Chapter 3 Design Methodology: 3.1 Introduction
Chapter 3 Design Methodology: 3.1 Introduction
Chapter 3 Design Methodology: 3.1 Introduction
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Present research work focused on analysis and design of Container lifting device (CLD) used
for lifting and lowering 4.5 cubic meter container operated by tractor. Following are the
components used in CLD.
1. Hydraulic cylinder assembly
2. Pin joints
3. Cross‐ rod
4. Rear mechanical jack
5. Welded joints
6. Locking pins
7. Leaf springs
8. Hoisting chains
This chapter describes the design philosophy of above mentioned components. It was
observed after analysis of survey reports and literature review that the modifications are
required in the design of CLD to make it compatible with tractor driven instead of truck
mounted. Hence the design procedure for various components is outline in this chapter.
3.2 Design of Hydraulic Cylinder
Hydraulic cylinders are actuation devices that convert the hydraulic energy of
pressurized fluids into the mechanical energy needed to control the movement of machine
linkages and attachments.
Hydraulic cylinders are used at elevated pressures and create large forces and
accurate movement. For this reason they are made of strong materials such as steel and
designed to withstand huge forces. The fluid pushes against the face of the piston and
produces a force.
The force produced is given by the formula:
F = P A ………..Eq. (3.2.1)
Where, P is the pressure in N/m2
Let ‘A’ be the full area of the piston and ‘a’ be the cross sectional area of the rod. If
the pressure is acting on the rod side, then the area on which the pressure acts is as (A ‐ a).
3.2.1 Material used for Hydraulic Cylinder
To cope up with higher stress either wall thickness has to be increased or material
with higher allowable stress has to be selected. To reduce overall size mostly material with
higher allowable stress are selected such as plain carbon steel or low or medium alloy steel.
But these materials are difficult to weld. If working environment of hydraulic cylinder is of
corrosive in nature, then use brass or stainless steel seamless pipe. If there is no limitation
about bore size, and hydraulic fluid is also not corrosive, then for such condition seamless
pipe of low to medium carbon steel with carbon percentage in between 0.15 to 0.35% is
used. [48]
Mostly ground and hard‐chrome plated rod of C40, SAE 1045, DIN CK 45 and JIS S45C
grade material and in standard size is available in market and widely used for piston‐rod.
Piston‐rod can also be made from mild steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, cast‐iron (for larger
size and short length of piston‐rod under compressive load) etc. depends on application.
Now a days medium carbon steel SAE 1045 grade in ground and coated condition are also
available, which are much better than C40 grade piston rod. [49]
3.2.2 Theoretical Design of Cylinder Tube
Cylinder tubes are divided in to two categories.
1) Thin Cylinder Tube
2) Thick Cylinder Tube
When ratio of cylinder bore diameter to wall thickness is bigger than 10 then it is
called thin cylinder and when it is equal to or less than 10 then it is called thick cylinder.
Equations to calculate wall thickness, and assumption made to use them are different. But
in high pressure and load application only thick cylinder tube is used, which is able to sustain
high pressure.
Design of Hydraulic Cylinder
3.2.3 Design of Thick Cylinder
In case of thin cylinder, stress assumed to be uniformly distributed over the section
of wall, but In case of thick cylinder stress distribution are as follow.
Fig. 3.2 Thick cylindrical shell stress distribution over its thickness[48]
Maximum radial stresses are generally equal to the internal pressure, and it is
maximum at inner surface of cylinder.
σr (max) = ‐P
For calculating tangential stress following four equations are used.
1) Lame's equation
di t P
t 1 ………………………Eq. (3.1.1)
2 t P
where, t thickness of cylinder
t Tensile stress of thecylinder material
Lame's equation is used for designing cylinder of brittle material and it depends on
maximum‐ stress theory of failure, and could be used for open as well as closed cylinder.
2) Brinies’ equation:
Brinies’ equation depends upon the maximum strain theory of failure. That is failure
will occur when the strain reaches a limiting value. According to this theory the wall
thickness of cylinder is.
di t 1 P
t 1 ……………...........Eq. (3.1.2)
2 t 1 P
Where, Poisson ' s ratio
This equation is generally used for open‐end cylinder made of ductile material, such as gun‐
barrels.
Design methodology
3) Clavarino's equation:
This equation is similar to Brinies’ equation, but applies to closed‐end cylinder made of
ductile material. According to this equation the thickness of a cylinder,
di t 1 2 P
t 1 …………….…….Eq. (3.1.3)
2 t 1 P
4) Barlow's equation:
This equation is generally used for high pressure oil and gas pipes. According to this
equation the thickness of a cylinder,
Pd i
t ……………….………………….Eq. (3.1.4)
2 t
3.3 Theoretical Design of Piston and Piston Rod
Piston rod transfers the force developed at piston to work piece. This force may be pushing
or pulling. Piston rod is designed to transfer these forces along its central axis. It is not
designed or expected to take any side bending load. Then the cross‐section required to
transfer force within safe stress limit can be calculated using basic simple formula such as.
4 Ft
t ……………………………..…......Eq. (3.3.1)
d2
And for piston design equation is given like…
4 Ft
P ……………….……….…Eq. (3.3.2)
Di 2 d 2
3.4 Design of Cross‐Rod
In container lifting device (CLD) cross‐rod is used to support the load by container loading
and transmit motion from the cylinder to container for loading and unloading. In design of
cross‐rod, it is consider as a fixed beam supported at two ends with two point load at a
same distance from ends. Here beam is considered as a hollow pipe section.
Fig. 3.3 Cross‐rod fixed at both ends
Design of Cross‐Rod
W = Apply load, do = Outer Diameter, di = Inner Diaameter
C = Ratiio of inner tto outer diaameter, M == Bending m
moment
L = Totaal length of Beam, a = D
Distance beetween fixed
d end and aapplied poin
nt load
Now, due to applieed load W aat distance ‘‘a’ from botth end geneeral stress ggenerated iss given
like belo
ow…
32 M
Flexure bending stress …………………..Eq. (3.4
4.1)
D 1 C 4
3
4W
Shear sttress ………
……………………
………Eq. (3.4
4.2)
D 1 C 2
2
2
um principaal stress 1 2 …………..Eq. (3.4
Maximu 4.3)
2 2
3.5 Dessign of Rear Mechaniccal Jack of C CLD Model
Mechan nical Jack iss a device which can support an
nd also raisse the
load at some heigght. In tracttor driven container
c liifting device rear
jack is u
used to sup
pport the load. Generaally loading and unload
ding of
contain
ner is not do nd level like at storage depot
one with proper groun
station and dumping site. So
o, at that time mechan
nical jack iss used
not only support tthe load bu
ut also stabilize the vehicle. That’’s why
proper design of rrear jack is necessary. For design of rear jack, it is
simply consider as
a a short column beecause slen
nderness raatio of
column
n is less than
n 50 with ecccentric loading condition.
Fig.3.4 3D model of m
mechanical rrear jack
3.5.1 Lo
oading Locaation
A) Eccentric loading of column B) Eccentric load right with Tension in left
with eccentricity (e)
Fig. 3.5 Eccentric loading of column
The eccentricity causes bending stresses by a moment of value equal to P x e. Within the
elastic range (linear stresses) it can be superposition or add up the normal and bending
stresses:
p My
f x f a fb ……………………Eq. (3.5.1)
A I
(A)
The resulting stress distribution is still linear and the N.A. moves (if there is one).
(B)
Fig.3.6 Resulting stress distribution (A) without N.A (B) with N.A[49]
The value of e (or location of P) that causes the stress at an edge to become zero is at the
edge of the kern. As long as P stays within the kern, there will not be any tensile stress.
Limit Criteria
f a fb 1
Interaction formula…………..Eq. (3.5.2)
Fa Fb F .O.S
Desiign of Rear Mechanicall Jack of CLD
D Model
3.5.2 De
esign of we
elded joint
Fig.3.7 Colu
umn welded
d to body o
of CLD
τ = shearr stress,
0.7077 p
………….EEq. (3.5.3)
2SL
L
3.5.3 De
esign of loccking pin
3.6 Dessign of Leaff Spring
A leaf spriing is a sim
mple form of spring, commonlyy used for the suspen
nsion in
wheeled vehicles. It is also on
ne of the oldest forms of springin
ng. Sometim
mes referred
d to as a
semi elliptical leaff spring (SELS) it takess the form of a slendeer arc‐shapeed length of
o spring
steel off rectangulaar cross‐section. The ceentre of the
e arc provid
des location
n for the axlle, while
tie holees are provid
ded at eitheer end for attaching to the vehiclee body.
The leaf sp
pring is be ssupposed to
o absorb th
he vertical vvibrations aand impactss due to
road irregularitiess by meanss of variatio
ons in the spring defflection so that the potential
p
energy is stored in
i spring as strain energy and then
t released slowly. So, increassing the
energy storage caapacity of a leaf sprin
ng ensuress a more amenable
a ssuspension system.
Design methodology
According to the results of the studies made the material with maximum strength and
minimum modulus of elasticity in the longitudinal direction is the most appropriate material
for a leaf spring. Fatigue failure is the predominant mode of in‐service failure of many
automobile components. This is due to the fact that the automobile components are
subjected to variety of fatigue loads like shocks caused due to road irregularities traced by
the road wheels, the sudden loads due to the wheel travelling over the bumps etc. The leaf
springs are more affected due to fatigue loads, as they are a part of the unspring mass of
the automobile.
The leaf does the following functions:
Supports the chassis weight.
Controls chassis roll more efficiently‐‐high rear moment centre and wide spring base.
Controls rear end wrap‐up.
Controls axle damping.
Controls lateral forces much the same way a hard bar does.
Controls braking forces.
Regulates wheelbase lengths (rear steers) under acceleration and braking.
Fig.3.9 Semi‐elliptical leaf spring [21]
n f = number of extra full‐length leaves
n g = number of graduated‐length leaves including master leaf
n = total number of leaves
b = width of each leaf (mm)
t = thickness of each leaf (mm)
2L 1 = Length of span or overall length of the spring
Design of Leaf Spring
l = Width of band or distance between centres of U‐bolts. (It is the ineffective length of the
spring)
L = length of the cantilever or half the length of semi‐ elliptic leaf spring (mm)
F = force applied at the end of the leaf spring (N)
Ff = portion of F taken by the extra full‐length leaves of the leaf spring (N)
Fg = portion of F taken by the graduated‐length leaves of the leaf spring (N)
E = Modulus of Elasticity of Material
Maximum Bending Moment in the Centre (M) = FL
Effective length of the spring is…
2L = 2L 1 ‐ l (When the band is used) ……………………….Eq. (3.6.1)
2
2L = 2L 1 ‐ l (When U‐bolts are used) ……………………Eq. (3.6.2)
3
When there is only one full‐length leaf (i.e. master leaf only), then the number of leaves to
be cut will be n and when there are two full length leaves (including one master leaf), then
the number of leaves to be cut will be (n‐1) if a leaf spring has two full‐length leaves, then
the length of leaves is obtained as follows:
effective length
Length of smallest leaf of the leaf spring = + Ineffective Length …Eq. (3.6.3)
n 1
effective length
Length of next leaf of the leaf spring = 2 + Ineffective Length ..Eq. (3.6.4)
n 1
Similarly,
effective length
Length of (n‐1) leaf of the leaf spring = n 1 + Ineffective Length
n 1
…...Eq. (3.6.5)
The nth leaf will be the master leaf and it is of full length. Since the master leaf has eyes on
both sides, therefore
Length of Master Leaf of the leaf spring = 2L 1 + d t 2 …………………………………Eq. (3.6.6)
Where d = Inside diameter of eye
t = Thickness of master leaf
The relation between the radius of curvature(R) and the camber (y) of the spring is given by:
y 2R y L12 ………………………………..Eq. (3.6.7)
Where L1 = Half span of the leaf spring.
Design of Leaf Spring
The maximum deflection (δ) of the spring is equal to camber (y) of the spring.
We know,
Ff + Fg = F ……………………….......................Eq. (3.6.8)
3n f F
Ff = …. (Force taken by no. of nf master leaf) ..............Eq. (3.6.9)
3n f 2n g
2n g F
Fg= …. (Force taken by no. of ng graduated leaf) …….Eq. (3.6.10)
3n f 2n g
12FL
bg = ….(stress induce in ng graduated leaf) …….Eq. (3.6.11)
bt 2 3n f 2n g
18FL
bf = ….(stress induce in nf master leaf) ………..Eq. (3.6.12)
bt 3n f 2n g
2
12FL3
y = …. (Deflection at the end of the spring) ……Eq. (3.6.13)
Ebt 3 3n f 2n g
Multi‐leaf springs are designed using load stress and load deflection equations. The
standard dimensions for the width and thickness of the leaf section are as follows:
Nominal thickness (mm): 3.2, 4.5, 5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5 8, 9, 10,11,12,14, and 16.
Nominal width (mm): 32, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 90, 100 and 125.
3.6.1 Materials for leaf spring
Plain carbon steel, Chromium vanadium steel, Chromium‐ Nickel‐ Molybdenum steel,
Silicon‐ manganese steel, are the typical materials that are used in the design of leaf springs.
Like steel conforming to 55si7, 60si7, 65si7, ASTM grade A689. Other spring steel having
similar hardenability, toughness and physical property are considered for manufacture of
leaf spring.