FACTS ABOUT DIGITAL CAMERAS AND PHOTOGRAPHY

Digital Photographs
Digital photographs are actually mosaics of millions of tiny squares called picture elements— or just pixels. Like the
impressionists who painted wonderful scenes with small dabs of paint, your computer and printer can use these tiny
pixels to display or print photographs. To do so, the computer divides the screen or printed page into a grid of
pixels. It then uses the values stored in the digital photograph to specify the brightness and color of each pixel in
this grid—a form of painting by number.

Number of Pixels
The quality of a digital image depends in part on the number of pixels used to create the image (sometimes referred
to as resolution). At a given size, more pixels add detail and sharpen edges. However, there are always size limits.
When you enlarge any digital image enough, the pixels begin to show—an effect called pixelization. This is not
unlike traditional silver-based prints where grain begins to show when prints are enlarged past a certain point. The
pixel size of a digital photograph is specified in one of two ways—by its dimensions in pixels or by the total number
of pixels it contains. For example, the same image can be said to have 4368 × 2912 pixels (where "×" is
pronounced "by" as in "4368 by 2912"), or to contain 12.7 million pixels or megapixels (4368 multiplied by 2912).

Resolution of a Digital Image

The term "resolution" has two meanings in photography. Originally it referred to the ability of a camera system to
resolve pairs of fine lines such as those found on a test chart. In this usage it's an indicator of sharpness, not image
size. With the introduction of digital cameras the term began being used to indicate the number of pixels a camera
could capture.

Digital Camera Sensors

Digital cameras are very much like earlier cameras. Beginning with the very first camera all have been basically
black boxes with a lens, an aperture, and a shutter. The big difference between traditional film cameras and digital
cameras is how they capture the image. Instead of film, digital cameras use a solid-state device called an image
sensor. In some digital cameras the image sensor is a charge-coupled device (CCD), while in others it's a CMOS
sensor. Both types can give very good results. On the surface of these fingernail-sized silicon chips are millions of
photosensitive diodes, each of which captures a single pixel in the photograph to be. When you take a picture the
shutter opens briefly and each pixel on the image sensor records the brightness of the light that falls on it by
accumulating an electrical charge. The more light that hits a pixel, the higher the charge it records. Pixels capturing
light from highlights in the scene will have high charges. Those capturing light from shadows will have low charges.
After the shutter closes to end the exposure, the charge from each pixel is measured and converted into a digital
number. This series of numbers is then used to reconstruct the image by setting the color and brightness of
matching pixels on the screen or printed page.

It may be surprising, but pixels on an image sensor only capture brightness, not color. They record the gray scale—
a series of tones ranging from pure white to pure black. The camera creates a full color image through processing.
Colors in a photographic image are usually based on the three primary colors red, green, and blue (RGB). This is
called the additive color system because when the three colors are combined in equal amounts, they form white.
This RGB system is used whenever light is projected to form colors as it is on the display monitor (or in your eye).
Another color system uses cyan, magenta, yellow and black (CMYK) to create colors. This system is used in a few
sensors and almost all printers since it's the color system used with reflected light. Since daylight is made up of red,
green, and blue light; placing red, green, and blue filters over individual pixels on the image sensor can create color
images just as they did for Maxwell in 1860. Using a process called interpolation, the camera computes the actual
color of each pixel by combining the color it captured directly through its own filter with the other two colors
captured by the pixels around it. How well it does this is affected in part by the image format, size, and compression
you select.

Image Formats (jpeg, RAW)

One of the most important choices you'll make when shooting photos is what format to use—JPEG or RAW.

JPEG
JPEG is the default format used by almost every digital camera ever made. Named after its developer, the Joint
Photographic Experts Group (and pronounced "jay-peg") this format lets you specify both image size and
compression. The smallest size is best for the Web and e-mail (although it will usually have to be reduced) and the
largest for prints.

The JPEG format compresses images to make their files smaller, but many cameras let you specify how much they
are compressed. This is a useful feature because there is a trade-off between compression and image quality. Less
compression gives you better images so you can make larger prints, but you can't store as many images. Because
you can squeeze more smaller or more compressed images onto a storage device, there may be times when you'll
want to switch to the smaller size and sacrifice quality for quantity.
RAW
RAW images are often better than JPEG images because they are not processed in the camera, but on your more
powerful desktop computer. These RAW files contain every bit of the captured data, unlike JPEGs which are always
processed in the camera with some data being discarded. RAW files can be viewed, edited, and converted to other
formats using most photo-editing software or programs included on a CD that comes with the camera. Some
cameras let you capture RAW images by themselves or with a companion JPEG image that gives you an identical
high quality RAW file and a smaller, more easily distributable JPEG image. When you use this feature, both the RAW
and JPEG files have the same names but different extensions. The RAW format is discussed in more detail on page
using3-8.html.

When you select an image format, size, and compression, you're not only affecting image quality but also how many
images can be stored on your memory card. Sometimes when there is no storage space left, you can switch to a
smaller size and higher compression to squeeze a few more images onto the card.

Histograms
Each pixel in an image has a color which has been produced by some combination of the primary colors red, green,
and blue (RGB). Each of these colors can have a brightness value ranging from 0 to 255 for a digital image with a
bit depth of 8-bits. A RGB histogram results when the computer scans through each of these RGB brightness values
and counts how many are at each level from 0 through 255.

The region where most of the brightness values are present is called the "tonal range." Tonal range can vary
drastically from image to image, so developing an intuition for how numbers map to actual brightness values is
often critical—both before and after the photo has been taken. There is no one "ideal histogram" which all images
should try to mimic; histograms should merely be representative of the tonal range in the scene and what the
photographer wishes to convey.

The Shutter and Aperture

One of the most important aspects of photography is getting the exposure right because it determines how light or
dark an image is and what mood it conveys. The two most important exposure controls are the shutter speed and
aperture because both affect the total amount of light reaching the image sensor. However, they do more than just
control the exposure. As you'll see shortly they are also the most creative controls you have.

Shutter
The shutter opens to begin an exposure and closes to end it. The shutter speed setting determines how long the
shutter opens to expose the image sensor.

Aperture
The aperture is the hole through which light enters the camera. The size of the hole can be changed to control the
brightness of the light that reaches the image sensor.
As the aperture number gets smaller (for example, from f/16 to f/11) the aperture opening gets larger and the
image gets lighter. The reason you don't usually see this effect in your images is because when you or the camera
change the aperture, the camera changes the shutter speed to keep the exposure constant.

Exposure Modes
Modern digital cameras have sophisticated ways of controlling the aperture and shutter speed. In fully automatic
mode the camera sets them both to produce the best possible exposure. However, there are other exposure modes
that are widely used in digital photography. All modes give equally good results in the vast majority of photographic
situations. However, when you photograph in specific kinds of situations, each of these exposure modes may have
certain advantages. Let's take a look at the modes you can expect to find on some or all digital cameras.

Automatic Mode
Automatic mode sets the shutter speed and aperture without your intervention. This mode allows you to shoot
without paying attention to settings so you can concentrate on composition and focus.

Scene Mode
Scene modes have preselected settings for specific situations such as landscapes, portraits, night portraits, sports,
and close-up photography.

Programmed mode
Programmed mode is just like full auto in that it sets the aperture and shutter speed for you so you can concentrate
on composition and action. When in this mode, many cameras have a flexible program mode that lets you select
from a series of paired aperture and shutter speed combinations that yield the same exposure as that
recommended by the camera but which give you control over depth of field and motion.
One reason to use flexible program mode is that it doesn't let you choose settings that exceed your camera's
exposure limits. In shutter-priority and aperture-priority mode it's possible to select a setting that can't be matched.
For example, in aperture-priority mode, you may pick an aperture that's so large the camera doesn't have a shutter
speed that's fast enough to prevent overexposure. Although aperture-priority and shutter-priority modes usually
warn you when this happens, you won't always notice the warning. Here are some of the situations you avoid when
using programmed mode.

Shutter-priority mode
Shutter-priority mode lets you choose the shutter speed you need to freeze or deliberately blur camera or subject
movement and the camera automatically sets the aperture to give you a good exposure. You select this mode when
the portrayal of motion is most important. For example, when photographing action scenes, such as those
encountered by wildlife photographers, sports photographers, and photojournalists, shutter-priority mode might be
best. It lets you be sure your shutter speed is fast enough to freeze the action or slow enough to blur it.

Aperture-priority mode
Aperture-priority mode lets you select the aperture needed to obtain the depth of field you want and the exposure
system automatically sets the shutter speed to give you a good exposure. You select this mode whenever depth of
field is most important. To be sure everything is sharp, as in a landscape, select a small aperture. The same holds
true for close-up photography where depth of field is a major concern. To throw the background out of focus so it's
less distracting in a portrait, select a large aperture.

Manual mode
Manual mode lets you select both the shutter speed and the aperture. You normally use this mode only when the
other modes can't give you the results you want. Some cameras have a bulb setting in this mode that lets you
capture time exposures such as light trails at night.

The Aperture Controls Light and Depth Of Field

In better cameras, the aperture is a series of overlapping leaves located between the glass elements in the lens.

The aperture adjusts the size of the opening through which light passes to the image sensor. The aperture can be
opened up to let in more light or closed (stopped down) to let in less. In respect to just exposure, smaller apertures
let less light strike the image sensor so the image is darker. Larger apertures let in more so it's lighter.
Depth of Field
As with the shutter speed, the aperture also affects the sharpness of your picture, but in a different way. Changing
the aperture changes the depth of field, the depth in a scene from foreground to background that will be sharp in a
photograph. Smaller apertures increase depth of field while larger ones decrease it. For some pictures—for example,
a landscape—you may want a smaller aperture for maximum depth of field so that everything from near foreground
to distant background is sharp. But perhaps in a portrait you will want a larger aperture to decrease the depth of
field so that your subject is sharp but the background is soft and out of focus. A small aperture increases depth of
field so foreground and background are sharp (top) and a large aperture decreases depth of field so the background
is soft (bottom).

Aperture Settings
Aperture settings are called f-stops and indicate the size of the aperture opening. Each f-stop lets in half as much
light as the next larger opening and twice as much light as the next smaller opening. From the largest possible
opening to increasingly smaller ones, the f-stops have traditionally been those shown to the left. No lens has the full
range of settings; for example, the standard lens on a digital camera will range from about f/2 to about f/16. Notice
that as the f-stop number gets larger (f/8 to f/11, for example), the aperture size gets smaller. This may be easier
to remember if you think of the f-number as a fraction: 1/11 is less than 1/8, just as the size of the f/11 lens
opening is smaller that the size of the f/8 opening. Many high-end digital cameras have added one or two stops
between each of the traditional ones. In the table to the left one-third and one-half stops are shown in red and blue
respectively. How wide you can open the aperture depends on the len's maximum aperture— its widest opening.
The term "fast lens" usually applies to lenses that can be opened to a wide maximum aperture for the focal length.
For example, a lens with a maximum aperture of f/1.8 opens wider, and is faster, than a lens with a maximum
aperture of f/2.6. Faster lenses are better when photographing in dim light or photographing fast moving subjects.
With most, but not all, zoom lenses the maximum aperture changes as you zoom the lens. It will be larger when
zoomed out to a wide angle, and smaller when zoomed in to enlarge a subject.

Exposure: Aperture and Shutter need to work together

When taking photos, one of the first decisions you make with many cameras is which exposure mode to use. As
you've seen, your choice determines if you control the aperture or shutter speed. If your camera lets you select
them, you can pair a fast shutter speed (to let in light for a short time) with a large aperture (to let in bright light)
or a slow shutter speed (long time) with a small aperture (dim light).
Speaking of exposure only, it doesn't make any difference which combination you use. But in other ways, it does
make a difference, and it is just this difference that gives you some creative opportunities. You are always balancing
camera or subject movement against depth of field because a change in one causes a change in the other.

Shutter speeds and apertures each have a standard series of settings called "stops". With shutter speeds, each stop
is a second or more, or a fraction of second indicating how long the shutter is open.

With apertures they are f/stops indicating the size of the opening through which light enters.

The stops are arranged so that a change of 1 stop lets in half or twice the light of the next setting. A shutter speed
of 1/60 second lets in half the light that 1/30 second does, and twice the light of 1/125 second. An aperture of f/8
lets in half the light that f/5.6 does, and twice the light of f/11. If you make the shutter speed 1 stop slower (letting
in 1 stop more light), and an aperture 1 full stop smaller (letting in 1 stop less light), the exposure doesn't change.
(In all modes other than manual this happens automatically). However, you increase the depth of field slightly and
also the possibility of blur from camera or subject movement.

For fast-moving subjects you need a fast shutter speed (although the focal length of the lens you are using, the
closeness of the subject, and the direction in which it's moving also affect how motion is portrayed). When
photographing moving subjects shutter-priority mode is favored because it gives you direct control over the shutter
speed.
.
For maximum depth of field, with the entire scene sharp from near to far, you need a small aperture (although the
focal length of the lens and the distance to the subject also affects depth of field). When photographing landscapes
and portraits aperture-priority mode is favored because it gives you direct control over the aperture and depth of
field.

Viewfinders
Viewfinders are ideal for following fast action as it unfolds—waiting for the decisive moment. One of the advantages
of some, but not all, of them is that they don’t draw battery power so your batteries last longer. Also, most
viewfinders are coupled to the zoom lens and show the same area that will be captured in the photo. There are
three kinds of viewfinders and most photographers would consider the SLR viewfinder the best.
Optical viewfinders on digital SLR cameras show the scene through the lens (TTL) just as 35mm SLRs do. A
mirror bounces light coming through the lens into a prism that directs it out of the viewfinder. When you take a
picture, the mirror swings up and the shutter opens to let light hit the image sensor and create the image. These
are true “what you see is what you get” viewfinders because you see exactly what the lens sees. Some cameras
have interchangeable focus screens so you can adapt the camera for your preferences. For example, if you do
architectural or product photography you may want grid lines in the viewfinder so it’s easier to keep things aligned.
Some cameras let you add the grid lines digitally by changing a camera setting.

Optical viewfinders on point-and-shoot cameras show the scene through a separate window that is slightly
offset from the view seen by the lens. The offset view isn’t a problem except in close-up photography where
parallax causes you to see a view that is slightly offset from the one the lens sees so a subject centered in the
viewfinder won’t be centered in the image.

Electronic viewfinders use a small LCD monitor built into the viewfinder to display the same through-the-lens
image seen by the image sensor. Many of these cameras let you switch between the monitor and viewfinder and
both show exactly the same scene and same information. Because these displays are electronic, menus can be
displayed so you can change settings without lowering the camera from your eye. This is especially useful on bright
days when a monitor is hard to read because of glare. It’s also advantageous for people who need reading glasses
because the menu can be read without glasses if the viewfinder has a diopter adjustment control. The two biggest
shortcomings of these viewfinders is their refresh rate and resolution. A slow refresh rate means that as you move
the camera, the image on the screen lags behind the scene you are pointing at. When panning, the screen seems to
jump between frames. On some cameras the refresh stops when you press the shutter button halfway down to lock
focus so the image you capture may be different from the one you see. The low resolution of these viewfinders
makes it hard to tell exactly what you are photographing. You don’t see fine details, colors, or tones the way they
actually are.
Memory Cards
Digital camera memory is an essential and often overlooked piece of digital photography equipment. Most digital
cameras come with very low capacity memory cards. And as camera megapixel counts grow, higher capacity
memory cards become necessary. Most camera manufacturers publish tables to show how many images you can
save on their included memory card. There is no fixed rule for the number of photos you can put on one card
because different image file types, different amounts of compression, and image content all affect the size of each
file. But the manufacturer's site is a good place to start when you decide how much memory you want. As a general
rule, I'd recommend at least a 256 megabyte or two 128 megabyte cards if you're buying a 3-5 megapixel compact
digital camera. If you want to shoot lots of high resolution TIFF or RAW files, then you'll probably want to look at
512 megabyte and 1 gigabyte cards. It's also a good idea to not save all of your photos on one card. There's always
the possibility that cards can get corrupted, lost, or stolen. Using more than one and switching during a shoot
protects your valuable photographic data.

CF or Compact Flash Memory Cards

CompactFlash is one of the most common types of digital camera memory. Most high-end digital cameras, and all
digital SLRs are CompactFlash compatible. There are two physical sizes of CompactFlash - Type I and Type II. Type
II is thicker and some cameras will only accept Type I CompactFlash. Type II CompactFlash is usually higher
capacity. The most common Type II CompactFlash cards are mechanical, MicroDrive, memory cards. The main
benefit of CompactFlash, besides availability, is that it has a controller chip in the card. The controller chip allows
higher transfer rates. Most cameras can't take advantage of this extra speed, though. Only cameras with larger
internal buffers - mostly digital SLRs - can take advantage of high-speed CompactFlash. CompactFlash is
inexpensive, easy to find, and works in a lot of digital cameras. For those reasons, it's one of the most desirable
types of digital camera memory.

xD Memory Card
Introduced by Olympus and Fuji in 2002, the xD Picture card is the newest digital camera memory format. Its tiny
size - 0.97" x 0.98" x 0.67" - means it can be used in very small cameras. The xD Picture Card can also be used in
any CompactFlash compatible camera with the available CompactFlash adapter. It's currently available in capacities
up to 512 MB, with larger capacity cards to be available soon. Since it was developed and introduced by Olymous
and Fuji, most current compact digital cameras from those manufacturers use the xD Picture Card media.

SD Memory Cards
The smallest available memory cards, Secure Digital and MultiMediaCard memory allow for very small cameras and
can also be used in selected PDAs, organizers, phones, and MP3 players. The current maximum capacity for Secure
Digital and MultiMediaCard cards is 512 MB. The only difference between the two memory types is that Secure
Digital cards have a write-protect switch for added data security.

Micro-Drive
The MicroDrive card is actually a miniature hard drive housed in a Type II CompactFlash chassis. The IBM
MicroDrive was the first compact memory card to offer a full 1 Gigabyte storage capacity. Although flash memory
has bypassed the MicroDrive in capacity, the MicroDrive is still the best buy on a dollar-per-byte basis. MicroDrives
have a reputation for being delicate and unreliable. They are more prone to failure since they have moving parts
that can wear, or be damaged. But when handled normally and not abused, they are very reliable. Because of their
moving parts, MicroDrives use more battery power than flash memory. And compared to new, high-speed
CompactFlash cards, MicroDrive seek and write times are fairly slow. But if you need Gigs of cheap digital camera
memory, MicroDrives are still the best.

Memory Card Readers

Card readers are the most efficient way to download your digital digital memory cards and a highly recommended
digital camera accessory. Card readers plug into your computer via USB or FireWire port and allow you to transfer
your files without using your camera's batteries or dealing with cables. You install the card reader as you would any
other USB or FireWire device and plug the card into the reader when you want to transfer your images. The memory
card will show up on your computer as a separate, removable drive when it's plugged into the reader.
Card readers are available in internal and external models with USB, USB 2.0, and FireWire connections. USB 2.0
and FireWire readers have considerably faster transfer rates than most cameras - another good reason to use a
card reader instead of using your camera's supplied USB connection.

Optical Zoom
Optical zoom is what I like to call true zoom. This function of a camera uses the lens within the camera to draw the
image closer. Using the optics of the camera the image is bought forward much the same way as a magnifying
glass, binoculars and other such instruments. When using optical zoom quality remains the same and the full
resolution of the camera can be used on the zoomed image.

Digital Zoom
Digital zoom on the other hand is not a true form of a zoom function. The image itself doesn't actually come any
closer as the optics in the camera stay the same. The way the digital zoom works is much the same way as it does
on your PC at home. The idea behind digital zoom is that it takes a portion of the image and expands that image to
the full size of the image. What happens here is that the section of image that you are looking at becomes bigger,
not closer. The image does look closer because it has been expanded however all that has happened is that the
image quality has been reduced.