space requirements, size of the machines, storage
space for materials and finished products

 Safety
Working place should be free from pollution and safe working conditions should prevail in each shop
of the plant. The shop should observe safety measures such provision of gang ways, availability of
safety gear, fire extinguishers, well ventilated and lit, doors of proper size etc

 Aesthetic

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 There should be better working environment in terms of proper light, ventilation and other amenities
such as drinking water and toilets for welfare for the manufacturing personnel. Well lit, ventilated,
dust removing system in place

 Plan of workmanship
Calculate the number of workers / people in the workshop to ensure there is enough space for movements
of production personnel. Proper planning should be done to optimally utilize employees and available
machines. Must be flexible to facilitate changes in production requirements.

 Machine layout
There should be smooth and continuous flow of production or manufacturing work with least possible
bottlenecks and congestion points.
Should plan the arrangement of the machines and worktables to ensure enough space to maneuver and
that the floor space utilization is optimum as for as possible.

 Electrical supply
There should be enough space for installation of electrical circuits to supply the power needs. The
positioning of the emergency devices should be such that they are easily accessible in case of
emergencies.

 Types of plant layouts

a) Fixed or Position Layout (Project layout)

- In this type, the major part of an assembly remains at a fixed position. All material,
machinery, tools required and the labor are brought to the fixed site to work.
- This layout is suitable when one or a few pieces of an item are to be manufactured and
material forming requires only tools or simple machines.
- This layout is highly preferable when the cost of moving the major piece is high and the
responsibility of product quality by one skilled workman or group is expected.
- This layout is mainly adopted for extremely large items manufactured in very small quantity
such as ships, boilers, reactors etc.

Advantages
 Layout is highly flexible for varieties of products having intermittent demand
 There is a minimum movement of men, material, and tooling
 Since the highly skilled workers work at one point, the responsibility for quality of work can be fixed.

Disadvantages
 The cost of equipment handling is very high.
 Labors and equipment are difficult to utilize fully.
 It is limited to large items only.

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 b) Process or Functional Layout
- In this layout arrangements of similar machines, facilities and manufacturing operations are
grouped together according to their functions.
- In this layout all similar operations are performed always at the same place e.g. all the lathes
may be grouped together for all kinds of turning operations,
- This type is preferred for the industries involved in job order type of production and/or
maintenance activities of non-repetitive type.
- This layout needs not to have to be changed every time of the product changes. the
breakdown of any machine does not affect the production.
- This type of layout is highly suitable for batch production.

Advantages
 There exists a wide flexibility regarding allotment of work to equipment and workers.
 There is a better utilization of the available equipment.
 Comparatively less numbers of machines are needed
 There is an improved product quality, because the supervisors and workers attend to one type of
machines and operations.
 Varieties of jobs coming as different job orders thus make the work more interesting for the workers.
 Workers in one section are not affected by the nature of the operations carried out in another section.

Disadvantages
 This layout requires more space in comparison to line or product layout for the same amount of
production.
 Production control becomes relatively difficult in this layout.
 Raw material has to travel more which increases material handling and the associated costs.
 Increased material handling cost due to more movement of process raw material to various paths
 More material in process remains in queue for further operations.
 Requires large in-process inventory.
 Completion of same product takes more time.

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 c) Line or Product Layout
- In this layout all machines are placed in a line according to the sequence of operations, i.e.,
each following machine or section is arranged to perform the next operation to that
performed by its preceding machine or section.
- In this layout raw material starts from one end of production lines and moves from one
machine to next along a sequential path.
- Line layout is advantages in the continuous- production system where the number of end
products is small and the parts are highly standardized and interchangeable.
- This layout is used for mass production and ensures smooth flow and reduced material
handling.

Advantages
 It involves smooth and continuous work flow.
 It may require less skilled workers
 It helps in reducing inventory.
 Production time is reduced in this layout.
 For the same amount of production, less space requirements for this layout.
 Overall processing time of product is very less.

Disadvantages
 It is very difficult to increase production beyond the capacities of the production lines.
 When single inspector has to look after many machines, inspection becomes difficult
 This layout is very less flexible for product change.
 The rate or pace rate of working depends upon the output rate of the slowest machine
 Machines being put up along the line, more machines of each type have to be installed

d) Combination or Group Layout

- These days, the most of manufacturing industries have adopted this kind of layout.
- In this type of layout, a set of machinery or equipment is grouped together in a section, and
so on, so that each set or group of machines or equipment is used to perform similar
operations to produce a family of components.
- This layout is possible where an item is being made in different types and sizes. In such
cases, equipment are arranged in a process layout but a group of number of similar machines
is then arranged in a sequence to produce various types and sizes of products.
- This layout is suitable when similar activities are performed together thereby avoiding
wasteful time in changing from one unrelated activity to the next.
- It is useful when a number of items are produced in same sequence but none of the items are
to be produced in bulk and thus no item justifies for an individual production line.

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 Advantages
 Reduction in cost of machine set-up time and material handling of metals.
 Elimination of excess work-in-process inventory which subsequently allows the reduction in lot size.
 Simplification of production planning functions, etc.

Disadvantages
 Change of the existing layout is time consuming and costly.
 Inclusion of new components in the existing component requires thorough analysis.
 Change of input component mix may likely to change complete layout structure.
 Change of batch size may change number of machines.

Comparison of Line/product verse Process/functional layouts

Line or Product Layout Process or Functional Layout

 similar machines are arranged according to the  similar machines are arranged in one location for
sequence of operations required. manufacturing the product.
 It is meant for mass production  It is meant for moderate production
 Work flow is smooth in this layout  Work flow is not smooth in this layout
 Job movement is very less.  Job movement is comparatively more.
 Full automation in material handling is possible.  Automation in material handling is not effective.
 Capital investment required is more.  Capital investment required is comparatively less.
 Breakdown of one machine affects greatly.  Breakdown of one machine does not affect.
 Production planning and control is easy.  Production planning and control is difficult.
 Quality of product is not so good.  Quality of product quality is better
 Work flexibility is very less in this layout  Work flexibility is more in this layout
 Space required for same of production is less.  Space required for same production is more.
 Time taken in completion of product is less.  Time taken in completion of product is more.
 Less skilled workers are required.  More skilled workers are required.

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 Examples of workshop layouts
a) Layout of a welding shop

1,2,3 - Welding tables with acetylene and oxygen cylinders

4 - Gas cutting with acetylene and oxygen cylinders
5 - Pedestal grinder
6,7 - Electric welding set
8 - Spot welding
9 - Inspection table

b) Layout of a fitting shop

1 - Grinder
2 -Power saw
3 – Bench Drill
4 – Marking Table with surface plate
5-12 – Working tables with four bench vices each
13 - Inspection table

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 c) Layout of a metal sheet and painting shop

1 - Shearing machine
2 – Bending machine
3 – Circle cutting machine
4 – Buffing and polishing machine
5 to 8 – Working tables
9 - Inspection

Assignment:
Prepare a layout for a carpentry workshop having the following machines
i) 4 wood working lathes
ii) 1 band saw
iii) 1 circular saw
iv) 1 drilling machine
v) 1 surfacing machine

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10.1.2 Materials and Processes

-“Engineering material is a subject which deals with the manufacturing, properties and uses of
material used in applied engineering.”

-The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great importance for a design engineer.

-A large numbers of engineering materials exists in the universe. Engineering materilas are
genrally classified as follows;

1. Metals

Metals are polycrystalline materials consisting of a great number of fine crystals. Pure metals
possess low strength and do not have the required properties. Metals can be;

(a) Ferrous metals

 Ferrous materials are metals or metal alloys that contain the iron as a base material.
 They are the strongest materials available and are used for applications where high strength
is required at relatively low cost and where weight is not of primary importance.
 Ferrous metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
 The thermal conductivity of metal is useful for containers to heat materials over a flame.
 The principal disadvantages of many ferrous materials is their susceptibility to corrosion.
Examples
 Iron
 Stainless steel
 Carbon steel
 Steel

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(b) Non-ferrous metals
 Are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent,
 These materials refer to the remaining metals known to mankind.
 They are used where their special properties such as corrosion resistance, electrical
conductivity and thermal conductivity are required.
 Copper and aluminum are used as electrical conductors and, together with sheet zinc and
sheet lead, are use as roofing materials.
 They are mainly used with other metals to improve their strength.

Examples
 Aluminum
 Copper
 Titanium
 Tungsten
 Zinc

2. Non - metals
These are materials that do not contain metallic elements and do not conduct heat and electricity.
Examples include; plastic, wood, composite, ceramics

a) Plastic/Polymer is material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic

organic compounds that are malleable and so can be molded into solid objects

All organic materials have carbon as a common element. In organic materials carbon is
chemically combined with oxygen, hydrogen and other non-metallic substances. Generally
organic materials have complex chemical bonding.
They are synthetic materials which can be moulded into desired shapes under pressure with
or without application of heat.
Are now extensively used in various industrial applications for their corrosion resistance,
dimensional stability and relatively low cost.
There are two main types of plastics:
 Thermosetting plastics- are formed under heat and pressure. These plastics cannot be
deformed or remoulded again under heat and pressure. eg phenol formaldehyde
(Bakelite), phenol-furfural (Durite), epoxy resins, phenolic resins etc.

 Thermoplastics- Thermoplastics do not become hard with the application of heat and
pressure and no chemical change takes place. These can be re-melted and remoulded by
application of heat and pressure. Eg cellulose nitrate (celluloid), polythene, polyvinyl
acetate, polyvinyl chloride ( PVC) etc.

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b) Wood; is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and
other woody plants. It is an organic material - a natural composite of cellulose fibers that are
strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin that resists compression.

c) Composites; These are materials made up from, or composed of, a combination of different
materials to take overall advantage of their different properties. By combining two or more
materials to obtain a composite, one gets a superior material whose property of interest is
superior to those of the individual components.
E.g Fiberglass, playwood,

3. Alloys
- Alloys are the composition of two or more metals or metal and non-metals together.
- The pure metals are rarely used as structural materials as they lack mechanical strength.
- Alloys are produced by melting or sintering two or more metals or metals and a non-
metal, together.
- Alloys have good mechanical strength, low temperature coefficient of resistance.
- Metal alloys have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation.
Are classified as follows;

a) Ferrous alloys

 Steel-It is an alloy of iron and carbon in which carbon content is upto 2%. It may contain
other alloying elements.
i) Low alloy
Low carbon steel
- Carbon content in the range of 0 – 0.3%.

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 - Most abundant grade of steel (greatest quantity produced; and least expensive).
- Not responsive to heat treatment; cold working needed to improve the strength.
- It has good weldability and machinability
Medium carbon steel
- Carbon content in the range of 0.3 – 0.8%.
- It can be heat treated
- Typical applications – Railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts.
High carbon steel
- Carbon content 0.8 – 2%
- High C content provides high hardness and strength.
- Hardest and least ductile.
- Used in hardened and tempered condition
- Used as tool and die steels owing to the high hardness and wear resistance property

ii) High Alloy

Tool Steel:
- Is special steel which are used to make machine tools
Properties of Tool steel:
i) Slight change of form during hardening.
ii) Little risk of cracking during hardening.
iii) Good toughness
iv) Good wear resistance
v) Very good machinability
vi) A definite cooling rate during hardening
vii) A definite hardening temperature
viii) Resistance to softening on heating

Stainless Steel:
- When 11.5% or more chromium is added to iron, a fine film of chromium oxide forms
spontaneously on the surfaces.
- The film acts as a barrier to retard further oxidation, rust or corrosion.
- As this steel cannot be stained easily, it is called stainless steel.

 Cast iron-In cast iron carbon content is 2% to 6.67%. Lower melting point (about 300 °C
lower than pure iron) due to presence of eutectic point at 1153°C and more carbon
content.
Examples
 grey cast iron
 white
 nodular

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  malleable
 compacted graphite

b) Non Ferrous alloys

Examples
 Silver
- Alloy that contains silver and one or more additional metals.
- Since silver is a very soft metal and highly reactive to the air
- the alloys are commonly used in the creation of jewelry
- used as currency in many nations.
 Duralumin
- The oldest and best known alloys of aluminium widely used for aircraft parts.
- Its composition include copper, manganese, silicon. magnesium and iron.
- Used for highly stressed structural components, aircrafts and automobile parts
- Used for surgical and orthopaedics works for non magnetic and other instrument parts.
 Bronze
- Bronze is an alloy that consists primarily of copper with the addition of other
ingredients like tin, phosphorus, aluminum, manganese, and silicon
- All of these ingredients produce an alloy much harder than copper alone.
- Bronze is characterized by its dull-gold color.
- Used in the construction of sculptures, musical instruments and medals, and in
industrial applications such as bushings and bearings,
 Brass
- These are the alloys of copper and zinc with varying percentage of two metals
- Have good tensile strength, good ductility, suitable for producing sheet, strips, tubes,
wires etc.
- brasses are used for hot pressings, stampings.

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